International Journal of Refrigeration 133 (2022) 61–72

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International Journal of Refrigeration

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijrefrig

Energy, exergy, and environmental (3E) analysis of a compound

ejector-heat pump with low GWP refrigerants for simultaneous data center
cooling and district heating
Analyse énergétique, exergétique et environnementale (3E) d’une pompe à chaleur
composée à éjecteur fonctionnant avec des frigorigènes à faible PRP pour le refroidissement
d’un centre de données et le chauffage urbain simultanés

Ali Khalid Shaker Al-Sayyab a, b, Joaquín Navarro-Esbrí a, Adrián Mota-Babiloni a, *

a
ISTENER Research Group, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Construction, Universitat Jaume I, Campus de Riu Sec s/n, 12071 Castellón de la Plana, Spain
b
Basra Engineering Technical College (BETC), Southern Technical University, Basra, Iraq

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This work presents an energy, exergy, and environmental evaluation of a novel compound PV/T (photovoltaic
Low GWP refrigerants thermal) waste heat driven ejector-heat pump system for simultaneous data center cooling and waste heat re­
Data center cooling covery for district heating networks. The system uses PV/T waste heat with an evaporative-condenser as a
Photovoltaic thermal (PV/T)
driving force for an ejector while exploiting the generated electric power to operate the heat pump compressor
3E assessment
Compound ejector-vapor compression
and pumps. The vapor compression system assessed several environmentally friendly strategies. The study
R134a alternatives compares eleven lower global warming potential (GWP) refrigerants from different ASHRAE safety groups
Mots clés:
(R450A, R513A, R515A, R515B, R516A, R152a, R444A, R1234ze(E), R1234yf, R290, and R1243zf) with the
Frigorigènes à faible PRP hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) R134a. The results prove that the system presents a remarkable overall performance
Refroidissement des centres de données enhancement for all investigated refrigerants in both modes. Regarding the energy analysis, the cooling coeffi­
Photovoltaïque thermique (PV/T) cient of performance (COPC) enhancement ranges from 15% to 54% compared with a traditional R134a heat
Évaluation 3E pump. The most pronounced COPC enhancement is caused by R515B (a 54% COPC enhancement and 49%
Systèmes composés à éjecteur et à compression heating COP enhancement), followed by R515A and R1234ze(E). Concerning the exergy analysis, R515B shows
de vapeur the lowest exergy destruction, with the highest exergy efficiency than all investigated refrigerants.
Alternatives au R134a

electricity decarbonisation represents around 30% of the emissions re­

ductions needed (GlobalABC/IEA/UNEP, 2020).
1. Introduction By 2050, the European Union (EU) target is to become climate neutral
by increasing renewable energy and improving energy efficiency.
The world needs to cut greenhouse gas emissions in half by 2030 and Focusing on refrigeration, heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning
work towards carbon neutrality by 2050 to avoid major disasters (RHVAC) systems, the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal protocol star­
(GlobalABC/IEA/UNEP, 2020). An immediate increase in demand for ted the global hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) consumption phase-down in
energy-consuming services due to an increasing population density and 2019. In this regard, R134a is one of the most common HFC refrigerants,
life evolution are outpacing efficiency improvements and heat decar­ with a global warming potential of 1430, which can be easily found in
bonisation. The International Energy Agency (IEA) has proposed a domestic refrigerators, medium temperature commercial applications,
pathway for a sustainable development scenario, focuses on reducing mobile air conditioning, water chillers and water-to-water heat pumps
electricity dependence by increasing renewable energy sources usage, (Mota-Babiloni et al., 2017). Therefore, there is an urgent necessity of
enhancing energy efficiency, and recovering waste heat (IEA, World providing suitable, environmentally friendly alternatives. Besides,
Energy Outlook 2019, IEA, Paris, 2019); (OECD /IEA 2018). In this way,

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Mota-Babiloni).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2021.09.036
Received 28 April 2021; Received in revised form 29 September 2021; Accepted 30 September 2021
Available online 5 October 2021
0140-7007/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
A.K.S. Al-Sayyab et al. International Journal of Refrigeration 133 (2022) 61–72

Nomenclature em Electromechanical
es Isentropic exit condition
COP Coefficient of performance (-) exp Expansion valve
EC Energy consumption (kWh year–1) g Generator
h Specific enthalpy (kJ kg–1) h Hot stream, heating mode
I Solar intensity (W m–2) HX Heat exchanger
LK Refrigerant system annual leakage rate (kg) in Inlet
NBP Normal boiling point (◦ C) is Isentropic conditions
P Pressure (bar) k Condenser
rpm Revolution per minute l Cold stream
RT Running time of the system (hour) m Mixing conditions
T Temperature (◦ C) n Normal shock conditions
V Volume (m3) out Outlet
ĖX Exergy rate (kJ s–1) p Primary stream
ṁ Refrigerant mass flow rate (kg s–1) pn Primary nozzle
Q̇ Heat transfer rate (kW) r Refrigerant
Ẇ Electrical consumption power (kW) s Secondary stream, suction
sn Suction nozzle
Greek symbols t Total
α System operational lifetime (year) v Volumetric
β Carbon emission factor (CO2-eq kWh–1) w Water stream
ε Heat exchanger effectiveness (-) 0 Dead state conditions
η Efficiency (-)
γ Carbon emission factor (g kWh–1) Abbreviatures
μ Entrainment ratio (-) 3E Energy-exergy, and environmental
ω Refrigerant velocity (m s–1) ASHRAE The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers
Subscripts EES Engineering equation solver
C Compressor, Cooling mode GHG Greenhouse gases
Cri Critical condition GWP Global warming potential
D Diffuser, discharge HFC Hydrofluorocarbon
Des Destruction IEA International energy agency
Ds Displacement ODP Ozone depletion potential
e Evaporator PV/T Photovoltaic thermal
ea Actual exit condition RHVAC Refrigeration, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
ej Ejector tCO2-eq Ton of equivalent carbon dioxide emissions
ek Evaporative condenser TEWI Total equivalent warming impact
el Electricity

according to the IEA, RHVAC systems have to produce heating and assessment of a solar-assisted R134a heat pump system operated in three
cooling simultaneously to improve energy efficiency and efficiently use modes: heat-pipe and solar-assisted and air-source heat pumps. The
the resources (IEA, 2018) because these systems can save electricity solar-assisted heat pump mode exposed the highest average daily energy
compared to traditional heat pumps (Byrne and Ghoubali, 2019). A and exergy efficiencies, 37.5% and 7.6%, respectively.
definitive transition to working fluids with a GWP below 150 would The inclusion of an ejector in solar-assisted heat pump configurations
mitigate the climate impact significantly caused by these widespread could benefit the system performance. Hazi et al. (2014) compared PV/T
systems (EEA, 2020). assisted ejector heat pump systems with conventional heat pumps for
Another way of improving RHVAC systems efficiency is by con­ paper mill application. They concluded that increasing hot water tem­
necting it (hybridising) to renewable energy sources. Solar energy is the perature would decrease both configurations energy, exergy, and eco­
cleanest and most abundant renewable energy source and can be con­ nomic performance. Moreover, the solar-assisted ejector heat pump was
verted into thermal or electrical energy. Spain and other Southern the most suitable technology. Boumaraf et al. (2016) modelled an
countries have most of the richest solar resources in Europe (SOLARGIS, ejector refrigerating system using a flat-plate solar collector with alter­
2019). On the other hand, combining photovoltaic thermal (PV/T) native refrigerants to R134a. The study observed that the R290 system
technologies with heat pumps (named solar assisted heat pumps) can showed the best performance of all investigated refrigerants. Xu et al.
improve PV/T efficiency because their operating temperature is (2019) simulated an R600a system for cooling purposes. They proved
reduced. On the other hand, heat pump efficiency also increases because that combining solar energy ends with higher energy and electrical
it operates at higher evaporating temperatures, absorbing less electric performance than without it (11.8% electricity consumption reduction
power than conventional heat pumps. and 12.5% overall COP enhancement). Shaker Al-Sayyab et al. (2021)
A few studies have evaluated the potential of solar assisted heat simulated a compound ejector-heat pump system with R450A and
pumps in terms of energy efficiency increase. Bai et al. (2012) simulated R513A that uses PV/T waste heat with a flat plate collector, milk pas­
and tested a solar-assisted R410A heat pump for hot water production teurisation process or a condenser. The study concluded that the R450A
that reduced electricity consumption and increased heating coefficient system resulted in a 75% system COP enhancement for the milk pas­
of performance (COP) by 67% and 49% compared to a conventional teurisation. In contrast, other studies explored the performance of
heating system. Fu et al. (2012) presented an energy and exergy compound vapour compression ejector systems when the generator

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A.K.S. Al-Sayyab et al. International Journal of Refrigeration 133 (2022) 61–72

pumps are replaced by other technologies like a flash tank (Chen and data centre cooling energy consumption. In this way, several methods
Yu, 2017a), cascades, and a multi evaporator (Huang et al., 2018). All of have been proposed, including waste heat, new technologies or renew­
them conclude that the combination has a positive effect on system able energy sources. However, today data centre cooling systems do not
energy performance. include them, and environmental reports warn about the significant
Information and communications technology represent an emerging energy used and wasted for this application. Therefore, future proof
sector, representing 2.5% of total European Union electricity con­ systems with operation reliability, environmentally friendly must be
sumption (78 TWh) (European Commission, 2015). The Internet of proposed.
Things (IoT) offers business opportunities and is guaranteed to improve In this work, a new arrangement for a combined ejector-solar assis­
efficiency, transparency, and security at any company. However, ted heat pump system is proposed to be applied for simultaneous data
implementing IoT often involves exchanging big data and producing center cooling and district heating. This novel arrangement combines
urgent data centres, increasing power demand between 15 and 20% five environmentally friendly promising technologies: heat pumps,
(Avgerinou et al., 2017). One of the most critical data centres challenges ejectors, PV/T panels, waste heat recovery, and low GWP refrigerants.
is reducing the operating cost (electricity consumption) and the asso­ The proposed system presents the novelty of employing PV/T waste heat
ciated carbon footprint. The energy consumed by the data center is with the evaporative condenser as a full ejector driving force, avoiding a
converted into excess heat, which is generally released to the cooling pump need. The surplus PV/T generated electricity can operate the heat
system ambient to prevent components damage and guarantee elec­ pump, cooling a data center, and injecting heat in a district heating
tronics performance (Davies et al., 2016). According to the Environ­ network. Data centre waste heat recovery could significantly reduce
mental Protection Agency (EPA), the relevance of these systems is that energy consumption and carbon footprint.
data centres constitute approximately 2% of the global CO2-eq emis­ A new method involving advanced exergoeconomic analysis was
sions, which are expected to grow in the coming years (GeSI. SMART recently adopted into the current system (Al-Sayyab et al., 2021). It
2020., 2008). The performance and lifetime of data center electronic evaluates exergoeconomic costs for each component at constant oper­
components are susceptible to indoor conditions; therefore, cooling ating conditions (solar intensity, generator temperature, superheating
systems performance becomes one of the most critical challenges in data degree) using solely R134a as the working fluid. Moreover, to compre­
center design and operation (Mukaffi et al., 2017). The cooling system hensively evaluate current system performance, the effect of several low
causes such an electricity consumption representing 40% of the total global warming (GWP) refrigerants on the proposed system is investi­
consumption, to counteract the data centre thermal load (Payerle et al., gated and compared with R134a. The influence of solar radiation is
2015). taking actual weather data of Valencia (Spain) to investigate the hourly
Some studies highlighted the relevance of improving the cooling performance in different seasons. The exergy analysis is combined with
system energy efficiency by employing excess heat (waste heat recovery energy modelling and simulation techniques to identify the magnitude
method). He et al. (2018) concluded that a data centre waste heat using and sources of thermodynamics irreversibility in the proposed system
heat pipe-heat pump arrangements for supporting district heating sys­ and system performance evaluation. This work presents a 3E evaluation
tems in different Chinese cities would reduce down to 10% energy (energy, exergy and environmental) to give a complete overview of the
consumption compared to heating based on traditional coal-powered proposed system configuration potential considering different external
boilers. Sheme et al. (2018) included two renewable energy sources conditions and applications. Therefore, the main objectives of this work
for data centre cooling. The study predicted that the combined renew­ are as follows: to develop a new compound cooling system with lower
able sources provide more significant surplus hours than when consid­ power consumption and based on low GWP refrigerants; to use renew­
ered independently. able energy as the electricity source for the cooling system; to improve
The state-of-art revision shown in this section is imperative to reduce data centre cooling efficiency; to recover and reuse waste heat from data

Fig. 1. Schematic and P-h diagram of the proposed solar-driven ejector-compression system.

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A.K.S. Al-Sayyab et al. International Journal of Refrigeration 133 (2022) 61–72

centres for district heating networks; and finally, to reduce system In the current study, eleven environmentally friendly refrigerants are
overall carbon footprint. considered, from different safety groups with very low GWP, Table 1, to
choose the most appropriate low GWP refrigerant for the proposed
2. System description system.

2.1. Configuration 3. Methodology

The system consists of a compound PV/T waste heat-driven ejector- 3.1. System modelling
heat pump for simultaneous heating and cooling purposes, using waste
heat for system performance enhancement. It comprises a compressor, The energy-exergy performance and environmental analysis of the
flash tank, ejector, two expansion valves (high- and low-pressure) and current system are carried out, as shown in Fig. 2. The Engineering
several heat exchangers: condenser, evaporative-condenser, generator, Equation Solver (EES) software (Klein, 2020), together with REFPROP
PV/T waste heat exchangers, and evaporator heat exchangers, as shown (NIST Reference Fluid Thermodynamic and Transport Properties Data­
in Fig. 1. base (REFPROP): Version 10, 2018), for mixture properties, are used to
The system is designed for three functions. The PV/T operating model the proposed system and introduce all the considered assump­
temperature is decreased, and the generated electric power is maxi­ tions, boundary conditions and inputs. Moreover, the model also in­
mised. This waste heat is used as the generator heat source, acting with cludes all the required equations to evaluate the performance with
the vapour generated in an evaporative-condenser as the ejector driving different working fluids, the influence of solar intensity, real climate
force. The temperature reaches more than 65◦ C, so the saturation data, and PV/T and ejector sub-models.
pressure ranges from 16.6 bar to 23.4 bar for all studied refrigerants, and
it is within the recommended range as recommended in several studies
(Li et al., 2018; Xu et al., 2018a). In the PVT system, the heat storage 3.2. Boundary conditions and assumptions
tank is employed in the absence of sun (Xu et al., 2018b) However, we
overcome this issue in the current configuration with a condenser waste The ambient air temperatures and hourly solar intensity are based on
heat exchanger instead of hot tank storage. This component actuates Valencia (Spain) real data (VISUAL CROSSING, 2021). These are
according to the available solar intensity (Al-Sayyab et al., 2021). The considered as the input parameters to determine the hourly system
second function is to absorb the data centre waste heat generated and performance for the data centre cooling system. A constant data centre
maintain the indoor air conditions in the ASHRAE comfort zone. Finally, cooling load of 90 kW is simulated for all the operating conditions. The
this heat is upgraded to the compressor functional temperature levels, refrigerant leaving the condenser is assumed as wet vapour; meanwhile,
specifically for district heating. an ideal flash tank is simulated (saturated vapour from the upper part
The novel system arrangement has excellent potential for energy- and saturated liquid from the bottom). The pressure drops and heat
saving and carbon footprint reduction using low global warming re­ transfer to the surrounding through the connection pipes and
frigerants. Another novelty is the ejector arrangement, which saves compressor are neglected. Table 2 summarises the main assumptions
electricity by removing the pump and reducing the compressor pressure and boundary conditions.
ratio. Moreover, the auxiliary heat exchanger uses the condenser waste
heat to compensate for the absence of solar intensity (overcast day
3.3. Model equations
conditions).

The source of thermodynamic inefficiencies, irreversibilities of the

2.2. Low global warming refrigerants components, and carbon footprint are calculated to identify the most
suitable refrigerant. Henceforth, an energetic-exergetic-environmental
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are worldwide used as working fluids in (3E) system evaluation is carried out.
air-conditioning and refrigeration applications, but they are being
phased out under the Montreal Protocol as potent greenhouse gases. One 3.3.1. Energetic and operational model
of the most used HFCs is R134a, which has 1430 times the impact of The compressor power consumption can be obtained using Eq. (1).
carbon dioxide in global warming potential (GWP). In October 2016, the ( )
ṁr hc,is,out − hc,in
parties decided to accelerate their schedule to phase down HFCs to Ẇ c = (1)
ηem ηis
recognise the potential benefits to the Earth. Signing developed coun­
tries have reduced their HFCs consumption and will completely phase The refrigerant mass flow rate delivered by the compressor is ob­
out by 2050 (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2019). tained by Eq. (2).

Table 1
Thermophysical properties of the alternative low-GWP refrigerants and the reference R134a (ASHRAE, 2019; Klein, 2020).
Refrigerants Molecular weight(g mol–1) Tcrit (◦ C) Pcrit (bar) NBP(◦ C) ρ(kg m–3) hfg(kJ kg–1) ODP GWP100 Safety class ASHRAE

R134a 102.03 101.0 40.59 -26.09 5.258 217.0 0 1430 A1

R450A 108.70 104.5 38.22 -23.39 5.522 204.2 0 605 A1
R513A 108.40 94.91 36.47 -29.52 5.679 194.8 0 631 A1
R515A 118.70 108.7 35.66 -18.74 5.939 188.0 0 393 A1
R515B 117.48 108.0 35.63 -18.80 5.877 190.0 0 299 A1
R516A 102.58 97.30 36.45 -29.40 5.375 202.8 0 142 A2L
R152a 66.05 113.3 45.20 -24.05 3.376 329.9 0 124 A2
R444A 96.70 106.0 39.38 -35.70 4.937 234.2 0 92 A2L
R1234ze(E) 114.0 109.4 36.32 -19.28 5.706 195.6 0 7 A2L
R1234yf 114.0 94.70 33.82 -29.49 5.981 180.2 0 4 A2L
R290 44.10 96.68 42.47 -42.10 2.417 425.8 0 3 A3
R1243zf 96.05 103.8 35.18 -25.43 4.946 217.2 0 1 A2L

*At a pressure of 1.01325 bar.

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A.K.S. Al-Sayyab et al. International Journal of Refrigeration 133 (2022) 61–72

Fig. 2. Flow diagram for the methodology.

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A.K.S. Al-Sayyab et al. International Journal of Refrigeration 133 (2022) 61–72

Table 2 Table 3
Assumptions and boundary conditions. Exergy destruction rate equations for proposed system components (Al-Sayyab
Parameters Assumed value
and Abdulwahid, 2019) (T.J.Kotas, 1985).
Component Exergy Equation
ΔTew 5 K (Yan et al., 2018)
ΔTKw 20 K Compressor ĖXDes,C = ĖXin − ĖXout − ẇc
PV/T area 1.65*1.3*350 m2 Condenser ĖXDes,K = (ĖXin − ĖXout )r + (ĖXin − ĖXout )w
Compressor rotational 2900 rpm
Evaporative-Condenser ĖXDes,ek = (ĖXin − ĖXout )rl + (ĖXin − ĖXout )rh
speed
VDS 0.001936 m3 (Al-Sayyab et al., 2021) Generator ĖXDes,g = (ĖXin − ĖXout )r + (ĖXin − ĖXout )w
ηn; ηD; ηmx 0.85 (Sun, 1997) Ejector ĖXDes,ej = ĖXin − ĖXout
ηem 0.88 (Al-Sayyab et al., 2021)
Expansion valve ĖXDes,exp = ĖXin − ĖXout
LK 3% of refrigerant charge (Makhnatch and Khodabandeh,
Evaporator ĖXDes,e = (ĖXin − ĖXout )r + (ĖXin − ĖXout )w
2014)
α,n 15 years (Mansuriya et al., 2020)
RT Valencia: 5040 hours
β Valencia: 265.4 g CO2-eq kWh− 1 (The European ( ( ) ( ))
Environment Agency, 2018) √̅̅̅̅̅ μ 1
ωm = ηm ωsn + ωpn (11)
γEco2 968 g kWh− 1 (Wang et al., 2010) 1+μ 1+μ
− 1
γFco2 220 g kWh (Wang et al., 2010)
( ) ( )
1 ωpn 2 μ ωsn 2 ωm 2
hm = h(pn)ea + + h(sn)ea + − (12)
1+μ 2 1+μ 2 2
ηv VDS rpm
ṁr = (2) For the diffuser suction, the outlet enthalpy can be obtained from Eq.
v
(13).
The compressor volumetric efficiency and isentropic efficiency are
calculated as follows Bai et al., 2019; Chen and Yu, 2017b), Eq. (3) and ωm 2
hd,ea = hm + (13)
((4). 2
pd The system coefficient of performance in cooling mode (COPC) and in
ηv = 0.9 − 0.035 (3)
ps heating mode (COPH) results from Eq. (14) and Eq. (15), respectively.
( )2 Q̇e
pd pd COPC = (14)
ηis = 0.976695 − 0.0366432 + 0.0013378 (4) Ẇ c
ps ps
Heating capacity can be obtained from Eq. (5). Q̇k
COPH = (15)
( ) Ẇ c
Q̇k = ṁr hk,in − hk,out (5)

The cooling load is assumed to be constant for the data centre, so the 3.3.1.1. Exergetic model. The exergy analysis indicates where the sys­
refrigerant mass flow rate can be calculated through a heat balance in tem efficiency can be improved. It is a way to determine the location,
the evaporator, Eq. (6). magnitude, and source of irreversibility. It evaluates the irreversibility
occurring in the components of thermodynamic systems. A control
Q̇e
ṁe = ( ) (6) volume is adopted without accounting for the PV/T panels and data
he,out − he,in centre room. Ambient temperature and pressure are taken as dead state
The evaporative-condenser effectiveness can be evaluated by Eq. (7). conditions. The general exergy balance equation can be written as fol­
lows (T.J.Kotas, 1985).
hin,h − hout,h
εek = (7) (
T0
)
hin,h − hin,l 0 = 1− Q − ẇ + ĖXin − ĖXout − ĖXDS (16)
Tb
The constant mixing area model is adopted to obtain its thermody­
namic, in the ejector analysis, performance suggested, as proved by ĖX = ṁ(h − h0 − T0 (s − s0 )) (17)
previous investigations (Bai et al., 2019; Cui et al., 2020; Pan et al.,
2020). The most critical factor is the entrainment ratio, which can be The exergy destruction rate for each component can be listed in
calculated through Eq. (8). Table 3. Also, the total exergy destruction is the summation of all
components follows Eq. (18).
ṁs
μ= (8)
ṁp ĖXDes,t = ĖXDes,c + ĖXDes,k + ĖXDes,ek + ĖXDes,g + ĖXDes,ej + ĖXDes,exp

The primary refrigerant exit velocity from the nozzle is based on the + ĖXDes,e (18)
conservation law, and it can be obtained using Eq. (9). The exergy efficiency is as presented in Eq. (19).
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )
ωpn = 2 h(pn)i − h(pn)ea (9) ĖXDes,t
ηII = 1 − (19)
ĖXin
In the same way, the secondary refrigerant exit velocity can be ob­
tained following Eq. (10).
3.3.1.2. Environmental model. The current system presents a new
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
)̅
( arrangement of simultaneous cooling for data center and district heating
ωsn = 2 h(sn)i − h(sn)ea (10)
by waste heat from different sources (PV/T and data center). Mean­
The refrigerant velocity and enthalpy of the mixing chamber can be while, the electricity generated by the PV/T system is used to operate the
obtained by applying momentum and energy conservation equations on heat pump. All these factors produce an immediate benefit in CO2-eq
the ejector mixing chamber, Eq. (11) and Eq. (12), respectively. emissions reduction.
The CO2-eq emission reduction can be obtained employing Eq. (20)

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4. Results and discussion

4.1. Simulation model validations

There are two models in the current study that have been validated,
PVT and ejector.
Firstly, the experimental data of Bahaidarah et al. (2013) is used to
validate the PVT model for different solar irradiance. Therefore, the
operating conditions and PVT panel characteristics have been retrieved
from their work. Fig. 3 shows the PVT waste heat recovered, and it can
be seen that the PVT model agrees with the experimental results with an
average error of 5.8%.
The second validation is the ejector-vapour refrigeration cycle
combination. Zhao et al. (2019) and Sarkar (2009) results are used to
checking the mentioned model at different conditions and refrigerants.
The results obtained from this validation are compared in Tables 4 and 5
compared with Zhao et al. (2019) using R290. Fig. 4 includes the
comparison with Sarkar (2009) at different condensing temperatures
Fig. 3. PVT model validation.
using R600a. Based on the minimum deviation observed, the current
ejector model shows a good agreement with the selected works.
(Deymi-Dashtebayaz and Valipour-Namanlo, 2019; Wang et al., 2010),
quantified by the natural gas saving.

ṁfCO2 = γ FCO2 Q̇k RT (20)

The CO2-eq emission reduction quantified by electricity saving Table 5

owing to system enhancement can be obtained by Eq. (21) (Wang et al., Current ejector model result comparison with Zhao et al. (2019).
2010). Result Zhao et al. Ejector model of current study Error %

ṁel,CO2 = γ el,CO2 (Ẇ HP − Ẇ EHP )RT (21) COP 1.91 1.99 4.19
μ 0.3478 0.3478 0
The CO2-eq emission reduction due to PVT generated electricity
utilisation can be obtained by Eq. (22)

ṁPVT,CO2 = γel,CO2 ĖPVT (22)

Besides the possible energetic benefits, it is essential to determine the

system carbon footprint. The Total Equivalent Warming Impact (TEWI)
metric is appropriate for determining various refrigerants in heat
pumps. The components of the TEWI are 1) direct emissions from
accidental refrigerant leakages and 2) indirect emissions from fossil fuel
burning for generating electricity. As a result, TEWI is calculated
through Eq. (23) (Makhnatch and Khodabandeh, 2014).
TEWI = (GWP LK α) + (EC β RT α) (23)
The models mentioned in Duffie et al. (2013), Shaker Al-Sayyab et al.
(2019), Bahaidarah et al. (2013), and Tiwari et al. (2006) are used to
evaluate the effect of hourly variations of solar intensity and ambient
temperatures on PV/T performance.

Fig. 4. Ejector model validation

Table 4
State points of current ejector model result comparison with Zhao et al. (2019).
Point h (kJ kg− 1) s (kJ kg− 1) T (◦ C)
Zhao et al. Current study Error (%) Zhao et al. Current study Error (%) Zhao et al. Current study Error (◦ C)

1 556.5 556.5 0 2.46 2.45 -0.33 -18.66 -18.02 0.64

2 686.7 681.4 -0.77 2.56 2.55 -0.59 73.01 70.58 -2.43
3 307.8 307.8 0 1.36 1.36 +0.15 40 40 0
4 307.8 307.8 0 1.41 1.42 +0.14 -10 -10 0
5 463.3 463.3 0 2.00 2.00 +0.15 -10 -10 0
6 175.2 175.2 0 0.91 0.91 +0.18 -10 -10 0
7 563.4 563.4 0 2.38 2.38 +0.17 -10 -10 0
N 532.2 532.2 0.43 2.40 2.41 +0.29 -33 -33 0
8 175.2 175.2 0 0.92 0.92 +0.02 -33 -33 0
9 536.7 536.7 0 2.42 2.43 +0.21 -33 -33 0
M 543.6 540.0 -0.66 2.45 2.44 -0.45 -28.42 -30.78 -2.36

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Fig. 5. Effect of solar time variation on a) compressor specific work, b) pressure ratio, c) refrigerant mass flow rate, d) power consumption, e) heating capacity

4.2. Energy analysis the solar intensity variation during the day Fig. 5.d. The evolution of
condenser heating capacity is contrary to the specific compression work,
4.2.1. Effect of solar intensity on system performance which gradually increases as the solar intensity increases, reaching a
Fig. 5 illustrates the effect of solar intensity variation for 15 January maximum at the period of highest solar intensity (01:00 PM), Fig. 5.e.
on system performance operating with different refrigerants for constant The system using R515B results in the lowest compressor power
condensing and evaporating temperatures and data centre cooling consumption. On the contrary, using R290, the system depicts the
capacity. highest consumption despite the low refrigerant mass flow rate that does
Fig. 5.a evidence that the compressor specific work decreases as solar not compensate for the highest specific compression work. Then, R290
intensity increases, reaching the lowest value at the highest solar in­ has the highest condenser heating capacity, followed by R513A, owing
tensity period (01:00 PM). This reduction is because the system uses the to R290 has the highest latent heat of vaporisation; meanwhile, R513A
maximum PV/T waste heat as the ejector driving force. As a result, the has the highest vapour density with the moderate latent heat of vapor­
generator temperature increases, the ejector pressure is augmented, and isation (Table. 1)
the compressor pressure ratio is reduced, Fig. 5.b. A similar conclusion Fig. 6.a and Fig. 6.b show the effect of solar intensity variation on the
can be obtained regarding the refrigerant mass flow rate, Fig. 5.c. The system performance in cooling (COPC) and heating (COPH) mode. The
superheating degree and the decrease of compressor pressure ratio system performance is benefitted from higher solar intensity because of
compensate for the increase in the refrigerant mass flow rate; therefore, the influence of solar intensity on the compressor pressure ratio, which
the compressor power consumption does not significantly change with is reduced. Hence, the reduction of compressor specific work and the

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Fig. 6. Effect of solar time variation on the system a) COPC, and b) COPH

Fig. 7. Performance improvement caused by different refrigerants: a) COPC, and b) COPH.

increase of heating and cooling capacity enhance both modes energy

performance. R515B shows the highest system performance in cooling
and heating modes, followed by R1234ze(E) and R515A. However, the
system using R290 presents the worst performance in both modes due to
its highest power consumption owing to R290 has the highest latent heat
of vaporisation requires more heat (the current system used waste heat
to drive the ejector that gives compressor pressure ratio reduction
enhancement so as less compressor work).
Finally, Fig. 7 shows that the proposed system provides a COPC and
COPH improvement with all refrigerants analysed compared to the
proposed system with a conventional heat pump due to compressor
work reduction resulting from the compressor-ejector combination. The
system using R515B has a COPC improvement of 54%, followed by
R515A and R1234ze(E), with 53% Fig. 7.a, meanwhile, in heating mode,
the system using R515B shows a COPH enhancement by 49%, close to
R515A and R1234ze(E), with 48%, Fig. 7.b.

4.3. Exergy analysis

This section analyses the system exergy performance with fixed

condensing and evaporating temperatures and solar intensity, Fig. 8. It is
Fig. 8. Exergy destruction in each component stated that the ejector represents the largest source of exergy destruction

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Fig. 9. Effect of solar time variation on exergetic parameters

of the whole system exergy destruction for most refrigerants, followed Meanwhile, the system input exergy increased due to the waste heat
by the condenser and then the compressor. The ejector has varied irre­ recovered from PVT. Besides, the exergy gained by the water through
versibility sources, such as the nozzles flow friction irreversibility, two the condenser (the system exergy output) exhibits a higher rise than
streams mixing irreversibility (the primary and the secondary flow), and destruction. All these factors contribute to an enhancement in the sys­
compression shock waves irreversibility (Li et al., 2018). For the best tem exergy efficiency.
refrigerant in terms of energy performance. The R515B ejector exergy The system using R290 has the highest exergy destruction than the
destruction represents 39% of the total system exergy destruction, fol­ rest of the refrigerants at a constant solar intensity. The lowest exergy
lowed by the condenser, 31%, and compressor, 14%. Meanwhile, the destruction is achieved using R515B, R515A and R1234ze(E). Similarly,
evaporative- condenser and the second expansion valve comprise the the system using these refrigerants has the highest exergy efficiency
lowest exergy destruction percentage, 1%. because of the lowest exergy destruction. That means the system should
Fig. 9 shows the effect of the solar intensity variation for 15 January be getting more attention for optimisation with R290.
on the total exergy destruction rates. The total exergy destruction is
directly proportional to the solar intensity due to increased exergy input
4.4. Environmental analysis
(solar intensity). The high generator temperature will increase the
refrigerant mass flow rate and the heating capacity, increasing the
As shown in Fig. 8, the proposed system provides remarkable GHG
entertainment ratio and directly influencing system irreversibility (Pri­
emissions reduction by different factors: 1) better efficiency of the data
dasawas and Lundqvist, 2004) (at the condenser, generator, and evap­
centre cooling system by reducing the power consumption, 2) renewable
orative condenser). In other words, it increases the amount of
energy generated by the PV/T panels, and 3) use of the condenser waste
irreversibility in all components.
heat for district heating.
Fig. 9 also shows the effect of the solar intensity variation on the
The proposed system shows an energetic and exergetic performance
system exergy efficiency at fixed condensing and evaporating tempera­
improvement for all low GWP refrigerants analysed, leading to signifi­
tures. The exergy efficiency increases gradually during sunrise and
cant carbon footprint reduction. Compared with the most common
reaches the highest value at midday (the highest solar intensity), then it
cooling and heating methods in Spain (based on a chiller for data centre
slightly falls until sunset. Thus, the exergy efficiency increases as the
cooling and a natural gas boiler for heating), the proposed system can
solar intensity increases. This trend is mainly determined by the
save more than half of the energy consumption. The system using
decrease of exergy destruction in both the compressor and generator,
R1234ze(E), R515B and R515A shows a comparable reduction of tCO2-
owing to the pressure ratio decrease and heat transfer at lower tem­
eq year–1 from lower compressor power consumption (indirect emis­
perature differences.
sions) for data centre cooling. Meanwhile, there is an augmentation

Fig. 10. Environmental performance with different refrigerants.

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A.K.S. Al-Sayyab et al. International Journal of Refrigeration 133 (2022) 61–72

when using R290 due to the higher power consumption required. On the Agency (IJC2019-038997-I).
other hand, all the refrigerants investigated show a comparable reduc­
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