EMS 112: ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 1

To all B.Sc.IEM I Students

By:
Masoud Amri Komunte
Department of mathematics and Statistics Studies (MSS)

Mzumbe University

Office: Block C 209

Mobile: 0757986609
Email: [email protected]
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 Topic 1

Linear Algebra
(Matrices)
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Topic 1: Linear Algebra (Matrices)
1.1 Matrices
1.2 Operations of matrices
1.3 Types of matrices
1.4 Properties of matrices
1.5 Determinants
1.6 Inverse of a 33 matrix
1.7 Solutions to systems of equations
1.8 Eigen values and Eigen vectors
1.9 Diagonalisation of matrices
1.10 The Cayley-Hamilton theorem

3
1.1 Matrices
1 3 1 
2 3 7
A  B   2 1 4 
1 1 5  4 7 6 

Both A and B are examples of matrix. A matrix

is a rectangular array of numbers enclosed by a
pair of bracket.

Why matrix?

4
1.1 Matrices
Consider the following set of equations:
 x  y  7, It is easy to show that x = 3 and

3x  y  5. y = 4.
 x  y  2 z  7,
 2 x  y  4 z  2,
How about solving 

5 x  4 y  10 z  1,
 3 x  y  6 z  5.

Matrices can help…

5
1.1 Matrices
 a11 a12 a1n 
In the matrix a a22 a2 n 
A   21
 
 
 am1 am 2 amn 

numbers aij are called elements. First subscript

indicates the row; second subscript indicates
the column. The matrix consists of mn elements
It is called “the m  n matrix A = [aij]” or simply
“the matrix A ” if number of rows and columns
are understood.
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1.1 Matrices
Square matrices
 a11 a12 a1n 
When m = n, i.e., a a22 a2 n 
A   21
 
 
 an1 an 2 ann 
A is called a “square matrix of order n” or
“n-square matrix”
elements a11, a22, a33,…, ann called diagonal
elements.
n

  aii  a11  a22  ...  ann is called the trace of A.

i 1
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1.1 Matrices
Equal matrices

Two matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] are said to

be equal (A = B) iff each element of A is equal
to the corresponding element of B, i.e., aij = bij
for 1  i  m, 1  j  n.
iff pronouns “if and only if”
if A = B, it implies aij = bij for 1  i  m, 1  j  n;
if aij = bij for 1  i  m, 1  j  n, it implies A = B.
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1.1 Matrices
Equal matrices
 1 0 a b 
Example: A
  and B 
 4 2   c d 
Given that A = B, find a, b, c and d.

if A = B, then a = 1, b = 0, c = -4 and d = 2.

9
1.1 Matrices
Zero matrices

Every element of a matrix is zero, it is called

a zero matrix, i.e.,
0 0 0
0 0 0 
A
 
 
0 0 0

10
1.2 Operations of matrices
Sums of matrices
If A = [aij] and B = [bij] are m  n matrices,
then A + B is defined as a matrix C = A + B,
where C= [cij], cij = aij + bij for 1  i  m, 1  j  n.
1 2 3   2 3 0
Example: if A  and B
 
 0 1 4   1 2 5 
Evaluate A + B and A – B.
 1 2 2  3 3  0   3 5 3
A B     
 0  ( 1) 1  2 4  5   1 3 9 
 1 2 2  3 3  0   1 1 3 
A B     
 0  ( 1) 1  2 4  5   1 1 1 11
1.2 Operations of matrices
Sums of matrices
Two matrices of the same order(number of
rows and columns) are said to be conformable
for addition or subtraction.
Two matrices of different orders cannot be
added or subtracted, e.g., 1 3 1 
2 3 7 2 1 4
1 1 5   
   4 7 6 
are NOT conformable for addition or
subtraction.
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1.2 Operations of matrices
Scalar multiplication
Let l be any scalar and A = [aij] is an m  n
matrix. Then lA = [laij] for 1  i  m, 1  j  n,
i.e., each element in A is multiplied by l.
1 2 3 
Example: A . Evaluate 3A.
 0 1 4 
 3  1 3  2 3  3 3 6 9 
3A     
 3  0 3  1 3  4   0 3 12 

In particular, l  1, i.e., A = [aij]. It’s called

the negative of A. Note: A  A = 0 is a zero matrix
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1.2 Operations of matrices
Properties
Matrices A, B and C are conformable,
A + B = B + A (commutative law)
A + (B +C) = (A + B) +C (associative law)
l(A + B) = lA + lB, where l is a scalar
(distributive law)

Can you prove them?

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1.2 Operations of matrices
Matrix multiplication
If A = [aij] is a m  p matrix and B = [bij] is a
p  n matrix, then AB is defined as a m  n
matrix
p
C = AB, where C= [cij] with
cij   aik bkj  ai1b1 j  ai 2b2 j  ...  aip bpj for 1  i  m, 1  j  n.
k 1
 1 2 
1 2 3   2 3
Example: A  , B    and C = AB.
 0 1 4 
Evaluate c21.  5 0 
 1 2
1 2 3  
0 1 4   2 3  c21  0  (1)  1 2  4  5  22
 
5 0 
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1.2 Operations of matrices
Matrix multiplication
 1 2 
1 2 3 
Example: A  , B   2 3  , Evaluate C = AB.
0 1 4
 5 0 
 c11  1  (1)  2  2  3  5  18
 1 2   c  1 2  2  3  3  0  8
1 2 3      12
0 1 4   2 3  
   5 0 c21  0  (1)  1  2  4  5  22
   c22  0  2  1  3  4  0  3

 1 2 
1 2 3    18 8
C  AB    2 3  

0 1 4    22 3
 5 0  16
1.2 Operations of matrices
Matrix multiplication
In particular, A is a 1  m matrix and
B is a m  1 matrix, i.e.,  b11 
b 
A   a11 a12 ... a1m  B   21 
 
 
bm1 
m
then C = AB is a scalar. C   a1k bk1  a11b11  a12b21  ...  a1mbm1
k 1

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1.2 Operations of matrices
Matrix multiplication
BUT BA is a m  m matrix!
 b11   b11a11 b11a12 b11a1m 
b  b a b21a12 b21a1m 
BA  
 
21 
 a11 a12 ... a1m   

21 11


   
 m1 
b bm1a11 bm1a12 bm1a1m 

So AB  BA in general !

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1.2 Operations of matrices
 Properties
Matrices A, B and C are conformable,
A(B + C) = AB + AC
(A + B)C = AC + BC
A(BC) = (AB) C
AB  BA in general
AB = 0 NOT necessarily imply A = 0 or B = 0
AB = AC NOT necessarily imply B = C
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1.3 Types of matrices

Identity matrix
The inverse of a matrix
The transpose of a matrix
Symmetric matrix
Orthogonal matrix

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1.3 Types of matrices
Identity matrix
A square matrix whose elements aij = 0, for
i > j is called upper triangular, i.e.,  a11 a12 a1n 
0 a22 a2 n 

 
 
0 0 ann 

A square matrix whose elements aij = 0, for

i < j is called lower triangular, i.e.,  a11 0 0 
a a22 0 
 21
 
 
 an1 an 2 ann 

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1.3 Types of matrices
Identity matrix
Both upper and lower triangular, i.e., aij = 0, for
i  j , i.e.,  a11 0 0 
0 a22 0 
D
 
 
0 0 ann 

is called a diagonal matrix, simply

D  diag[a11 , a22 ,..., ann ]

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1.3 Types of matrices
Identity matrix

In particular, a11 = a22 = … = ann = 1, the

matrix is called identity matrix.
Properties: AI = IA = A
1 0 0 
1 0  0 1 0 
Examples of identity matrices: 0 1  and  
   0 0 1 

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1.3 Types of matrices
Special square matrix
AB  BA in general. However, if two square
matrices A and B such that AB = BA, then A
and B are said to be commute.

Can you suggest two matrices that must

commute with a square matrix A?
Ans: A itself, the identity matrix, ..

If A and B such that AB = -BA, then A and B

are said to be anti-commute.
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1.3 Types of matrices
The inverse of a matrix
If matrices A and B such that AB = BA = I,
then B is called the inverse of A (symbol: A-1);
and A is called the inverse of B (symbol: B-1).
1 2 3   6  2 3 
Example: A  1 3 3  B   1 1 0 
1 2 4   1 0 1 

Show B is the the inverse of matrix A.

1 0 0 
Ans: Note that AB  BA  0 1 0 
Can you show the 0 0 1 
details? 25
1.3 Types of matrices
The transpose of a matrix
The matrix obtained by interchanging the
rows and columns of a matrix A is called the
transpose of A (write AT).
1 2 3
Example: A 
 4 5 6  1 4 
The transpose of A is AT   2 5 
 3 6 

For a matrix A = [aij], its transpose AT = [bij],

where bij = aji.

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1.3 Types of matrices
Symmetric matrix
A matrix A such that AT = A is called symmetric,
i.e., aji = aij for all i and j.
A + AT must be symmetric. Why?
1 2 3 
Example: A   2 4 5 is symmetric.
 3 5 6 

A matrix A such that AT = -A is called skew-

symmetric, i.e., aji = -aij for all i and j.
A - AT must be skew-symmetric. Why?
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1.3 Types of matrices
Orthogonal matrix
A matrix A is called orthogonal if AAT = ATA = I,
i.e., AT = A-1
1/ 3 1/ 6 1/ 2 
 
Example: prove that A  1/ 3 2 / 6 0  is
 
orthogonal. 1/ 3 1/ 6 1/ 2 

 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3 
 
Since, A   1/ 6
T
2 / 6 1/ 6  . Hence, AAT = ATA = I.
 
 1/ 2 0 1/ 2 
Can you show the
details?
We’ll see that orthogonal matrix represents a
rotation in fact! 28
1.4 Properties of matrix

(AB)-1 = B-1A-1
(AT)T = A and (lA)T = l AT
(A + B)T = AT + BT
(AB)T = BT AT

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1.4 Properties of matrix
Example: Prove (AB)-1 = B-1A-1.

Since (AB) (B-1A-1) = A(B B-1)A-1 = I and

(B-1A-1) (AB) = B-1(A-1 A)B = I.
Therefore, B-1A-1 is the inverse of matrix AB.

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1.5 Determinants
2x2

3x3

nxn

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1.5 Determinants
Determinant of order 2
 a11 a12 
Consider a 2  2 matrix: A
a22 
 a21

Determinant of A, denoted | A |, is a number

and can be evaluated by
a11 a12
| A |  a11a22  a12 a21
a21 a22

32
1.5 Determinants
Determinant of order 2
easy to remember (for order 2 only)..
a11 a12
| A |   a11 a22  a12 a21
a21 a22
- +

1 2
Example: Evaluate the determinant: 3 4
1 2
 1  4  2  3  2
3 4

33
1.5 Determinants
The following properties are true for
determinants of any order.
1. If every element of a row (column) is zero,
e.g., 1 2
 1 0  2  0  0 , then |A| = 0.
0 0

determinant of a matrix
= that of its transpose
2. |AT| = |A|

3. |AB| = |A||B|
34
1.5 Determinants
Example: Show that the determinant of any
orthogonal matrix is either +1 or –1.
For any orthogonal matrix, A AT = I.
Since |AAT| = |A||AT | = 1 and |AT| = |A|, so |A|2 = 1 or
|A| = 1.

35
1.5 Determinants
 a11 a12 
For any 2x2 matrix A
 a21 a22 
 a22 a12 
Its inverse can be written as 1 1
A   a
A  21 a11 

 1 0 
Example: Find the inverse of A 
 1 2 
The determinant of A is -2
 1 0 
Hence, the inverse of A is 1
A  
1/ 2 1/ 2 
How to find an inverse for a 3x3 matrix?

36
1.5 Determinants of order 3
1 2 3
Consider an example: A   4 5 6 
7 8 9 
Its determinant can be obtained by:
1 2 3
5 6 4 6 4 5
A  4 5 6 1 2 3
8 9 7 9 7 8
7 8 9

 1 3  2  6   3  3  0

You are encouraged to find the determinant

by using other rows or columns
NB: Make sure you read properties of determinants
37
1.6 Inverse of a 33 matrix
1 2 3 
Cofactor matrix of A  0 4 5 
1 0 6 

The cofactor for each element of matrix A:

4 5 0 5 0 4
A11   24 A12   5 A13   4
0 6 1 6 1 0

2 3 1 3 1 2
A21    12 A22  3 A23   2
0 6 1 6 1 0

2 3 1 3 1 2
A31   2 A32    5 A33  4
4 5 0 5 0 4
38
1.6 Inverse of a 33 matrix
1 2 3 
Cofactor matrix of A  0 4 5  is then given
by: 1 0 6 

 24 5 4 
 12 3 2 
 
 2 5 4 
39
1.6 Inverse of a 33 matrix
1 2 3 
Inverse matrix of A  0 4 5  is given by:
1 0 6 

 24 5 4   24 12 2 
T

1 1   1  
A   12 3 2  5 3  5
A  22  
 2 5 4   4 2 4 

 12 11  6 11 1 11 
  5 22 3 22 5 22 
  2 11 1 11 2 11 

40
1.7 Applications (solutions to systems of equations)

Using matrices to solve simultaneous equations.

Example: Solve using inverse of matrix

x  2y  3
3x  y  1
Step 1: make matrices for the coefficients
(numbers) and for the letters as follows:
 1 -2   x   3 
 3 -1   y  = -1 
    
 41
Step 2: pre-multiply by the inverse of the
2 X 2 matrix on both sides of the equation.

  –1
 1 2  
–1 1 2  x  1 2   3 
     y =    
 3 1
-1   3 1
-1    3 1-1   1
1 0  x  1 2  3 
1  -1
   y =    
0 1   75  3 1   1
Step 3: x = -1 and y = -2 1
 x  71 
   
 y   2  42
Cramer’s Rule

43
 Cramer’s Rule

For example by Cramer’s Rule

solve a xb y c
1 1 1

a2 x  b2 y  c2
a1 b1
Then D 
a2 b2

44
Cramer’s Rule Continued

c1 b1 a1 c1
Also Dx  Dy 
c2 b2 a2 c2
Dx Dy
Thus x  y
D D

45
 Cramer’s Rule Continued

•Cramer’s Rule does not apply when

the determinant of the coefficient
matrix is zero (ie D=0).
•If determinants with respect to x and
y are also zero, then the system of 2
equations represents the same line.

46
Sample Cramer’s Rule problem

•Solve by Cramer’s Rule

2 x  3 y  5
3x  y  9
47
Cramer’s Rule Answer

2 3 5 3
D  11, Dx   22
3 1 9 1
2 5
Dy   33
3 9

Dx 22
x    2
D 11
Dy 33
y    3
D 11 48
 Try this problem

•Solve by Cramer’s Rule

2x  y  z  8
z  x  y 1
2 y  x  z  2
49
 Gaussian Elimination Method

3x  2 y  5 z  3 If you have a system of

equations and just pick off
 2 x  y  4 z  2 the coefficients and put
them in a matrix it is called a
x  4 y  7z  1 coefficient matrix.

 3 2 5 
 
Coefficient matrix A   2 1 4
 
 1 4  7

50
 3x  2 y  5 z  3 If you take the coefficient
matrix and then add a last
 2 x  y  4 z  2 column with the constants,
it is called the augmented
x  4 y  7z  1 matrix. Often the constants
are separated with a line or
a dotted line.

 3 2 5 3
A   2 1 4  2 
Augmented matrix  
 1 4  7 1 

51
 Operations that can be performed without
altering the solution set of a linear system

1. Interchange any two rows

2. Multiply every element in a row by a nonzero constant
3. Add elements of one row to corresponding
elements of another row

We are going to work with our augmented matrix to get it in a

form that will tell us the solutions to the system of equations.
The three things above are the only things we can do to the
matrix but we can do them together (i.e. we can multiply a
row by something and add it to another row).
52
We use elementary row operations to make the matrix look
like the one below. The # signs just mean there can be any
number here---we don’t care what.

1 # # #
0 1 # #

0 0 1 #

After we get the matrix to look like our goal, we put

the variables back in and use back substitution to
get the solutions. 53
 Example
Use row operations to obtain x  2y  z 1
echelon form:
3x  5 y  z  3
We already  1 2 1 1
have the 1 3 5 1 3 2x  6 y  7z  1
where we  
need it.
2 6 7 1 Work on this column first.
Get the 1 and then use it
The augmented matrix as a “tool” to get zeros
below it with row
We’ll take row 1 and multiply it by operations.
3 and add to row 2 to get a 0.
The notation for this step is 1 # # #
3r1 + r2 we write it by the row we 0 1 # #
replace in the matrix (see next 
screen). 0 0 1 #
54
 11 22 1 1 1 1 11 22 11 1
  00 11 22 0
3r1 + r2 30 5   
 1 1 23 0
   
2r1 + r3 02 26 7 
1 
22 66 7 7 1 1  5 1 
Now our first column is
like our goal.

3r1 3 6 3 3 2r1 2 4 2 2
+ r2 + r3 2 6 7 1
3 5 1 3
0 1 2 0 0 2 5 1

Now we’ll use 2 times row 1 added to row 3 to get a 0 there.

55
 1 2 1 1 11 22 11 11 
0  1  2 0  00 11 22 00 
r2
   
0 2 5  1 −2r2 + r3 00 20 51 1
1

We need a 1 in the second We’ll use row 2 with the 1
row second column so we’ll as a tool to get a 0 below it
multiply row 2 by −1
by multiplying it by −2 and
−2r2 adding to row 3
0 −2 −4 0
+ r3 the second column is
0 2 5 −1 like we need it now
0 0 1 −1 1 # # #
Now we’ll move to the second
0 1 # #
column and do row operations to

get it to look like our goal. 0 0 1 #
56
 x x222y  z11 1

y column
x column

z column
equal signs y y 22z100
x  2 y  2 z  1
1 2 1  1
0 1 2 0  Substitute −1 in for z in
  second equation to find y
0 0 1 1 Substitute −1 in for z and 2 for
y in first equation to find x.
Now we’ll move to the third
column and we see for our Solution is: (−2 , 2 , −1)
goal we just need a 1 in the
third row of the third column.
We have it so we’ve achieved 1 # # #
the goal and it’s time for back 0 1 # #
substitution. We put the 
variables and = signs back in. 0 0 1 #
57
x  2y  z 1 Solution is: (−2 , 2 , −1)
3x  5 y  z  3 This is the only (x , y , z) that
2x  6 y  7z  1 make ALL THREE equations
true. Let’s check it.

 2  22   1  1 These are all true.

3 2   52    1  3
Geometrically this means
we have three planes that

2 2   62   7 1  1

intersect at a point, a
unique solution.

58
To obtain reduced row echelon form (rref) , you
continue to do more row operations to obtain the goal
below.
1 0 0 #
0 1 0 #

0 0 1 #

This method requires no back substitution.

When you put the variables back in, you have
the solutions.
59
A matrix is in reduced-row echelon form if
it satisfies all of the following conditions:
a) If a row has nonzero entries, then the first
nonzero entry is 1 called the leading 1 in this
row.
b) If a column contains a leading 1, then all other
entries in that column are zero
c) If a row contains a leading 1, then each row
above contains a leading 1 further to the left

60
• Which matrices are in Reduced Row Echelon
form?
• If a matrix is not in rref then what changes
would be needed to change it to that form?

61
Let’s try this method on the x  2y  z 1
problem we just did. We take the
matrix we ended up with when 3x  5 y  z  3
doing row echelon form:
2x  6 y  7z  1
−2r +r11
3r32+r 11 002 0
13 112
00   
−2r3+r2
 11 0 22 0200 x  2, y  2, z  1
000 000 1 11
11 1
 
Let’s get the 0 we need in
Notice when we put the variables the second column by
and = signs back in we have the using the second row as
solution a tool.
1 0 0 #
Now we’ll use row 3 as a tool to 0 1 0 #
work on the third column to get 
zeros above the 1. 0 0 1 #
62
The process of reducing the augmented matrix to echelon
form or reduced echelon form, and the process of
manipulating the equations to eliminate variables, is called:

Gaussian Elimination

63
 Let’s try another example
The augmented matrix: 3x  2 y  2 z  6
3  2 2 6  2x  3y  4z  0
2  3 4 0 
  7 x  3 y  2 z  1
7  3 2  1
We’ll now use row 1 as our
tool to get 0’s below it.
r1 −r2 11 11 222 66 
0 553 848 012 
12 We have the first column
−2r1+r2
2   like our goal. On the
−7r1+r3 0 10 2 143  
77 33 216 next screen we’ll work
on the next column.

If we subtract the second 1 # # #

0 1 # #
row from the first we’ll get 
the 1 we need for the first 0 0 1 #
column. 64
 1 1 2 6  3x  2 y  2 z  6
0  5 8  12  2x  3y  4z  0
 
0  10 16  43 7 x  3 y  2 z  1
We’ll now use row 2 as our
11 11 22 66  tool to get 0’s below it.
 8 12 
−1/5r2 00 11 85 125  Check! If you put
0  10 16
5 5 
 43
variables and = signs
 back in the bottom
10r2+r3
0 0 0  19 equation is 0 = −19
INCONSISTENT - NO SOLUTION a false statement!
1 # # #
If we multiply the second 0
row by a −1/5 we’ll get the  1 # #
one we need in the second 0 0 1 #
column. 65
 One more example: 5x  6 y  z  4
5  6 1 4
2  3 1 1 
2x  3y  z  1

4  3  1 5 4x  3y  z  5
r1 −r3 1  3 2  1 1  3 2 11
2  3   
 1 1 1/3r2 0 1
  1 11 
4  3  1 5  −9r2+r3 0 90 09 09 

Last row ended up all zeros. Put variables and = signs
back in and get 0 = 0 which is true. This is the dependent
case. We’ll figure out solutions on next slide.
1 #
1  3 2 11 0
# #
#
−2r1+r2 0   1 #
 2 33 
1 3 13  0 0 1 #
−4r1+r3 04 93  19 59  66
 1  3 2  1 put variables x z2
0 1  1 1  back in
  y  z 1
0 0 0 0  solve for x & y
Let’s go one step further and get a 0
zz
above the 1 in the second column
No restriction on z
x y z
x  z2
3r2+r1 1 0  1 2
0 1  1 1  y  z 1
  zz
0 0 0 0
Infinitely many solutions where z is any real number
67
5x  6 y  z  4 532  612  01  4 works in all 3
2x  3y  z  1 232  312  01  1
4x  3y  z  5 432  312  01  5
What this means is that you can The solution can be
choose any real number for z and written: (z + 2 , z + 1 , z)
put it in to get the x and y that go
with it and these will solve the
equation. You will get as many x  z2
solutions as there are values of z to
put in (infinitely many). y  z 1
Let’s try z = 1. Then y = 2 and x = 3
zz
Let’s try z = 0. Then y = 1 and x = 2

Infinitely many solutions where z is any real number

68
 NOTE
RREF can be used to find inverse of a
given matrix, procedures are as follows:
• Form augmented matrix by putting
identity matrix on right hand side and a
given matrix on the left hand side.
• Perform operations until when identity
occurs in your left hand side, then what
appears in your right hand side is the
inverse of a given matrix.

69
 Examples/Task
1.Using elementary row operations find the
inverse of 1 2 3
A   4 5 6 
7 8 9 

2.Solve by using Gauss Jordan elimination

method 2x  y  z  8
z  x  y 1
2 y  x  z  2
3.Task:
find out what is a rank of a matrix and how do
we find it?
70
1.8 Eigen values and Eigen vectors

71
1.8 Eigen values and Eigen vectors

72
1.8 Eigen values and Eigen vectors

73
 1.8 Eigen values and Eigen vectors

• Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of a 2×2 matrix

74
75
 1.8 Eigen values and Eigen vectors
• Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of 3×3 matrices

76
77
78
79
Note

80
1.9 Diagonalisation of matrices

81
1.9 Diagonalisation of matrices

This is useful for finding

powers of matrices

82
Note that:

83
Example
1.

84
85
86
1.10 The Cayley Hamilton Theorem

87
Example

End of topic 1 88