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sustainability

Review
The Drivers-Pressures-State-Impact-Response Model to
Structure Cause-Effect Relationships between Agriculture and
Aquatic Ecosystems
Alexandre Troian 1, * , Mário Conill Gomes 1 , Tales Tiecher 2 , Julio Berbel 3 and Carlos Gutiérrez-Martín 3

1 Eliseu Maciel Agronomy School, Federal University of Pelotas, Campus Universitário, s/n,
Capão do Leão 96010-610, RS, Brazil; mconill@gmail.com
2 Faculty of Agronomy, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 7712,
Porto Alegre 91540-000, RS, Brazil; tales.tiecher@ufrgs.br
3 WEARE—Water, Environmental and Agricultural Resources Economics Research Group, Campus Rabanales,
Universidad de Córdoba, Ctra N-IV km 396, Edificio Gregor Mendel CP, 14071 Córdoba, Spain;
es1bevej@uco.es (J.B.); carlos.gutierrez@uco.es (C.G.-M.)
* Correspondence: xtroian@gmail.com

Abstract: Different segments of society have shown interest in understanding the effects of human
activities on ecosystems. To this end, the aim of this article is to analyze the scientific literature on the
application of the Drivers-Pressures-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) conceptual model to identify
the parameters used to describe the causal interactions that occur between agriculture and aquatic
ecosystems at the watershed scale. In this way, descriptive indicators were established for the data of

 63 publications collected through Scopus, Web of Science, and Science Direct. The results confirm
Citation: Troian, A.; Gomes, M.C.;
the great heterogeneity in the interpretation of the pressure, state, and impacts components. Part
Tiecher, T.; Berbel, J.; of this discrepancy can be attributed to the use of different indicators, as the model is flexible and
Gutiérrez-Martín, C. The Drivers- generic. Overall, the DPSIR is a tool used not only in the scientific field, but also has demonstrated
Pressures-State-Impact-Response its potential to guide public policy formulation, planning, and decision-making in water resource
Model to Structure Cause-Effect management.
Relationships between Agriculture
and Aquatic Ecosystems. Keywords: conceptual framework; water management; agriculture
Sustainability 2021, 13, 9365. https://
doi.org/10.3390/su13169365

Academic Editor: Andrzej Wał˛ega 1. Introduction


Activities developed to meet human needs exert stress on the environment, and quan-
Received: 6 July 2021
Accepted: 17 August 2021
tifying this stress is a complex task. It is of great importance to identify the mechanisms that
Published: 20 August 2021
are able to help in the organization and understanding of the causal interactions between
society and the environment, in order to guide public decisions toward ensuring social
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
welfare. In this sense, an instrument that has demonstrated potential for the structuring of
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
complex environmental problems resulting from the processes of the interactions that occur
published maps and institutional affil- between society and the environment is the theoretical framework of the DPSIR (driver,
iations. pressures, state, impact, and responses) model [1].
The origin of this framework results from the fusion of two fields of study, some-
times seen as opposites—ecology and economics. Short-term economic rationality and
ecological cycles that ensure the renewal of nature and sustainable development do not
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
always coincide [2]. This theoretical framework has become popular among scientists
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
and decision makers to integrate the economic and environmental dimensions [3], and it
This article is an open access article
has been used by several international reference organizations, such as the Organization
distributed under the terms and for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the United Nations Environment
conditions of the Creative Commons Program (UNDP), and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The member states
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// of the European Union, for example, have adopted this framework as an integrated envi-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ ronmental assessment strategy to support decision-making processes in the field of water
4.0/). resource management [4].

Sustainability 2021, 13, 9365. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13169365 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability


Sustainability 2021, 13, 9365 2 of 17

In academia, it is also possible to identify the use of the DPSIR framework in differ-
ent approaches: in the integrated management of water resources in coastal zones [5,6],
mobility and growth of urban populations [7], in the management of surface and ground-
water [8–10], as a tool to support decision processes [11,12], to assess the impacts of climate
change [13,14], to assess issues related to sustainable development [15,16], and for the
development of environmental indicators [17–19].
Although different applications of the DPSIR structure can be identified, to the best
of our knowledge, no analysis has been conducted to organize and systematize studies
focusing on the socioeconomic and environmental problems derived from the development
of agricultural activities, which is important to consider given that agriculture plays an
elementary role in this debate, as it uses approximately 50% of the planet’s habitable land
and consumes more than 60% of its fresh water volume [20]. Several studies have been
conducted at a watershed scale that correlate aquatic ecosystem degradation and pollution
to agricultural activities [21–25]. For example, agricultural land use is one of the main
factors affecting nutrient status and sedimentation in streams [26], with its effects extending
to fish community composition [27]. The poor status of many aquatic ecosystems requires
the restoration of catchments and improving agricultural practices [28].
In this way, through an interdisciplinary perspective, the aim of this paper is (a)
to develop a bibliometric analysis of current scientific production to examine the use
of the DPSIR framework in assessing interactions between agricultural activities and
aquatic ecosystems. In addition, we seek to (b) point out how authors have ordered the
parameters observed in the DPSIR chain, and to (c) synthesize the elementary parameters
for a cause−effect analysis in watersheds. To this end, the following section describes
the methodology used to assemble the database. The third section portrays the historical
evolution of the structure, and lastly, the main results of this research and the considerations
are presented.

2. Brief Evolution of the DPSIR Structure


Man’s interaction with nature is as old as his existence, but in the twentieth century, the
effects of this coexistence were intensified and started having global consequences. Against
this backdrop, several initiatives have emerged around the environmental perspective,
especially after the Stockholm Conference (1972). We highlight the conceptual framework
developed by the National Statistics Office of Canada, which aimed to integrate and
describe statistical data on environmental transformation under the effects of anthropogenic
activities.
The indicators of the Environmental Stress Response Statistical System (S-RESS) are ba-
sically derived from data showing the s48tate of the environment (dependent variables) and
data representing environmental stress (independent variables). Accordingly, Rapport and
Friend [29] classified human activities, corresponding to environmental transformations,
into four structuring groups, namely: (a) waste generation, (b) expansion of urbanization
and agricultural areas, (c) consumption of renewable resources, and the (d) extraction of
nonrenewable resources.
The understanding of the interactions between humans and ecosystems has evolved,
and in the 1990s, the stress response model underwent reformulation. Initially, the chain
was identified as PSR (pressures−state−response), in which pressures on the environment
(including emissions or pollution) modify the state of the environment (e.g., alteration of
water flow and ecosystem composition) and society responds with the aim of preventing, re-
ducing, or mitigating environmental damage through economic, social, and environmental
policies and programs [3,30].
The PSR approach was recognized by several international reference bodies; however,
the information and simulation models used by the European Environment Agency (EEA)
contained data not only on the pressures, state, and response, but also on their origins in
economic activities. Thus, the EEA proposed a second restructuring in the causal chain [31],
organized by five components arranged in cyclic systems [32] (Figure 1).
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 19

Sustainability 2021, 13, 9365 (EEA) contained data not only on the pressures, state, and response, but also3on their ori-
of 17
gins in economic activities. Thus, the EEA proposed a second restructuring in the causal
chain [31], organized by five components arranged in cyclic systems [32] (Figure 1).

Figure 1. DPSIR framework: continuous feedback process. Source: [33].


Figure 1. DPSIR framework: continuous feedback process. Source: [33].
The cycle starts with the inducing forces (drivers) that generate stress and cause
positive
Theorcycle
negative
startspressures
with the(pressures) on the natural
inducing forces (drivers) environment.
that generateThese effects
stress andcancause pos-
alter the physical, chemical, and biological state (state) of the natural system,
itive or negative pressures (pressures) on the natural environment. These effects can alter and cause
impacts
the (impacts)
physical, on ecosystems
chemical, and human
and biological health.ofSociety
state (state) usually
the natural reacts (responses)
system, and cause impacts
with the perspective of mitigating impacts that may affect human well-being. Responses
(impacts) on ecosystems and human health. Society usually reacts (responses) with the
are normally expressed in measures of the prioritization of objectives and goal setting, use
perspective
of economic and of mitigating impacts
legal instruments, or that
even may affect
through the human well-being.devices
use of technological Responses
[3,34].are nor-
mally expressed
Then, with the effectsin derived
measures from ofthe
theresponse(s)
prioritization
(or due oftoobjectives and goal process
some transformation setting, use of
economic and legal instruments, or even through the use of
in the driving forces of another nature), the primary cycle DPSIR becomes a new phasetechnological devices
of [3,34]
Then,
pressureswith the−effects
−state impactderived
−response. from the response(s) (or due to some transformation pro-
cess Although the structure
in the driving forcesofofDPSIR
anotherhas been formally
nature), the established,
primary cycle someDPSIR
adaptations can a new
becomes
be identified. In a recent review
phase of pressures−state−impact−response. of 152 articles and a list of 27 research projects related to
the DPSIR framework and its derivatives in coastal and marine ecosystems,
Although the structure of DPSIR has been formally established, some adaptations 23 variations
of the model were found [35]. In general, these are adaptations used to meet specific
can be identified. In a recent review of 152 articles and a list of 27 research projects related
requirements of the researchers. Therefore, this is not a formal model in the scientific
to thebut
field, DPSIR framework
a structure capableand its derivatives
of assisting in coastalofand
in the clarification keymarine ecosystems,
issues between human23 varia-
tions of the and
interactions model were
nature found [35]. In general, these are adaptations used to meet specific
[36].
requirements of the researchers. Therefore, this is not a formal model in the scientific field
3. Materials
but andcapable
a structure Methodsof assisting in the clarification of key issues between human inter-
Thisand
actions is an exploratory
nature [36]. study and the method followed a set of systematic bibliometric
analysis processes [37]. Steps of the research are shown in Figure 2.
In the first
3. Materials andstage, the theme of interest was defined and the concepts that best represent
Methods
this theme were explored in the titles, abstracts, and keywords of the scientific documents.
In theThis is anstage,
second exploratory study
databases wereand the method
consulted and 115followed a setwere
documents of systematic bibliometric
collected from
analysis processes [37]. Steps of the research are shown in Figure 2.
the Scopus (58), Web of Science (39), and Science Direct (18) platforms. After excluding
duplicate publications, we analyzed the content of the 63 publications available in English.
In the third and last stage, the information was synthesized and the results were
presented through descriptive indicators regarding the areas of knowledge, authorship,
and geographical location of the authors’ affiliation. In addition, the documents selected
to make up the bibliometric sample were classified so as to compare the way specialists
approached the possible cause−effect interactions between agriculture and aquatic ecosys-
tems. As an analysis parameter, seven criteria were used to identify the instruments and
procedures adopted (Table 1).
Sustainability 2021, 13, 9365 4 of 17

Table 1. Criteria used to classify the bibliometric sample.

Criteria Description
1. Use of DPSIR Single or in conjunction with other methodologies.
Interest in qualitative (analyzing attributes related to water quality),
quantitative (collecting and quantifying data related to the quantity and
2. The research approach
availability of water), or mixed information (using data related to water
quantity as well as in information related to water quality).
Documents that organized secondary data but did not conduct a case study,
3. The nature and use of the information generated documents that used secondary data to present a case study, or documents
that generated new data and information from empirical studies.
Greater concern with the indicators, greater interest in the nature of the
4. Approach to the problem phenomena, or presents a balance between measuring and understanding
phenomena.
Exploratory (although it characterizes a problem, is more concerned with
exploring and presenting the approach), descriptive (aims to describe the
5. Contribution of the analysis characteristics of a problem from the approach), and explanatory (seeks to
determine the nature of the relationship between the causes and the doings
of the analyzed problem).
6. Collaborations between institutions for the
National or international.
development of research
7. Interaction with stakeholders for the development Nonparticipative analysis or with the participation of stakeholders in the
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 19
of the model problem.

Figure2.2.Stages
Figure Stagesof
ofresearch.
research.Source:
Source:Elaborated
Elaboratedby
bythe
theauthors.
authors.

4. Results
In the first stage, the theme of interest was defined and the concepts that best repre-
sentThis
this theme were explored
bibliometric in the titles,
analysis of DPSIRabstracts,
conceptualandframework
keywords shows
of the scientific docu-
that scientific
ments. In the
production second
applied tostage, databases
the structure of were consulted and
the interactions 115 documents
between agriculturewere
and collected
aquatic
from the Scopus
ecosystems (58),concentrated
has been Web of Science in (39), andtwo
the last Science Directtotaling
decades, (18) platforms. After exclud-
63 documents since
ing duplicate
2004. publications,
These documents werewe analyzed
published thejournals,
in 37 content as
of 3the 63 publications
books available
or chapters, and as partin
English.
of 3 conferences. The majority of this production is as digital articles (85.7% of the total).
In thethe
Although third and last stage,
63 publications the
are information
distributed in was synthesized
17 research areasand the results(Environ-
or categories were pre-
sented Science;
mental through Agricultural
descriptive indicators regarding
and Biological the areas
Sciences; of Sciences;
Social knowledge, authorship,
Decision and
Sciences;
Earth and Planetary
geographical Pciences;
location of the Engineering; Computer
authors’ affiliation. Science; Biochemistry,
In addition, the documents Genetics
selectedandto
Molecular
make up the Biology; Business,
bibliometric Management,
sample and Accounting;
were classified Energy;
so as to compare the Multidisciplinary;
way specialists ap-
proached the possible cause−effect interactions between agriculture and aquatic ecosys-
tems. As an analysis parameter, seven criteria were used to identify the instruments and
procedures adopted (Table 1).
Sustainability 2021, 13, 9365 5 of 17

Green Sustainable Science Technology; Biodiversity Conservation; Ecology; Environmental


Studies; Geography; and Limnology) defined by the Scopus, Web of Science, and Science
Direct platforms, 47 of them (74.8%) belong to only five categories, namely: environmen-
tal sciences (45.2%), agricultural and biological sciences (11.3%), social sciences (8.7%),
decision sciences (5.2%), and Earth and planetary sciences (4.3%).
Regarding the geographical location of the first authors’ affiliation (Figure 3), 66.7%
were located in Europe, a large percentage were in Greece and Italy (27% of the total), and
17.5% were located on the Asian continent, especially in China in the last decade. American
institutions produced 6.3% of the documents; all of the documents were from American
authors. Five documents were registered in countries other than the place of affiliation of
the first author; there was a group of authors with European affiliations who produced
works in America, Asia, and Africa. Altogether, there were 293 authors, 14 participated in
tainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of
more than one document, and there were 150 scientific affiliations in 28 countries around
the globe.

Figure 3. Geographic
Figure location
3. Geographic of of
location thetheauthors affiliation.
authors affiliation. Source:
Source: Elaborated
Elaborated by theby the authors.
authors.

A highA high proportionof


proportion of the
the publications
publications analyzed werewere
analyzed coauthored. More than
coauthored. 95.2%
More than 95.
were published with two or more authors. Moreover, approximately 22% of the papers had
were four
published with two or more authors. Moreover, approximately 22% of the pap
authors. In the majority of coauthored studies (78%), collaboration was at a national
had four
scale,authors.
involving In the majority
institutions, of centers,
research coauthored studies in
or universities (78%), collaboration
the same was at a n
country. In only
tional22.2%
scale, involving
of cases was theinstitutions,
collaboration atresearch centers,scale.
an international or universities in the same count
In only 22.2% of cases was the collaboration at an international scale.
4.1. Content Check
According to the lexicographical (8-bit Unicode Transformation Format) analysis
4.1. Content Check
carried out on the document abstracts, 16,543 occurrences could be observed in active
According
form, of whichto 997
thewere
lexicographical
hapax (6% of (8-bit Unicode Transformation
the occurrences). Format)
Among the active forms, analysis c
which
excluded the presence of articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and complementary
ried out on the document abstracts, 16,543 occurrences could be observed in active for verbs, the
word water was the most frequent. The occurrences were structured in 2348 text segments,
of which 997 were hapax (6% of the occurrences). Among the active forms, which
organized in hierarchical classes that could be used to interpret the occurrences. This means
cluded
thatthe
on presence of articles,
average, seven prepositions,
active words were used toconjunctions, andFigure
express information. complementary
4A shows the verbs, t
word water was the most frequent. The occurrences were structured in 2348 text s
ments, organized in hierarchical classes that could be used to interpret the occurrenc
This means that on average, seven active words were used to express information. Figu
4A shows the number of occurrences and the distribution word frequency among all
Sustainability 2021, 13, 9365 6 of 17

number of occurrences and the distribution word frequency among all of the documents.
Vertical axis shows word frequency in documents analyzed; while the length of segments
in the horizontal axis represent the set of words found in the documents. Figure 4B shows
the words arranged graphically according to their frequency (words occurring at least
tainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of
20 times), the more centralized and larger the spelling, the more expressive is the frequency
of words in the documents.

Figure 4. (A) Distribution


Figure of the frequency
4. (A) Distribution and (B)
of the frequency andproximity in in
(B) proximity which
whichthe
thewords appearininthe
words appear thesummaries.
summaries. Source: Elab-
Source:
orated by Elaborated
the authors.
by the authors.

The compiled documents were assembled into large topics (according to highlighted
The compiled documents were assembled into large topics (according to highlight
color), according to the purpose of the investigation. Next, they were organized according
color),
to according tocriteria
the following the purpose ofinthe
presented investigation.
Table 2. Next, they were organized accordi
to the1.following criteria presented in Table 2.
Use of DPSIR—(A) single or (B) in conjunction with other methodologies;
2.
Predominant indicators in the analysis—(A) water quality, (B) water quantity, or (C)
Table
both 2. Characterization
attributes of documents.
(quality and quantity);
3. Source and use of information—(A) generate information from already prepared
eference Object
materialofand
Analysis 1 2data 3in a specific
does not present a case study, (B) use secondary 4 5case 6 7
study, or (C) produce primary data and, together with secondary data, analyze a
[38] Participatory approach to water quality problems
specific case study;
A C C A B I S
[12] Combination of 4.
approaches
Approachfor agricultural
to the problem—(A) management B interest
concern with indicators, (B) C inBthe nature
C ofAthe N
phenomena, or (C) balance between measuring and understanding the phenomena;
[39] Agricultural5. management and theofenvironment
Level of contribution A descriptive,
the analysis—(A) exploratory, (B) B B or (C)
C explana-
C N
[40] tory; for socio-ecological systems
Participatory policies B C C A C N S
6. Collaboration for the development of research—(N) national or (I) international; and
[41] Seasonal human
7. migrationofin
Participation search of water
stakeholders—(S) A B C construction
participatory or non-participatory B C I S
[42] model.
Sustainable water management A C C C C I S
[43] Soil and water conservation policy A C B C C N
[44] Cognitive engineering in the management of water resources A A C A B N S
[45] Groundwater management A C C C C I
[46] Criteria for the use of wastewater B C C B B N S
[47] Scenarios for management of environmental resources B C B A B N
[7] Integrated management of water resources A C C B C N
[48] Planning for large-scale water management B C C C B N S
[49] Strategic planning for risk management B C C C B N S
Sustainability 2021, 13, 9365 7 of 17

Table 2. Characterization of documents.

Reference Object of Analysis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7


[38] Participatory approach to water quality problems A C C A B I S
[12] Combination of approaches for agricultural management B C B C A N
[39] Agricultural management and the environment A B B C C N
[40] Participatory policies for socio-ecological systems B C C A C N S
[41] Seasonal human migration in search of water A B C B C I S
[42] Sustainable water management A C C C C I S
[43] Soil and water conservation policy A C B C C N
[44] Cognitive engineering in the management of water resources A A C A B N S
[45] Groundwater management A C C C C I
[46] Criteria for the use of wastewater B C C B B N S
[47] Scenarios for management of environmental resources B C B A B N
[7] Integrated management of water resources A C C B C N
[48] Planning for large-scale water management B C C C B N S
[49] Strategic planning for risk management B C C C B N S
[50] Management of coastal zones A C B B C N
[51] Management strategies, conservation, and restoration B C C A B I
[52] Decision support under N pressure in agriculture B B B A A I
[53] Transfer of agricultural nutrients (P) to water B A C B B N
[54] Transfer of N and P from diffuse sources (agricultural) for water A A B B B N
[55] Agro-environmental indicators for agricultural N monitoring A A B B B N
[56] Water pollution by heavy metals A A C A C N
[57] Industrial and agricultural nutrients (P and N) in coastal areas B C C C C N S
[5] Socioeconomic analysis and transfer of pollutants for water A A B A C N
[58] Pollution of the ecosystem based on nutrients (N and P) A A C A B N
[59] Urban and agricultural pressures on water resources B C B B B I
[19] Hierarchy of socioeconomic indicators B C B B C N
[60] Pressure factors in water resources B A C C B N S
[61] Wastewater and agricultural pressures in river pollution A B B B B N
[62] Socioeconomic drivers and pressures on ecosystems A C C A C N
[63] Implications of the driving forces in coastal areas A C B A B I
[64] Influence of socioeconomic change on water quality A A C B B N
[65] Degradation of groundwater A C B B C N
[66] Ecosystem health index A A B B C N
[67] Agri-environmental indicators of agricultural intensification A C C C B N S
[18] Indicators for agricultural water and land resources A C B B A N S
[68] Ecological status of water A C B A B N
[69] Loading capacity of water and land resources B C B A B N
[70] Environmental status when implementing CAP measures B C B A A N
[71] Change in land use and ecosystem services A C C A C N S
[72] Changes in land use and pressures on water A B B A C N
[73] Environmental impacts from land use change B C B B C N S
[74] Change of land and the consequences on soil and water A C B A B N
[75] Change in land use, conflicts or synergies B A A A C I S
[76] Impact of land use change A C B A A N
[77] Conceptual model for water resources and climate change B C B C C N
[78] GIS to assess pressures on water resources A C B B C N
[79] Conceptual model for socio-ecological research B C B A C N
[80] Development scenarios in the marine environment B C B B C N
[81] Software to simulate impacts of climate change B C B A C I
[82] Model to detect agricultural diffuse pollution B C B B B N
[83] Changes in ecosystem services B A C A C I S
[84] Mechanisms of interaction in ecosystem services A A C C C N
[85] Socioeconomic influences on ecosystem services A C B B C N
[86] Compensations of ecosystem services A A B C B N S
[85] Ecosystem services and wetland changes A A C C B N S
[10] Agrarian economy in deficit irrigation A B C B B N S
[87] Cost-effectiveness analysis in the Water Framework Directive B B B B C N
[88] Agrarian economy in irrigation of mature basins A B B B B N
[89] Export costs of agricultural nutrients A A C B B I
[14] Impact of climate change on agriculture B B B B B N
[13] Regional climate change disturbances B C C C C N S
[15] Border of sustainable development with the DPSIR A A A C C N
[90] Sustainability in industrialized and developing countries A C A B A N

Although in most documents the DPSIR framework was used as a discrete tool, a
considerable proportion of the researchers used it in combination with another approach.
This was the case for the use of multicriteria decision support methods applied to test
Sustainability 2021, 13, 9365 8 of 17

alternatives to reduce agricultural nitrogen pressure on European water resources [52], so as


to quantify ecosystem service offsets [86], to analyze surface and groundwater management
scenarios [47], to structure decision problems related to water management in watersheds
under agricultural pressure [12], to establish sustainability indicators [19], and to assess
environmental impacts related to land use change [73].
The DPSIR framework is also combined with the use of fuzzy systems in cognitive
mapping [40,48] and the strategic planning of stakeholders with a focus on risk manage-
ment [49].
In addition to using DPSIR combined with other instruments, a recurring practice
observed in the documents was the modeling of prospective scenarios. Modeling was
used in 33% of the analyzed documents. The simulations were conditioned and based
on assumed alternatives to identify a comparative advantage among them. In practice,
simulations were used to guide actions and decisions toward the goals pursued in policy
formulation, planning, and decision-making.
In 20 of the 63 documents, researchers actively involved experts or citizens interested
in the decisions to take part in the research. However, where stakeholders were involved,
few papers clearly indicated who was targeted, the number of stakeholders, and how
involvement occurred. Therefore, it seems that this procedure was underutilized, as
only in 32% of the documents were stakeholders’ preferences for the development of the
model incorporated. The results show that there is a predisposition by researchers to use
quantitative and qualitative indicators concurrently. Additionally, the information used
to structure the DPSIR cause−effect interaction chain originated from three main sources:
literature review, secondary data from official sources, and primary data produced in the
research. Although the use of secondary data was significant, over 40% of the papers
produced primary data and only three papers were not case studies (Table 3).

Table 3. Synthesis of the characterization of documents.

Coefficients Procedures Cases Identified%


Use of DPSIR Only 36 57.1
In conjunction with other methodologies 27 42.9
Water quality 17 27.0
Predominant indicators in the
Water amount 9 14.3
analysis
Both attributes (quality and quantity) 37 58.7
Generate information from material already elaborated and do
3 4.8
not present a case study
Source and use of information
Use secondary data in a concrete case study 34 54.0
Produce primary data and, in conjunction with secondary data,
26 41.3
analyze a specific case study
Greater concern with indicators 22 34.9
Focus on the problem Greater interest in the nature of the phenomena 25 39.7
Balance between measuring and understanding phenomena 16 25.4
Present a problem and relate it to the model (exploratory) 8 12.7
Contribution level of the
Describe the problem and relate it to the model (descriptive) 27 42.9
analysis in the model DPSIR
Identify the factors that determine or contribute to the
28 44.4
occurrence of the phenomena (explanatory)

4.2. DPSIR Structure Parameters and Components


The DPSIR conceptual framework provides an overview of the main environmental
problems; therefore, the identification of the components and the definition of the parame-
ters may lead to different decisions in structuring the causal chain. For this reason, some
terminological differences were identified in the definition or ordering of the indicators of
the DPSIR framework.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 9365 9 of 17

Frequently, the following indications prevailed among the driving forces: population
growth (in 13 documents), urbanization (5 documents), and industrialization (7 documents).
In addition, at least 23 of the documents highlighted agriculture as a driving force, while 7
of them highlighted animal husbandry (Table 4).

Table 4. Definitions of DPSIR categories in agrarian systems.

Factors
Reference
Change in Water Nutrients/ Amount/
Agricultural Livestock Fertilizers Eutrophication
Land Use Extraction Contaminants Quality Water
[65] D P P S
[12] D P P I S
[53] D P P S I
[38] D P S S
[40] P D S
[41] D D D P I
[10] P S
[71] P P S
[39] P P S
[19] P P I
[42] D D I P S S
[83] D P S
[43] D P P
[67] * D P I/S I/S I/S
[82] P S S P S
[60] I P S P
[78] D P S I
[88] S
[85] P P S
[68] D D P P S I I
[47] D P I
[8] D P P P S I I
[44] * D D P P S/P
[69] I S
[48] I P S
[73] D D P P S
[81] D S S I
[51] D D P P P S S I
[11] D P
[57] D P P S I
[5] D D P I S S
[52] D D P S I I
[64] D P P I
[76] D P S I
Note: (D) drivers, (P) pressures, (S) state, (I) impacts, (R) responses, and (*) combined use of components.

Among the authors who included land-use change as a parameter, most classified it in
the pressures category (in 8 documents); in these cases, population density and agriculture
formed the driving forces. Land use change was analyzed for a wide range of possibilities,
the most frequent ones being based on indicators of the intensification of production and
crops in mountain environments, which in turn cause increased water extraction rates,
deforestation, and changes in biotic and abiotic landscape conditions.
For example, in 16 cases, the authors of the compiled documents allocated water
extraction as a pressures component. Overexploitation, water management, and water
demand were the main indicators used. On the other hand, in five documents, water
extraction was specified as a state, impact, or driving force component.
In one scenario, water extraction was classified into two categories simultaneously:
impact and state. In this case, excessive water extraction from the Sarno River
(10,515 × 106 m3 y−1 ) aggravated the water resource conditions and caused changes
in the state of the river. On the other hand, water extraction results in large domestic
and industrial effluent discharges from that region of Italy, which worsened qualitative
indicators such as the concentrations of nitrite, nitrate, phosphorus, metal, and the chemical
oxygen demand. Therefore, it may also have a form of impact on aquatic ecosystems [61].
Sustainability 2021, 13, 9365 10 of 17

Another aspect that needs to be clarified is the use of fertilizer. Although fertilizers
and nutrients are often considered synonyms [64], in the DPSIR chain they can be evaluated
differently. One mode of evaluation is when fertilizers used in agriculture are observed
with regard to dosage and application techniques; another is when they are observed based
on the presence of residues found in water as mineral or organic nutrients. In the first
case, in view of the DPSIR proposal, fertilizers are considered to be substances that can put
pressure on the environment and water resources, while in the second case, the presence of
phosphates, nitrites, and nitrates in the water are indicators of the natural state of change
in water resources.
In addition, some authors have assigned water contamination due to the presence
of nutrients, suspended solids, pesticides, and other toxic substances to the pressures
component. Another group of authors assigned the different forms of water pollution to
the impact component. In summary, fertilizers, nutrients, and pollutants can easily be fitted
to any of the components, including: state, pressures, and impact. For example, nitrogen
could be considered a driving force when mistakenly applied to crops; when evaluating
the process of erosion and leaching, nitrogen concentrations would become part of a state
change; and it can be considered a pressure when assessing the efficiency of its use on
crops [52].
Water quantity and quality parameters were used in combination and sometimes
under separate conditions. Although the quantity and quality parameters were represented
by a change of state in 15 documents, impact in 8 and pressures in 2, the indicators found
in this set of documents were similar.
Water balance, decreased availability, nutrient concentration, presence of toxic compo-
nents, and salinization of water stand out as state indicators [39,51]. Among the documents
that considered impact, the main indicators used were dissolved oxygen, electrical conduc-
tivity, hydrogen potential (pH), increased biochemical oxygen demand, and chlorophyll
concentration [8,68]. Finally, water scarcity and droughts, which characterize the reduction
in the amount of water available, were among the pressure indicators.
Eutrophication of water resources was one of the parameters considered in 13 docu-
ments. Nine of them established this phenomenon as an impact, because they considered
the eutrophication process to be an event triggered by factors that “exert pressure” on
water resources. Eutrophication was considered as a change in the conservation status
of water resources in only four documents. In some cases, eutrophication was used as
an indicator of water quality; in others, it was synonymous or complementary to water
quality, measured through the concentration of chlorophyll, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
Although in the compiled documents there were different views on the dividing line
that defined the driving forces, the greatest divergences focused on the definitions of what
constitutes pressures, impact, and state.
With respect to responses, a wide variety of actions and policies have been verified,
ranging from monitoring to technical, regulatory, and subsidy provisions to prevent,
compensate, or adjust possible changes in the state of the environment, and may be
directed at individuals or public or private social groups. Among the actions verified,
the most common were water use restrictions, water and watershed management plans,
economic mechanisms related to water prices and tariffs on pollutants, technical and
financial incentives to modernize irrigation systems, training programs for water users, etc.
No references were made to wastewater treatment by small towns or rural populations,
which is a recurrent problem in river basin studies [22].
Although the answers mentioned are apparently consistent, the implementation of
actions has been minimal. In addition, there is a predominance of global or national re-
sponses. Local or social group responses are virtually nonexistent. In fact, the responses
are presented as suggestions; they do not express objective proposals, with timelines, im-
plementation costs, or anything similar, that technically support the suggested arguments.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 9365 11 of 17

5. Discussion
In general, while there is consensus on the use of spatial and temporal indicators to
identify an anthropogenic effect on the environment, the distinction between pressures,
state, and impact is not uniform among authors. There are cases in which impact is
described differently by social and natural scientists, as negative changes in human well-
being, in contrast with unfavorable changes in the natural environment, respectively.
Analogous ambiguities are also found for other references. For example, in a review
of 24 papers aiming to assess the potential of the DPSIR framework in coastal social-
ecological systems, the authors indicated that there was consistency in the formulation of
the parameters that make up a driving force; however, they highlighted that there was
little consensus on the definitions of pressures and impact [1].
x FOR PEER REVIEW In another review, the authors concluded that the extensive diversity of13 terminologies
of 19
used among scientists from different fields of knowledge contributes to the discrepancies in
definitions regarding the categories of the DPSIR framework. There are cases where driving
forces are subdivided into primary and secondary or into underlying and immediate,
and other examples refer to driving forces as physical and socioeconomic; natural and
According to our systematization presented in Figure 5, first, driving forces are de-
anthropogenic, indirect, and direct, endogenous and exogenous, etc. [91].
fined by the coexistenceAccording
of genuine natural
to our factors presented
systematization and factors associated
in Figure with the
5, first, driving devel-
forces are defined
opment of human activities. In the first
by the coexistence case, the
of genuine natural
natural factorsenvironment is highlighted
and factors associated in the
with the development
of human
form of climate, geology, andactivities. In the first
topography, case, the
which natural environment
determine is highlighted
the underlying in theof
character form of
climate, geology, and topography, which determine the underlying
watersheds. These factors generally have a positive influence by ensuring the renewal of character of watersheds.
These factors generally have a positive influence by ensuring the renewal of natural
natural resources, while anthropogenic
resources, interference
while anthropogenic tends to
interference be predominantly
tends to be predominantly of aofnega-
a negative
tive character. character.

Figure
Figure 5. Elements
5. Elements of theof the DPSIR
DPSIR chain forchain for agriculture
agriculture and water
and water resources. Note:resources. Note:
(*) parameters (*)toparameters
added the analysis chain
added to the analysis chain not mentioned in
not mentioned in the literature consulted. Source: [33]. the literature consulted. Source: [33].

Anthropogenic interference in the natural environment generally occurs as a result of


Anthropogenic interference in the natural environment generally occurs as a result
population growth and increased demand for resources required to meet growing human
of population growth andAmong
needs. increased demand
the activities for resources
indispensable required
for the to meet
development growingagriculture,
of humanity, hu-
man needs. Among which
the activities indispensable for the development of humanity, agricul-
involves both plant crops and animal husbandry, is considered one of the main
ture, which involves driving
bothforces
plantofcrops
this system
and ofanimal
interactions.
husbandry, is considered one of the
main driving forces of this system of interactions.
Similarly, there are pressures derived from the natural environment, in particular
variations in the rainfall regime, such as changes caused by extreme events such as “El
Niño” and “La Niña”, which occur with great intensity in Amazonia and Northeast Brazil
and in some regions of Australia and Indonesia. Other phenomena derived from the nat-
Sustainability 2021, 13, 9365 12 of 17

Similarly, there are pressures derived from the natural environment, in particular
variations in the rainfall regime, such as changes caused by extreme events such as “El Niño”
and “La Niña”, which occur with great intensity in Amazonia and Northeast Brazil and
in some regions of Australia and Indonesia. Other phenomena derived from the natural
environment, which can also put pressure on the balance of ecosystems, are hurricanes,
snowfalls, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, earthquakes, etc.
On the other hand, anthropogenic pressures are generally characterized by the descrip-
tion of how natural resources are used and the amount of waste transported and deposited
in the environment, especially in aquatic systems. Changes in the landscape, which include
land use and natural resource management, in the case of agriculture, are among the main
drivers of anthropogenic pressures in our assessment. In this case, land use can be analyzed
against a wide range of possibilities, the most common ones are based on indicators of
crop intensification in environments with a low agricultural potential, deforestation, and
changes in biotic and abiotic conditions of the landscape. The inputs used in agricultural
production systems are also part of the set of pressures to be observed, especially pesticides
and fertilizers, as these are not fully absorbed in the production processes and residues
that are harmful to the environment accumulate.
Situations in which ecosystems are considered in relation to the conditions of conser-
vation or degradation are evaluated on the basis indicators related to the state of the natural
environment (physical, chemical, and biological state). According to our approach, these
indicators should basically portray quantitative information regarding the water balance
and identify the presence of toxic components in watersheds (qualitative and quantitative
data).
Impacts are characterized by indirect and diffuse disturbances, i.e., their indicators
generally include measures of the health of natural systems (animal morbidity, extinction of
species, etc.) and measures of human well-being (diseases transmitted by microorganisms,
fraction of the population with access to water below quality standards, etc.). Contingencies
that affect the economy, such as environmental investment costs, compensation costs for
environmental services, provisioning, and regulation, can be considered reverse impact
measures [3,31,32].
As a result, society generally reacts with the fundamental aim of mediating the
observed conflicts between agriculture and ecosystems. Society’s responses aim to mitigate
the state of environmental degradation provided by agriculture and the impacts that may
affect ecosystems and human well-being. Above all, the current challenge with regard
to responses should be to overcome and transcend conflicts to exploit the potentials and
synergies arising from the interaction of agriculture with its environment.
In summary, the aim of this bibliometric survey was not to organize agri-environmental
indicators, but it has been acknowledged that these indicators should measure the scalar,
temporal, and multidimensional effects. In our study, we observed difficulties in integrat-
ing indicators of plural dimensions. Moreover, most of them described outcomes on a
global scale or one that did not consider local knowledge. Existing inequalities between
actors and stakeholders have often been ignored, which minimizes the relevance of social
diversity across most fields of research [15].
Another aspect that deserves emphasis in this approach concerns the rich diversity
of habitats, the distinct threats to these habitats, and the great variety of conservation
challenges that aquatic ecosystems face [28]. Hydrological flows form a broad and continu-
ous river system along which sediments and dissolved agricultural substances disperse.
Although interconnected, aquatic ecosystems can be divided into marine and freshwater
systems. Marine systems, located in coastal zones, tend to absorb disturbances from urban-
ized; highly populated; and, generally, industrialized regions. In turn, freshwater regions
present a more diverse mosaic with respect to human occupation patterns and land use.
In addition to the differences in use and occupation, different aquatic ecosystems
respond differently to driving forces, and consequently to impacts, and therefore have
different habitat restoration and recovery needs. In freshwater watersheds, impacts can
Sustainability 2021, 13, 9365 13 of 17

be scaled locally, and there is more scope for active restoration work. On the other hand,
in coastal marine areas, contaminating pollutants may present cumulative impacts, and
there is a greater dispersion and connectivity of species; consequently, there is a need to
consider regional scales and a better possibility of taking advantage of the natural recovery
of systems [28]. In this sense, we highlight the need to rethink the structure and functioning
of these ecosystems.
Finally, the DPSIR framework has contributed to organizing and describing the an-
thropogenic interactions with the environment; however, it is not categorical to minimize
contemporary environmental problems. Operationally, the DPSIR has functioned as a
support tool, giving a medium- to long-term vision; therefore, cross-cutting issues, which
refer to human capital, health, education, and gender, which have indirect relationships
with environmental issues, need to be incorporated into the current concerns.

6. Conclusions
This literature review presents documents with applications in different scientific fields
in the social and environmental dimensions, which illustrates the flexibility of the DPSIR
framework to establish causal relationships between agriculture and aquatic ecosystems.
We highlight the employment of the DPSIR framework to identify and evaluate
pollutants of an agricultural origin in water; examine the environmental status of water
resource stressors; analyze changes in the use of land and climatic changes; qualify eco-
systemic services; address sustainable development; and to manage and make decisions.
Overall, this analysis concluded the following:
• The DPSIR framework demonstrates the capacity to organize and present causal
relationships between agricultural activities and the environment related to ecological,
social, or economic perspectives.
• DPSIR is a simple and generic application model; however, the interpretations of the
variable components of pressures, state, and impact are not homogeneous. Thus, it is
difficult to establish a standard of socioeconomic and agri-environmental indicators.
• In the documents analyzed here, the DPSIR model was not used to explain synergic
situations between the environment and agricultural activities, that is, to present
sustainable development scenarios. In contrast, they have been directed to illustrate
situations where agricultural activities lead to environmental degradation.
• The stress factors of an anthropogenic origin that affect ecosystems are difficult to
measure, and the available data are often limited.
In summary, this bibliometric survey demonstrated that the DPSIR approach has
virtues to promote a dialog between different scientific disciplines with respect to complex
environmental problems. In this sense, based on the results of the literature review, it
is suggested to establish a research agenda among scientists and experts interested in
this instrument to equalize the establishment and employment of indicators related to
agricultural externalities. For managers, it is recommended to adopt the guidelines of the
DPSIR approach as an integrated and participatory strategy for environmental assessment
to support decision-making processes in the field of water resources at the watershed scale.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.B.; methodology, A.T.; software, A.T.; validation, M.C.G.,
C.G.-M. and J.B.; formal analysis, T.T.; investigation, A.T.; resources, J.B., C.G.-M. and M.C.G.; data
curation, A.T.; writing original draft preparation, J.B. and A.T.; writing review and editing, A.T.,
C.G.-M. and T.T.; visualization, A.T. and C.G.-M.; supervision, J.B. and M.C.G.; project administration,
J.B. and M.C.G.; funding acquisition, M.C.G., A.T. and J.B. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) funded this
research (grant number PDSE 88881.189405/2018-01) for Alexandre Troian, as well as the Andalusian
Department of Economy and Knowledge and the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF)
through the research project SEKECO (UCO-1263831-R).
Sustainability 2021, 13, 9365 14 of 17

Data Availability Statement: The data were organized from the following websites: Scopus, Web of
Science, and Science Direct.
Acknowledgments: Department of Economics and FinanceUniversity of Cordoba and University of
Pelotas.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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