Chapter_6 Shallow Foundation Structures

 A foundation is the supporting base of engineering

structure which forms the interface across which the loads
are transmitted to the underlying soil or rock
 Shallow foundation is the type of foundation that transfer
the load in to shallow earth surface
 It can be include Highway, Bridge, Railway and building
foundations
Pavement road
 It is basic supporting structure in highway transportation
and has the hard surfaced or paved road
 Its main objective is to distribute the wheel load stresses
to a safe value on the sub-grade soil
 It can be categorized into two groups as Flexible and rigid
pavement.
1. Flexible pavements
 it is the type of road pavement which surfaced with
bituminous (asphalt) materials
 It is named as flexible because the total pavement
structure deflects or flexes under the traffic load
 In the flexible pavement the wheel loads are transferred
by grain-to-grain contact of the aggregate through the
granular structure
wheel loads are transferred by grain-to-grain contact
 Each layer of flexible pavement road receives the loads
from the above layer, spreads them out, then passes on
the next layer below it. Thus, the further down in the
pavement structure a particular layer is, the less load apply
on it.
 Therefore to have a safe and economic road structure the
highest load bearing capacity material (most expensive)
must be put on the top while the lowest load bearing
capacity material (least expensive) put on the bottom

 Flexible pavement layers reflect the deformation of the

lower layers on to the surface layer (e.g., if there is any
undulation in sub-grade then it will be transferred to the
surface layer)
 Some common failure criteria in flexible pavements are
Fatigue cracking, rutting and thermal cracking
 Basic Structural Elements of flexible pavement
1. Surface course (asphalt layer)
 It is stiffest top layer that comes in contact with traffic
 It may be composed of one or several different sublayers.
 It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness,
noise control, rut and shoving resistance and the entrance
of excessive surface water into the underlying layers
2. Base course
 It is the layer directly below the Surface course layer and
generally consists of aggregate material
 It provides additional load distribution and contributes to
drainage and frost resistance
3. Subbase course
 It is the layer between the base course and the subgrade
 It consists of lower quality materials than the base course
but better than the subgrade soils
 It functions is structural support by spreading traffic load
on the underling layer, Minimize the immigration of fines
particles from the subgrade into the pavement structure
 If a pavement is constructed over a high quality, stiff
subgrade a subbase course may be omitted from design.
4. Sub-grade
 It is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses
from the layers above.
 It should be compacted to the desirable density, near the
optimum moisture content

Typical section for a flexible pavement

Load distribution in flexible pavement
2. Rigid pavements
 It is constructed from Portland cement concrete (PCC)
 It have a sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel
load stresses to a wider area below it
 It can be placed either directly on the prepared sub-grade
soil or on a single layer of granular stabilized material
 The wheel load is distributed by the slab action, and the
pavement behaves like an elastic plate resting on a viscous
medium
 It is common in major highways and airports
 Some common failure criteria in rigid pavements are
Fatigue cracking, faulting and deterioration
Typical section for a rigid pavement
 Types of Rigid Pavements
It can be classified into four categories as:
 Jointed plane concrete pavement (JPCP): it is cement
concrete pavements constructed with closely spaced
contraction joints without reinforcement. Dowel bars or
aggregate interlocks are normally used for load transfer
across joints. They normally has a joint spacing of 5 to
10m. It can control cracking by contraction joints.
 Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP): it is
constructed from reinforced concrete. The reinforcement
is help to increase the joint spacing up to 10 to 30m and
also help to keep the slab together even after cracks
 Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP)
Jointed plain concrete pavement
Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP)
 Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP): it can
provides joint-free pavement design. It can be
characterized by the formation of uniformly spaced
transverse cracks which can be held tightly by the
reinforcement

Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement

Wheel load distribution under rigid and flexible pavement
 The primary structural difference between a rigid and
flexible pavement is the manner in which each type of
pavement distributes traffic loads over the subgrade
 A rigid pavement has a very high stiffness and distributes
loads over a relatively wide area of subgrade than flexible
pavement
 In general in the flexible pavement load distribution on
the large area can depends on its thickness (depth) while
the rigid pavement spread the load over a large area by
slab action
(a) typical cross section of flexible road pavement; (b) load transmission in flexible pavement;
(c) typical cross section of rigid road pavement; (d) load transmission in rigid pavement.
Important Information Needed for Pavement Design
 Traffic loads
 Serviceability index
 Reliability (confidence level)
 Material characterization
 Drainage characteristics and
 Evaluating existing pavement conditions
Materials Investigation and Selection for pavement road
 Material selection is one of the three legs of the high
performing pavement stool

High Performing Pavement Stool

Geotechnical Investigation for Pavement Structures
 From project conception to construction and throughout
the operation and maintenance phase geotechnical
information is necessary
Preliminary Investigation: It is the Site inspections and means
of optimizing the pavement design and reflect site conditions.
The common activities conducted during this stages are:
 Propose the Project alignment and type
 Evaluation of project feasibility condition
 Identify the Position and drainage pattern
 Estimation of soil characteristics and extension
 Evaluate General terrain condition and estimate of cuts
and fills required sections
 Oversee the availability of construction material
 Oversee the geological formations and hazards
 Plan the sampling activities during exploration stage
Exploration stage
Detail sub-grade soil investigation (field description and
intensive sampling )
Locating, volume estimation, general field description and
sampling of the suitable source of construction materials
for filling material, sub-base material, base course material,
surface (asphalt) aggregate, sand for concrete work,
constriction water and masonry stone
Investigating and evaluating the geological hazards along
the proposed road alignment and recommend the suitable
remedial measures
Conducting intensive geotechnical laboratory tests for all
types of construction material
Based on the field observation and measurement and
laboratory test result prepare the pavement design
Flexible Pavement Design
 Flexible pavement design is the determination of the
pavement structures thickness by considering different
factors
 There are several methods used to determine thickness
of pavements E.g Group index (GI) method
GI = (F-35) [0.2+0.005(LL - 40)] + 0.01(F-15)(PI - 10)

Group Index Graphs

Where
 Light traffic volume: less than 50 vehicles per day
 Medium traffic volume: 50 to 300 vehicles per day
 Heavy traffic volume: over 300 vehicles per day
This method can also assumes that:
 The sub-grade soil would be compacted to a density not
less than 95% of the maximum proctor density
 For base and sub-base material the density should be not
less than 100% of the proctor density
 The ground water table should be 1m below the surface
 Railway
 It is an engineering structure constructed for train
transportation
 Train can play a big role in the development of one country
by providing high speed and low cost transportation
services for people, industrial products, agricultural
products and others
 To have this important
transportation access it
requires constructing a
safe and long life
railway track which
essentially is influenced
by the quality of its
different components
(layers)
Components of Railway Track Structure
Some of these railway track layers are sub-grade, sub-
ballast, ballast, sleeper and rail.
The failure of one of these structures can cause the failure
of overall railway tracks
1. Rail structures
It is the longitudinal steels which make contact with train
wheels.
Its function is to guide the train wheels and transfer wheels
load to the underling sleepers
2. Fastening system
It is the superstructure component that connect sleeper
with the rail.
Its function is to retain the rail against force to the sleeper
and resist the vertical, lateral, longitudinal and overturning
movement of the rail structures.
3. Sleeper structures
 It is one of the super track structure that lay between rail
and ballast layer.
 Based on the source material it can be wood (timber)
sleepers, concrete sleepers and steel sleepers.
 Its function is spreading the wheel load to the ballast
layer, hold the rail to the gauge and from the inclination,
and transmit the lateral and longitudinal dynamic forces of
the train to the ballast layer

4. Ballast layer
 It is one of the railway substructure layer that is
constructed from the course aggregate that is produced
from natural aggregate such as; gravel and crushed rock
aggregate and laid between the sleeper and sub-ballast
(capping) layers
 Its thickness can be depend on different factors such as;
maximum speed of trains and its axle loads, the thickness
and spacing of the sleepers and quality of sub-grade soil.

 It can perform the following function: retain the sleeper in

position by withstanding the vertical, lateral and
longitudinal forces, provide elasticity and dynamic
resistance to the track superstructure, distributing the
stress from the sleeper over the large area of the
underling layers, provide free drainage, to keep down the
vegetation growth that might interfere with the track
structures
5. Sub ballast structure
 It is one of the track substructure components that are
placed in between ballast and sub-grade.
 The importance of this layer is; to reduce the stress level
from ballast to sub-grade, to prevent the interpenetration
of ballast material into the sub-grade and to prevent
emigration of fine sub-grade material into ballast layer
which affects the drainage performance of ballast layer

6. Sub-grade
 It is the natural soil stratum (embankment soil) which
serves as a foundation of track structure and upon which
the track beds such as; ballast and sub-ballast are
constructed
 Its strength can control the thickness of ballast and sub-
ballast layers
section view of Railway Track Structure

Rail structures

Ballast layer

Sleeper
Fastening system

Top view of Railway Track Structure

Role of engineering geologist in rail road construction
 Evaluating the suitability of natural sub-grade soil
 Evaluating the topography, geological hazards and
drainage condition along the rail alignment
 Selecting and evaluating the suitable potential sources of
construction material for ballast, sub-ballast, fill material
and others within the economic distance.
 Intensively participating in the tunneling activities if the
topography along the alignment required tunneling
 Bridges
 It is the civil engineering structure which is constructed to
provide access across the natural or manmade obstacles.
 A bridge consists of a super-structure and a substructure.
 The weight of the superstructure and the loads imposed on
it are taken by the supports of the bridge and transmitted to
the foundation.
 To design the foundation of the bridge it is necessary to
know the magnitude of the forces transmitted to the
foundation.
 And the manner in which these forces are transmitted to the
foundation.
Classification of Bridges
 Broadly bridges may be classified into three
categories.
 This classification is based on the manner in which
the loads of the superstructure are transmitted
to the foundation.
Category I Bridge
 The vertical loads acting on superstructure are
transmitted vertically to the foundation.
Common example;
 simple beam bridge and cantilever bridge.
 Such bridges are generally used for highway and
railway road construction.
Beam Bridge
 Based on its supporting system it can be single span or
multi-span bridge
1. Single Span Beam Bridge
 It is single beam bridge supported by two abutment.
 This is a very common type of bridge used in traffic
highway.

Single Span Beam Bridge

2. Multi-span Bridge
 It is the beam supported both by piers and
abutments.
 Abutments are the terminal supports of the bridge
while piers are the intermediate support of the
bridge
 The beams in multispan bridge must rest on rockers
or rollers to allow a little movement for
temperature expansion

Multi-span Bridge
Category II Bridge

 In this bridge category part of the loads acting on

superstructure are transmitted vertically to the foundation by
the supports while part it act as horizontal thrust which
pushes the supports outwards
 Arch beam bridge is one example of category II bridge
Arch beam bridge
Category III Bridge

 The vertical forces are transmitted to the foundation

vertically, however for stability the superstructure has to be
anchored to rock .
 This means part of the load is transmitted vertically to the
foundation and part of it is supported as anchorage.
 Suspension bridge is an example of category III bridge

Suspension bridge
Suspension bridge
Cable-stayed bridge
 It is optimal for spans longer than cantilever bridges and
shorter than suspension bridges.

Cable-stayed bridge
Geological problems on the Bridge site
 Topographic condition, geological formation and
structures and hydrogeological condition of the bridge site
can control the suitability of the bridge site
 The width of the valley can control the type of bridge to be
constructed. E.g one span bridge is constructed across the
narrow valley while the multi-span bridge is constructed
across the wide valley
 The hydrology of the river such as elevations and seasonal
high of the river, water velocity, Estimated discharge
capacity of the river at different stage, Debris carried by the
stream and water chemistry can control the bridge
construction
• The suspension bridge is more suitable than the
other on the mountain river which is narrow valley
and deep. Because it is difficult to construct the
longer piers and the souring of pier foundation in
narrow valley is high
• The foundation of piers and abutment of bridge
must be competent rocks to withstand the bridge
load, traffic load and wind and flow water pressures
• It must be free from highly jointed and fissured
rocks, shear zone, solution channels and others
• If the fault is across the bridge side it can affect the
foundation rocks, it enforce us to shift the bridge
site upstream or downstream for the safety of
bridge
• If the valley has highly thick alluvial deposit it is
difficult (uneconomic) to placing the piers on the
bed rocks at the great depth, so it enforce us to use
the pile foundation
• The stability of bridge depends on the nature,
strength and structures of the rocks at the
abutment and piers
 Building Foundation

• It is the elements of building substructure that transmit load

of building superstructure to the supporting ground in the
safe manner
• Based on the depth of founding base (D) below the ground
level and compared to the width of the foundation (B) it
can be classified as Shallow foundation and Deep
foundation.
 Shallow foundation: It is placed at shallow depths. i.e. D< B
or D < 3m
 Deep foundation: It is placed at greater depths. i.e. D > 3m
or D > B
The particular selection foundation can be controlled by
Load of building, natures of sub-surface strata, natures of
superstructures and its specific requirement

Types of building foundation

 Shallow Foundation
 Pad (isolated) foundation
 Strip foundation
 Combined foundation
 Mat foundation
 Deep Foundation
 Pile foundation
 Drilled pier foundation
 Caisson foundation
 Pad (isolated) foundation: it is an economic foundation
that used where the loading is relatively light

 Strip Footing: Two or more columns combined in single

direction of line to reduce differential settlement between
adjacent columns.

 Combined Footing: it is used if one of the columns is

carrying much larger load than the other one. E.g
trapezoidal combined footing

 Mat (Raft) Footing: All the foundation slabs are merged

into one resulting mat footing. It is used for soft and weak
foundation soil where differential settlement can be a
major concern.
 Single Spread Footing
Strip spread Footing

Combined spread Footing Mat spread Footing

 Deep Foundations
Pile Foundation
It is a hollow or solid cylindrical structure constructed from
concrete or steel.
It use to transmit surface structural loads to the depth into
the more bearing capacity material or bed rocks.

This may be by vertical distribution of the load along the

pile shaft or a direct application of load to a lower stratum
through the pile point.
A vertical distribution of the load is made using a friction,
or “floating,”pile
A direct load application is made by a point, or “end-
bearing,” pile
Pile Foundation
Pile foundations are used in the following conditions:

 When the strata at or just below the ground surface is highly

compressible and very weak to support the load transmitted by the
structure. E.g expansive soil

 To reduce differential settlement even for the shallow foundation .

 For the transmission of the structural loads through deep water to

a firm stratum.

 To resist horizontal forces in addition to support the vertical loads

in earth-retaining structures and tall building structures

 When the soil conditions are such that a wash out, erosion or scour
of soil may occur from underneath a shallow foundation.

 To reduce the uplift force problems

Drilled Pier Under Construction with large Auger Drill
Caisson
 A caisson is a type of foundation of the shape of a hollow
prismatic box, which is built above the ground level and
then sunk to the required depth as a single unit.

 It is a water tight chamber used

for laying foundations under
water, as in rivers, lakes etc.
General Requirements for building Foundation design
 Location and Depth of Foundation
 Bearing Capacity of Foundation
 Settlement condition of Foundation

Location and Depth of Foundation

 The minimum depth of building foundation should be not
less than 0.50 m
 To overcome the frost action problem
 To overcome Excessive volume change problem due to
moisture variation (which exists within 1.5 to 3.5 m depth
of soil from the top surface
 To overcome the topsoil or organic soil problem
 To overcome the scouring impact of flowing surface water
 If the location of the foundations is at the adjacent of
slopes and existing structures the following consideration
must be given to it
 When the ground surface slopes
downward adjacent to footing, the
sloping surface should not cut the line
of distribution of the load (2H:1V).
 In granular soils, the line joining the
lower adjacent edges of upper and lower
footings shall not have a slope steeper
than 2H:1V.
 In clayey soil, the line joining the lower
adjacent edge of the upper footing and
the upper adjacent edge of the lower
footing should not be steeper than
2H:1V
 Minimum horizontal distance between new and existing
foundations not less than the width of larger footing to
avoid damage of existing structure
 If the distance is limited, the principal of 2H:1V
distribution should be used so as to minimize the influence
to old structure
 This help to avoid settlement of old foundation due to
lateral bulging in the excavation or shear failure due to
reduction in overburden stress in the surrounding of old
foundation
 If the groundwater table raised to the foundation it can
cause damage to the structure by Floating the structure or
Reducing the effective stress of foundation soil. Therefore
proper drainage system around the foundation is required
to avoid water accumulation in foundation
Bearing Capacity
 The bearing capacity of foundation soil can control the
stability of the structure. E.g Failure of a foundation could
occur due to inadequate bearing capacity of the soil
beneath the foundation which leading to shear failure,
overturning or sliding of the foundation
 Shear failure divides foundation soil into separate blocks
or zones, which move along slip surfaces. It has three
principal modes of failure.
 General shear failure: It is a continuous slip surface
occurs up to ground level with heaving on either side. It is
a sudden Failure and catastrophic. It is associated with low
compressibility soils
e.g. dense sands or stiff over-consolidated clays.
 Local shear failure: it is a Significant compression under
footing. The failure surface is not continuous only minor
heaving is occur at ground level but no catastrophic failure. It
occurs in moderately compressible soils – medium
dense/compact sands.
 Punching shear failure: it is
almost a vertical displacement.
No heaving, tilting or
catastrophic failure. It is common
in Weak, highly compressible General shear failure
soils. E.g loose sands, partially
saturated clays, peats

Punching shear failure Local shear failure

Settlement condition of Foundation
 For the building foundation design the acceptable
foundation settlement must be identified
 Foundation soil settlement can be:
 Immediate (undrained) settlement which occurs during
construction as dead and structural loading is imposed.
 Consolidation(time dependent) Settlement which develops
during the service time of the structure