1.

Characteristics of Living Organisms 🌿

 Nutrition: obtaining energy and nutrients
 Excretion: removing waste products
 Reproduction: producing offspring
 Growth: increasing in size
 Movement: changing position
 Respiration: breathing in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide
 Sensitivity: responding to stimuli

Cell Structure 🎤

Animal and Plant Cells

Both animal and plant cells have:
 Cell membrane: controls what enters and leaves the cell
 Cytoplasm: where chemical reactions take place
 Nucleus: controls the activities of the cell
 Mitochondria: where energy is produced
 Ribosomes: where protein synthesis takes place
Plant Cells
In addition to the above, plant cells have:
 Cell wall: made of cellulose, protects and supports the cell
 Vacuole: filled with cell sap, helps maintain cell structure
 Chloroplasts: contains chlorophyll, where photosynthesis takes place

Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes 🔬

 Eukaryotes: cells with membrane-bound organelles (e.g. animal cells)

 Prokaryotes: cells without membrane-bound organelles (e.g. bacteria, viruses)

Bacterial Cells 🔍

 Cell wall: sometimes present

  Slime capsule: sometimes present
 Flagellum: helps the bacterium move
 Nucleoid: circular chromosome
 Plasmids: small rings of genetic material
 Cytoplasm and cell membrane: present

Viruses 🦠

 Protein coat: outer layer

 DNA or RNA: genetic material
 Non-living: do not grow, respond, or excrete
 Always pathogenic: cause disease
 Examples: flu virus, cold virus, HIV, tobacco mosaic virus

Protists 🌴

 Dustbin Kingdom: a group of organisms that don't fit into other categories
 Examples: algae, karela, amoeba, Plasmodium (causes malaria)
 Can be unicellular or multicellular

Fungi 🍄

 Cell wall: made of chitin

 Cell membrane, cytoplasm, and vacuole: present
 No chloroplasts: do not undergo photosynthesis
 Examples: yeast, mushrooms
 Hyphae: thread-like structures that form a network called mycelium
 Saprotrophic nutrition: obtain food by breaking down dead matter with enzymes

2. Organisation within Organisms 📈

Levels of Organization
 Cell: group of organelles working together
 Tissue: group of cells working together
  Organ: group of tissues working together
 Organ system: group of organs working together
 Organism: group of organ systems working together
Organ Systems
 Digestive system
 Endocrine system
 Reproductive system
 Circulatory system
 Respiratory system
 Nervous system
 Excretory system
Digestive System
 Organs: stomach, esophagus, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine
 Tissues: glandular tissue, muscular tissue
 Cells: cells with organelles such as nucleus, mitochondria, etc.

Enzymes

 Biological catalyst: speeds up chemical reactions

 Active site: biologically active part of the enzyme molecule
 Enzyme-substrate complex: forms when substrate molecule binds to active site
Digestive Enzymes

Enzyme Substrate Product

Amylase Starch Glucose

Protease Protein Amino acids

Lipase Fat Fatty acids and glycerol

Amylase
 Amylase is an enzyme that breaks down starch into glucose.
 It is produced in the saliva glands, small intestine, and pancreas.
Proteases
 Proteases are enzymes that break down proteins into amino acids.
 They are found in the stomach, small intestine, and pancreas.
Lipase
 Lipase is an enzyme that breaks down lipids (fats) into fatty acids and glycerol.
 It is found in the small intestine and pancreas.
Enzyme Activity
Temperature
 Enzyme activity is affected by temperature.
 At low temperatures, enzyme activity is low due to low kinetic energy.
 At optimum temperature (around 37°C), enzyme activity is highest.
 At high temperatures, enzyme activity decreases due to denaturation.
pH
 Enzyme activity is also affected by pH.
 Each enzyme has an optimum pH at which it is most active.
 If the pH is too high or too low, the enzyme will denature.
Transport
Types of Transport
 Diffusion: the net movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration.
 Osmosis: the net movement of water from an area of high water potential to an area of low water
potential across a partially permeable membrane.
 Active Transport: the net movement of particles from an area of low concentration to an area of
high concentration, requiring energy.
Amoeba
 Amoeba is a single-celled organism that uses diffusion to obtain nutrients.
 Due to its large surface area to volume ratio, diffusion is sufficient for its needs.

Photosynthesis 🌱

Equation
6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ (glucose) + 6 O₂
Limiting Factors
 Carbon dioxide: lack of CO₂ can limit photosynthesis.
 Light intensity: low light levels can limit photosynthesis.
 Temperature: low temperatures can limit photosynthesis.
Structure of a Leaf

Layer Function

Waxy Cuticle Prevents transpiration

Upper Epidermis Transparent, allows light to enter

Palisade Mesophyll Contains alot chloroplasts, site of photosynthesis

Spongy Mesophyll Air spaces for gas diffusion

Lower Epidermis Contains Guard cell and the stomota

Guard Cells Control stomata opening and closing

Stomata Allow CO₂ in, O₂ and water out

Uses of Glucose
 Fats and proteins: glucose is used to synthesize these biological molecules.
 Storage compounds: glucose is stored as starch for later use.
 Cellulose: glucose is used to synthesize cellulose, a component of plant cell walls.## Mineral

Ions and Plant Nutrition 🌱

 Mineral ions are present in the soil around the roots of the plant.
 The plant absorbs both magnesium and nitrates by active transport, against the concentration
gradient.
 Nitrates are used to build proteins.
 Magnesium is used to manufacture chlorophyll found in chloroplasts.
Deficiency Symptoms:
 Magnesium deficiency: yellow leaves
  Nitrate deficiency: stunted, poorly grown plant

Digestion 🍴

Definition:
The breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble ones.
Reason:
 To take in food into our mouths and break it down into tiny pieces, changing its structure so that
it can be absorbed through the walls of the small intestine.
Mechanical Digestion
 A physical process that involves chopping food into smaller pieces, but doesn't alter the structure
of the food.
 Takes place in the mouth (teeth) and stomach (muscular walls).
Chemical Digestion
 Relates to enzymes, which alter the structure of the food molecule.
 Takes place in the mouth (amylase) and stomach (protease).

Mouth and Esophagus 🤯

 Physical digestion from teeth

 Chemical digestion from amylase
 Food passes down the esophagus through peristalsis, a process of muscular contractions of the
esophageal wall.

Stomach 🤯

 Muscular contractions of the stomach lining help churn the food.

 Secretion of hydrochloric acid, which breaks down the food and destroys pathogens.
 Protease is secreted, breaking down proteins into amino acids.

Small Intestine 🌮

 Further peristaltic contractions force the food along.

 More enzymes are added, including lipase, protease, and amylase.
 Bile, an emulsifier, is released from the liver and stored in the gallbladder.
  Bile breaks up large fat droplets into smaller ones, creating a larger surface area for lipase to work
on.
 Bile also neutralizes stomach acid, bringing the pH to an alkaline level (approximately 7-8).

Adaptations of the Small Intestine Lining

Adaptation Description

Structures shaped like fingers, providing a large surface area for

Villi absorption.

Microvilli Increase the surface area further.

Short diffusion distance Allows for efficient absorption.

Plentiful supply of blood capillaries Enables absorption into the bloodstream.

Presence of lacteals For fat absorption.

Large Intestine and Egestion 🚽

 Water is reabsorbed into the blood.

 The leftover undigestible food passes into the large intestine.
 Feces are stored in the rectum before being removed from the body through the anus, a process
called egestion.

Nutrients and a Balanced Diet 🥗

Carbohydrates
 Important source of energy.
 Found in foods like bread, rice, and pasta.
Proteins
 Important for growth and repair of muscles.
  Found in foods like meat, chicken, and beef.
 Deficiency disease: Kwashiorkor.
Fats
 Concentrated source of energy.
 Provide insulation.
 Found in foods like dairy products, butter, and cream.
Vitamins

Vitamin Importance Food Sources Deficiency Disease

C Repair of tissue Citrus fruits, oranges, lemons Scurvy

Fish liver oils, manufactured by the

D Strong bones action of the Sun on the skin Rickets

A Good vision in daylight Fish oils, liver Night blindness

Minerals

Mineral Importance Food Sources Deficiency Disease

Iron Healthy blood Red meats, spinach Anemia

Calcium Strong teeth and bones Dairy products, milk Rickets

Fiber and Water

 Fiber: essential for food to move through the digestive system, found in vegetables and fruit.
 Water: necessary for survival, supports all chemical reactions in the body.## Photosynthesis and

Respiration 💚

Balanced Equation
The balanced equation for photosynthesis and respiration is:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
Note: Photosynthesis and respiration are the same equation, just reversed.
Anaerobic Respiration
Anaerobic respiration occurs when oxygen is not available, such as during intense exercise. It involves
the incomplete breakdown of glucose, producing lactate as a byproduct. Lactate is poisonous and can
cause muscle cramps. To remove lactate, the body needs to take in more oxygen, known as the oxygen
debt.
Anaerobic respiration occurs in two places:
 Muscles: During intense exercise, muscles require more oxygen than is available, leading to
anaerobic respiration.
 Yeast: Yeast, a type of fungus, anaerobically respires glucose to produce ethanol and carbon
dioxide. This process is used in industrial applications, such as bread making and beer brewing.

Breathing System 👅

Mouth to Lungs
The breathing system starts with the mouth, which leads to the trachea (windpipe). The trachea branches
into bronchi, which further branch into bronchioles. The bronchioles end in alveoli, surrounded by a
network of blood capillaries.
Analogy: The trachea is like the trunk of a tree, the bronchi are like the branches, and the alveoli are like
the leaves.
Cleaning the Lungs
The lungs are kept clean by two types of cells:
 Goblet cells: Produce mucus that traps bacterial pathogens, preventing them from entering the
lungs.
 Ciliated cells: Have hair-like projections that waft the mucus, covered in bacteria, up to the
mouth to be swallowed and destroyed by stomach acid.
Ventilation
Ventilation is the process of taking air in and out of the lungs.
 Inhalation: The external intercostal muscles contract, the ribs move up and out, and the
diaphragm contracts, increasing the volume of the thorax and decreasing pressure. Air is sucked
into the lungs.
 Exhalation: The internal intercostal muscles contract, the ribs move down and in, and the
diaphragm relaxes, reducing the volume of the thorax and increasing pressure. Air is pushed out
of the lungs.
Alveoli Adaptations
The alveoli are adapted for gas exchange with the following features:
 Large surface area
 Thin walls: Short diffusion distance for oxygen and carbon dioxide
  Moisture: Helps gases dissolve and diffuse across the membrane

Transport in Plants 🌱

Xylem and Phloem

The xylem and phloem are two types of tissues in plants that play a crucial role in transport.
 Xylem: Transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the leaves
 Phloem: Transports glucose and other organic compounds from the leaves to the rest of the plant
Xylem Structure
The xylem is composed of dead cells that are stacked on top of each other, providing strength and
allowing for the transport of water and minerals. The walls of the xylem are reinforced with lignin.
Phloem Structure
The phloem is composed of sieve plate tubes and companion cells. The companion cells contain
many mitochondria, which release energy for active transport of sugar and other organic compounds.

Transport in Animals 🐠

Blood Composition
Blood is composed of:
 Red blood cells: Carry oxygen throughout the body
 White blood cells: Part of the immune system, helping to fight infections
 Platelets: Involved in blood clotting
 Plasma: The liquid portion of blood that carries cells, hormones, and nutrients
Red Blood Cell Structure
Red blood cells are adapted for oxygen transport with the following features:
 Biconcave disc shape: Increases surface area to volume ratio, allowing for more oxygen
transport
 No nucleus: Provides more room for oxygen and hemoglobin
 Hemoglobin: A pigment that binds to oxygen, forming oxyhemoglobin
White Blood Cells and the Immune System
White blood cells are part of the immune system and help to remove pathogens from the body. There are
two types of white blood cells:
 Phagocytes: Engulf and digest pathogens
 Lymphocytes: Recognize and destroy specific pathogens by producing antibodies
Blood Circulatory System

The heart is the center of the circulatory system, pumping oxygenated blood throughout the body. The
circulatory system is necessary because diffusion is too slow in multicellular organisms.

Note: The heart will be discussed in more detail in a later section.## The Heart and Blood Flow 💖

The heart is divided into four chambers: the left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle, and right
ventricle. The pulmonary vein delivers oxygenated blood to the left atrium, which then contracts,
forcing blood into the left ventricle. The left ventricle contracts, forcing blood into the aorta, the main
artery delivering oxygenated blood around the body.
Blood Flow Around the Body
 Oxygen is picked up in the lungs and delivered to the heart via the pulmonary vein.
 The heart pumps oxygenated blood around the body via the aorta.
 Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart via the vena cava and is pumped to the lungs to be
oxygenated again.
The Double Circulatory System
"The blood passes twice into the heart for every once it travels around the body."
This system is more efficient at oxygenating the body than simpler organisms, such as fish, which have a
single loop system.
Vessels and Their Functions

Vessel Function

Pulmonary vein Delivers oxygenated blood to the heart

Aorta Delivers oxygenated blood around the body

Vena cava Returns deoxygenated blood to the heart

Hepatic artery Supplies the liver with oxygenated blood

Hepatic vein Returns deoxygenated blood from the liver to the heart

Renal artery Supplies the kidneys with oxygenated blood

Renal vein Returns deoxygenated blood from the kidneys to the heart
Coronary Heart Disease
Coronary heart disease occurs when the coronary arteries, which supply the heart with oxygen, become
blocked or obstructed. This can lead to a heart attack, where part of the heart muscle dies due to lack of
oxygen.
Factors Increasing the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease
 Lack of exercise
 High-fat and high-sugar diet
 Inheritance (genetics)
 Diabetes
 Stress
How a Heart Attack Occurs
 Fatty deposits build up in the walls of the coronary arteries, obstructing blood flow.
 Less oxygen reaches the heart muscle, causing it to die.
Heart Rate Increase During Exercise
During exercise, the body produces more carbon dioxide, which is detected by the aorta and carotid
artery. This sends impulses to the medulla part of the brain, causing an increase in heart rate to deliver
more oxygen to the muscles.
Structure of Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries
Arteries
 Narrow lumen (hole)
 Thick muscle and elastic fiber walls to withstand high pressure
Veins
 Wider lumen (hole)
 Thin muscle and elastic fiber walls due to lower pressure
 Valves to prevent backflow of blood
Capillaries
 Tiny vessels that supply oxygen to cells
 Thin walls for short diffusion distance
 Extremely narrow lumen
Excretion
Definition
"The removal of waste products of metabolism from the body."
Excreted Substances
 Sweat from the skin
 Urea from the kidneys
 Carbon dioxide from the lungs
 Note: Feces are not excreted, but rather egested (removed from the body through the anus).
Coordination and Response
Homeostasis
"The maintaining of a steady internal environment."
Tropisms in Plants
 Phototropism: response to light
 Geotropism: response to gravity
Plant Hormones
 Auxins: plant hormones that promote cell elongation and differentiation.
How Plants Respond to Stimuli
 Phototropism: auxins concentrate on the side furthest from the light source, causing cells to
elongate and the plant to bend towards the light.
 Geotropism: roots show a positive response to gravity, growing down towards the ground, while
stems show a negative response, growing away from gravity.## Humans and the Nervous System

Stimulus and Response

A stimulus is a change in the environment that is detected by various sense organs. These sense organs
receive different types of energy, including:
 Light energy (eye)
 eye)
 Sound energy (ear)
 Kinetic energy (muscles in skin)
 Chemical energy (tongue, nose)
Types of Communication
There are two types of communication in the body:
 Nervous Communication: involves the use of electrical impulses
  Hormonal Communication: involves the use of chemical messengers (hormones) that travel in
the blood
Comparison of Nervous and Hormonal Systems

Nervous System Hormonal System

Speed Faster Slower

Response Localized Wider spread

Duration Short-lived Longer-lived

Signals Electrical impulses Chemical messengers

The Nervous System in Detail

Central Nervous System (CNS)
The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord.
Steps involved in a Nervous Response
1. Stimulus: a change in the environment
2. Receptors: detect the stimulus and send electrical impulses to the CNS
3. CNS: processes the information and sends a response
4. Motor Neuron: carries the response to the effector (muscle or gland)
5. Effector: responds to the stimulus (e.g. muscle contracts or gland secretes hormones)
Reflex Actions
Reflex actions are faster and involuntary responses to a stimulus, often in response to something painful.
Example: Picking up a Book
 Stimulus: seeing or viewing the book
 Receptors: photoreceptors in the eye
 CNS: processes the information and sends a response
 Motor Neuron: carries the response to the effector (muscles in the arm)
 Effector: contracts to pick up the book
The Lens and Accommodation
The lens focuses light onto the retina through a process of accommodation.
Example: Reflex Action of the Lens
  Stimulus: lots of light
 Receptors: rods and cones on the retina
 CNS: processes the information and sends a response
 Motor Neuron: carries the response to the effector (muscles in the iris)
 Effector: contracts or relaxes to constrict or dilate the pupil
The Skin
Functions of the Skin
The skin acts as a:
 barrier to prevent pathogen entry
 waterproof layer to prevent water loss
 sense organ for pressure, touch, and pain
 thermoregulator to control heat loss
Homeostasis: Controlling Body Temperature
When we are too hot or too cold, our body responds to maintain a steady internal environment.
When We're Too Hot
 sweat to cool the body
 dilation of arterioles to bring blood closer to the skin
 hairs lie down to trap less insulating air
When We're Too Cold
 hairs stand up to trap more insulating air
 shiver to release heat energy
 vasoconstriction to reduce blood flow to the skin
Adrenaline: The Fight or Flight Hormone
Adrenaline is released in response to stress, preparing the body to either fight or flee.
Effects of Adrenaline
 hairs stand on end to appear scarier
 pupils dilate to allow more light in
 heart rate increases to deliver blood fast around the body
 breathing rate increases to allow more oxygen in
 blood is diverted from the digestive system to active muscles
 3. Reproduction
Sexual and Asexual Reproduction
 Sexual Reproduction: involves two parents, gametes, and fertilization, producing genetically
varied offspring
 Asexual Reproduction: involves one parent, producing genetically identical offspring
Definitions
Fertilization: the joining of an egg and a sperm, resulting in a zygote.
Zygote: the first cell formed after fertilization, which undergoes mitotic cell division
Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Examples of asexual reproduction in plants include:
 Strawberry runners
 Potato tubers
These produce mini plants, which are clones of the original plant, and can be snipped off and

transplanted.## Pollination and Fertilization in Plants 🌼

Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the male part of a plant (anther) to the female part of the same or
another plant (stigma).
Structure of a Flower
 Anther: produces pollen grains (male gamete)
 Filament: supports the anther
 Stigma: receives pollen grains
 Style: connects stigma to ovary
 Ovary: contains ovules (female gamete)
 Carpel: collective term for stigma, style, and ovary
Seed Formation
1. Pollen from a male anther lands on a female stigma.
2. A pollen tube grows down the style and releases digestive enzymes to break down the ovary wall.
3. The pollen meets the ovule, and fertilization takes place.
4. The ovule develops into a seed, with the ovary wall forming the seed coat and the ovary wall
forming the fruit.
Types of Pollination
Insect Pollination
 Flowers have bright, large, colorful petals to attract insects.
 Nectar is produced to attract insects, which pick up pollen when they visit the plant.
 Enclosed stigma and anther force insects to rub against them, increasing the chance of
pollination.
 Strong scents are produced to attract insects.
Wind Pollination
 Flowers are typically dull-colored and small.
 Anthers are exposed to allow wind to carry pollen away.
 No nectar or scent is produced.
 Feathery stigma helps to catch pollen grains.

Germination 🌱

Germination is the process by which a seed begins to grow.

Conditions Needed for Germination
 Warmth
 Oxygen
 Water (remember the mnemonic "WOW")
Steps of Germination
1. Seed coat breaks down.
2. Radicle (small root) appears and grows downwards.
3. Cotyledon (small shoot) appears and grows upwards.
4. Seed's food store is used up, and the plant begins to photosynthesize.
Human Reproductive Systems
Female Reproductive System

Organ Function

Ovaries Manufacture eggs (X)

Fallopian Tubes Deliver eggs to uterus

Organ Function

Uterus Supports embryo growth, provides nutrients

Cervix Entrance to uterus

Vagina Passage leading out of the body

Male Reproductive System

Organ Function

Testes Manufacture sperm, produce testosterone

Urethra Transports semen and urine

Penis Deposits semen into vagina, passes urine out of body

Prostate Gland Contributes fluid to semen

Passage of Sperm
1. Sperm is deposited in the vagina.
2. Sperm swims through the cervix into the uterus.
3. Sperm swims to the entrance of the oviduct (fallopian tube), where fertilization takes place.
Placenta
The placenta is a huge organ that supports the growing fetus, providing oxygen, digested nutrients, and

removing waste products.## Genetics Basics 🧬

Genotype and Phenotype

 Genotype: The genetic makeup of an individual
 Phenotype: The physical appearance of a particular trait
A homozygous individual has two of the same alleles, while a heterozygous individual has different
alleles.
Dominant and Recessive Traits
 Dominant trait: A trait that requires only one allele to exhibit itself
 Example: Brown eyes
  Recessive trait: A trait that requires the absence of the dominant allele
 Example: Blue eyes
Punnett Square Analysis
A Punnett square is a table used to predict the possible genotypes and phenotypes of offspring from a
cross between two parents.
Example: Blue-Eyed Mother and Brown-Eyed Father

Mother (Blue Eyes) Father (Brown Eyes)

Genotype bb Bb

Gametes b, b B, b

Punnett Square

bb Bb

bb Bb

Probability of Offspring Traits

 Blue eyes: 50%
 Brown eyes: 50%
Cystic Fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis is a recessive disease. To have the disease, an individual must have the genotype cc.

Example: Carrier Mother and Carrier Father

Mother (Carrier) Father (Carrier)

Genotype Cc Cc

Gametes C, c C, c
 Mother (Carrier) Father (Carrier)

Punnett Square

CC Cc

Cc cc

Probability of Offspring Traits

 Healthy: 50%
 Carrier: 50%
 Cystic fibrosis: 25%
Familial Hypercholesterolemia (FH)
FH is an inherited condition caused by a dominant allele.
Pedigree Analysis

Person Genotype Phenotype

A Bd FH

B dd Healthy

C Bd FH

... ... ...

IGNORE THIS DIAGRAM IT IS WRONG^

Probability of Offspring Traits
 Homozygous recessive (dd): 11
 Homozygous dominant (DD): 0
 FH: 100%
Mitosis and Meiosis
Cell Division Types

Key Stages of Mitosis and Meiosis

 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase:

 Telophase## Cell Division and Genetics 🧬

TEACHER SAID NOT NECESSARY^

Mitosis and Meiosis
 Mitosis: produces genetically identical daughter cells
 Meiosis: produces genetically varying daughter cells
Chromosome Numbers
 Haploid: containing one set of chromosomes (23 in humans)
 Diploid: containing two sets of chromosomes (46 in humans)

Species and Variation 🌿

Definition of a Species
"Individuals which can interbreed to produce fertile offspring"
Variation Within a Species
 Caused by a combination of:
 Genetics
 Environmental factors
Mutation
 A very random change to the genetic material of an organism

Evolution and Natural Selection 🦖

Definition of Evolution
"Many organisms which are alive today and many more which are now extinct first evolved from very
simple life forms that first evolved over 3.2 billion years ago"
Natural Selection
 Links to evolution
 Stated by Charles Darwin:
 There is variation within a species due to mutation
 Some individuals are more likely to survive because they are better adapted
 They are likely to reproduce, producing offspring with favorable genes
Example: Antibiotic Resistance
 Bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics due to mutations
 Stronger bacteria survive and reproduce, passing on their resistant genes
 4. Ecology 🌳
Definitions
 Environment: the total non-biological components of an ecosystem (soil, water, water, etc.)
 Habitat: the place where a specific organism lives
 Population: all organisms belonging to a particular species within an ecosystem
 Community: the population of all species found within a particular ecosystem
 Producer: a plant that photosynthesizes to produce its own food
 Consumer: an animal that eats other animals or plants
 Decomposer: an organism that decays dead material and helps to recycle nutrients
 Parasite: an organism that lives within another organism, causing harm and feeding off it
 Predator: an animal that kills and eats another animal
Biotech and Abiotic Factors
 Biotech factors: living factors that affect organisms (other animals, disease, etc.)
 Abiotic factors: non-living factors that affect organisms (soil pH, temperature, water, etc.)
Measuring an Ecosystem
 Using a quadrat: a metal frame placed randomly on a field to sample organisms
 Pyramids of numbers: show the number of each organism at each trophic level
 Pyramids of biomass: show the mass of living material available at each trophic level
Energy Transfer
 Only a small amount of energy is passed from one organism to another (about 10%)
 Energy is lost at each stage of the food chain due to:
 Digestion
 Respiration
 Movement
 Waste
Food Webs and Chains
 A food web is a network of food chains
  A food chain is a series of organisms that eat other organisms
Example Food Web

Organism Type

Marsh Grass Producer

Grasshopper Primary Consumer

Cricket Primary Consumer

Shrew Secondary Consumer

Frog Secondary Consumer

Snake Tertiary Consumer

Hawk Tertiary Consumer

Questions
 Number of organisms: 8
 Number of producers: 2
  Number of animals: 6
 Number of primary consumers: 2

 Number of food chains: 5## Ecosystems and Environmental Impact 🌿

The Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle involves the movement of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere, oceans, and land.
 Photosynthesis: Green plants absorb CO2 from the atmosphere and use it to produce glucose.
 Respiration: Plants and animals release CO2 back into the atmosphere through respiration.

Step Description

1 CO2 is absorbed by green plants through photosynthesis

2 Plants respire, releasing CO2 back into the atmosphere

3 Animals eat plants, incorporating carbon into their bodies

4 Animals respire, releasing CO2 back into the atmosphere

5 Plants and animals die, decomposing and releasing CO2

Human Impact on the Environment

Eutrophication
Eutrophication is the process by which excess nutrients, such as nitrates, in water bodies stimulate the
growth of algae, deplete oxygen, and lead to the death of aquatic animals.

 Causes:
 Excess fertilizer use by farmers
 Sewage and wastewater pollution
 Effects:
 Excessive plant growth, leading to decreased oxygen levels
 Death of aquatic animals due to lack of oxygen
The Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect is the process by which certain gases, such as CO2, methane, and water vapor,
trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to global warming.
  Causes:
 Burning of fossil fuels, releasing CO2
 Deforestation and land-use changes
 Agricultural activities, such as rice cultivation and livestock production
 Effects:
 Rising global temperatures
 Melting of polar ice caps and sea level rise
 Extreme weather events, such as storms and typhoons
Other Environmental Issues
CFCs and Ozone Depletion
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are chemicals used in aerosols and refrigerators that damage the ozone
layer, a protective layer in the stratosphere.
 Effects:
 Depletion of the ozone layer
 Increased UV radiation exposure
Acid Rain
Acid rain is precipitation containing high levels of sulfuric and nitric acid, caused by the combustion of
fossil fuels and industrial activities.
 Causes:
 Sulfur impurities in petrol
 Industrial activities, such as smelting and refining
 Effects:
 Damage to trees and crops
 Acidification of lakes and rivers
 Damage to limestone buildings

5. Biological Resources and Food Production

Greenhouses
Greenhouses are structures that use transparent materials to allow sunlight to enter and trap heat,
creating a favourable environment for plant growth.
 Advantages:
 Increased crop yield
 Controlled temperature and humidity
 Reduced water loss through transpiration
 Effects:
 Increased food production
 Reduced dependence on natural weather conditions
Fertilizers and Pesticides
 Fertilizers:
 Replace leached or lost nitrates and mineral ions in the soil
 Increase crop yield
 Pesticides:
 Chemicals that kill pests that feed on plants
 Advantages: easy to use, effective, and readily available
 Disadvantages: expensive, slow to decompose, and can harm non-target species##

Biological Control and Fermentation 🐝

Ladybugs as Biological Control Agents

Ladybugs are used as biological control agents to control aphid populations. They are:
 Self-sustaining: They reproduce and continue to grow into new populations.
 Non-toxic: They are a safer alternative to pesticides like DDT.
 Specific: They tend to eat the pests they are introduced to control.
However, there are also some disadvantages to using ladybugs as biological control agents:
 Unpredictable: They may not eat all the pests, and their impact on the ecosystem can be
unpredictable.
 Slow: They are slower than pesticides in controlling pest populations.
Fermentation and Its Applications
Fermentation is a process in which microorganisms break down organic substances. It has various
applications:
  Bread making: Yeast, a fungus, breaks down glucose into carbon dioxide and ethanol, causing
bread dough to rise.
 Beer making: Anaerobic respiration produces ethanol, which is the alcohol found in beer.
 Yogurt making: The bacterium Lactobacillus bulgaricus breaks down lactose into lactic acid,
giving yogurt its distinctive flavor.
Fermenters and Their Structure
A fermenter is a vessel that contains microorganisms involved in fermentation reactions. Its structure is
optimized to ensure maximum product production:

Feature Description

Cooling jacket Removes excess heat produced by microorganisms

Temperature and pH monitors Monitors temperature and pH levels

Mixes contents to ensure even distribution of

Stirring paddles nutrients and heat

Air inlet Allows oxygen into the fermenter for aerobic microorganisms

Nutrient supply Provides microorganisms with necessary nutrients

Selective Breeding and Genetic Engineering

Selective breeding involves using animals or plants with desired characteristics to breed and repeat the
process over many generations. Genetic engineering involves using bacteria to produce desired products.
Selective Breeding
 Dairy industry: Breeding dairy cows to produce high-yield milk
 Plant breeding: Breeding plants with desired characteristics, such as petal colour
Genetic Engineering
Insulin production: Using bacterial cells to produce human insulin
 Restriction enzyme: Cuts open the plasmid and insulin gene
  Ligase enzyme: Inserts the insulin gene into the plasmid
 Recombinant plasmid: The resulting plasmid with the inserted insulin gene
 Fermenter: Optimizes conditions for bacterial cells to produce insulin
Other Applications of Genetic Engineering
 Frost-resistant plants: Genetically modifying plants to be resistant to frost
 Herbicide-resistant plants: Genetically modifying plants to be resistant to weed killers
 Golden Rice: Genetically modifying rice to contain vitamin A to combat night blindness
 Hepatitis vaccine: Genetically modifying tobacco plants to produce hepatitis antigens