INSTITUTION: DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL: ENGINEERING
DEPERTMENT: ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
COURSE: BSC EEE
UNIT NAME: POWER SYSTEMS I
CODE: EEE 4102
TASK 1: LONG TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS
TASK 2: PERMORMANCE OF LONG TRANSMISSION LINES UNDER DIFFERENT LOADS
EXPERIMENT DATE: 31/10/2023
SUBMISSION DATE: 23/11/2023

GROUP MEMBERS

NAME REG NO

ALLAN KIPROTICH E021-01-2419/2020

ELVIS ARIEMO E021-01-1010/2020
JOHN MUGO E021-01-0981/2020
SAMUEL NJUGUNA E021-01-0967/2020
GILBERT WAMBUGU E021-01-0980/2020
DAVID MORACHA E021-01-0712/2019
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1. To determine the ABCD, H, Z and Image parameters for long transmission line
2. Understand the performance of long transmission line under different loads with varies
Resistive, Inductive, and Capacitive load in different steps

THEORY

A long transmission line is a type of electrical conductor that is used to carry high-voltage electricity over
long distances. These lines are typically made of copper or aluminum cables that are suspended from
pylons or towers. The length of a long transmission line can vary greatly, but it is generally considered to
be any line that is more than 240 kilometers long.

Long transmission lines are essential for delivering electricity to far-flung areas. They allow power plants
to generate electricity in one location and then distribute it to homes and businesses throughout a wide
area. This is important for ensuring that everyone has access to reliable and affordable electricity

In a long transmission line the line constants are uniformly distributed over the entire length of line. This
is because the effective circuit length is much higher than what it was for the former models (long and
medium line) and hence we can no longer make the following approximations:

1.Ignoring the shunt admittance of the network, like in a small transmission line model.

2.Considering the circuit impedance and admittance to be lumped and concentrated at a point as was
the case for the medium line model
Rather, for all practical reasons, we should consider the circuit impedance and admittance being
distributed over the entire circuit length as shown in the figure below. The calculations of circuit
parameters, for this reason, are going to be slightly more rigorous as we will see here. For accurate
modelling to determine circuit parameters let us consider the circuit of the long transmission line as
shown in the diagram below.

Analysis
ABCD PARAMETERS

Here a line of length l > 250km is supplied with a sending end voltage and current of VS and IS
respectively, whereas the VR and IR are the values of voltage and current obtained from the receiving
end. Lets us now consider an element of infinitely small length Δx at a distance x from the receiving end
as shown in the figure where.
V = value of voltage just before entering the element Δx.
I = value of current just before entering the element Δx.
V+ΔV = voltage leaving the element Δx.
I+ΔI = current leaving the element Δx.
ΔV = voltage drop across element Δx.
zΔx = series impedance of element Δx
yΔx = shunt admittance of element Δx

Therefore, the voltage drop across the infinitely small element Δx is given by

Now to determine the current ΔI, we apply KCL to node A.

Since the term ΔV yΔx is the product of 2 infinitely small values, we can ignore it for the sake of easier
calculation.
Therefore, we can write

Now derivating both sides of eq (1) w.r.t x,

Now substitution

from equation 2

The solution of the above second order differential equation is given by.

Derivating equation (4) w.r.to x.

Now comparing equation (1) with equation (5)

Now to go further let us define the characteristic impedance Zc and propagation constant δ of a
long transmission line as

Then the voltage and current equation can be expressed in terms of characteristic
impedance and propagation constant as
Now at x=0, V= VR and I= Ir. Substituting these conditions to equation (7) and (8)
respectively.

Solving equation (9) and (10),

We get values of A1 and A2 as,

Now applying another extreme condition at x = l, we have V = VS and I = IS.

Now to determine VS and IS we substitute x by l and put the values of A1 and
A2 in equation (7) and (8) we get

By trigonometric and exponential operators we know

Therefore, equation (11) and (12) can be re-written as

Thus compared with the general circuit parameters equation, we get the ABCD parameters of a
long transmission line as,
PERFOMANCE OF LONG TRANSMISSION LINES WITH DIFFERENT LOADS

Long transmission lines are characterized by their significant length, which causes the distributed
parameters of the line, such as resistance, inductance, and capacitance, to have a noticeable impact on
the transmission of electrical power. When a resistive load is connected to a long transmission line, the
performance of the line is affected in several ways

1.RESISTIVE LOAD

Voltage Drop and Power Loss

The resistance of the transmission line conductors causes a voltage drop along the line, which is
proportional to the length of the line and the current flowing through it. This voltage drop reduces the
voltage available at the load and can lead to power losses. The power loss in the line is also proportional
to the resistance and the square of the current.

Voltage Regulation

Voltage regulation is a measure of the ability of a transmission line to maintain a constant voltage at the
load under varying load conditions. For long transmission lines, voltage regulation is more challenging
due to the voltage drop caused by the line resistance. Poor voltage regulation can lead to problems with
equipment operation and can even damage sensitive equipment.

Efficiency

The efficiency of a transmission line is a measure of how much of the power transmitted from the
sending end reaches the receiving end. The efficiency of a long transmission line is reduced by the
power losses in the line, which are caused by the resistance and inductance of the conductors.

Minimizing the Impact of Resistive Load

There are several ways to minimize the impact of a resistive load on the performance of a long
transmission line. These include:

 Using high-voltage transmission lines: Higher voltage transmission lines can transmit more
power with less current, which reduces the power loss in the line.

 Using conductors with low resistance: Conductors made of materials with low resistivity, such
as copper or aluminum, can help to reduce the resistance of the line.

 Using compensating devices: Compensating devices, such as shunt reactors, can be used to
cancel out the reactive effects of the line, which can improve voltage regulation.
2.INDUCTIVE LOAD

The performance of long transmission lines is significantly affected by inductive loads. Inductive loads,
such as motors and transformers, draw a lagging current, which causes a voltage drop along the
transmission line. This voltage drop can be substantial for long transmission lines, and it can lead to a
number of problems, including:

 Reduced voltage at the load: This can cause motors to operate inefficiently or to overheat, and
it can damage other sensitive equipment.

 Increased power loss: The voltage drop along the transmission line results in a loss of power.
This power loss is proportional to the square of the current and the length of the line.

 Increased voltage regulation: Voltage regulation is a measure of how much the voltage at the
load changes with changes in load. Inductive loads can cause significant voltage regulation
problems, especially on long transmission lines.

To mitigate the effects of inductive loads on long transmission lines, a number of techniques can be
employed. These techniques include:

 Using power factor correction: Power factor correction is the practice of adding capacitance to
a circuit to counteract the inductive reactance of the load. This can improve the power factor of
the load and reduce the voltage drop along the transmission line.

 Using voltage regulators: Voltage regulators are devices that automatically adjust the voltage at
the load to compensate for changes in load. This can help to maintain a consistent voltage at the
load, even under inductive load conditions.

 Using reactive compensation: Reactive compensation is the practice of adding reactive power
to a circuit to counteract the inductive reactance of the load. This can be done using static var
compensators (SVCs) or synchronous condensers.

The choice of the most appropriate technique will depend on the specific application and the severity of
the inductive load problem.

In addition to the above, the following factors also affect the performance of long transmission lines
under inductive load:

 Length of the line: The longer the line, the greater the voltage drop will be for a given load.

 Current level: The higher the current level, the greater the voltage drop will be.

 Conductor size: The larger the conductor size, the lower the resistance of the line, and the lower
the voltage drop will be.

 Line impedance: The impedance of the line is a measure of its resistance and reactance. The
higher the impedance of the line, the greater the voltage drop will be.

3.RLC LOAD
The performance of long transmission lines under RLC load is significantly affected by the distributed
parameters of the line, namely resistance (R), inductance (L), capacitance (C), and shunt conductance
(G). These parameters influence the voltage regulation, efficiency, and power factor of the transmission
line.

Voltage Regulation:

Voltage regulation is the measure of how much the voltage at the receiving end of a transmission line
varies from the sending end voltage. In long transmission lines, the voltage drop due to R and L can be
significant, leading to poor voltage regulation. This can affect the performance of sensitive electronic
equipment connected to the line.

Efficiency:

The efficiency of a transmission line is the ratio of the power delivered to the load to the power sent
from the source. R and G cause power losses in the line, reducing the efficiency. These losses increase
with the length of the line and the magnitude of the current flowing through it.

Power Factor:

Power factor is the ratio of real power (the power that does work) to apparent power (the total power
in the circuit). A low power factor indicates that a significant portion of the current is reactive, causing
additional losses in the line and reducing its capacity to deliver real power.

RLC Load Impact:

An RLC load, consisting of resistance, inductance, and capacitance, further influences the performance
of a long transmission line. The inductance of the load can resonate with the capacitance of the line,
causing voltage and current fluctuations. The resistance of the load can introduce additional power
losses.

Compensation Techniques:

To mitigate the adverse effects of RLC load on long transmission lines, various compensation techniques
can be employed. These techniques include:

1. Shunt Capacitors: Shunt capacitors are connected in parallel with the line to neutralize the
inductive reactance of the line, improving voltage regulation and power factor.

2. Series Reactors: Series reactors are connected in series with the line to neutralize the capacitive
reactance of the line, reducing voltage spikes and improving stability.

3. Static VAR Compensators (SVCs): SVCs are rapidly controllable reactive power sources that can
dynamically adjust their output to regulate voltage and power factor.

4. Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS): FACTS devices are advanced technologies that can
control the voltage, current, and impedance of transmission lines, providing comprehensive
compensation for RLC load effects
OPEN CIRCUIT TERMINAL

PROCEDURE

1. We made sure that the output terminal 20 and 30 were open circuited.
2. Measured the sending end and receiving end current and voltage respectively with the help of
switch S1, S2 and S3 which were provided at right side of the penal.

S1 Switch: We simultaneously got sending end and receiving end voltage, current, active, reactive,
apparent power and power factor.

S2 Switch: We got the sending and receiving ends active, apparent and reactive power
simultaneously.

S3 Switch: We got the sending and receiving ends voltage, current and power factor simultaneously.

3. Made sure at a time only one switch is on.

4. After completion of the entire connection, we connected the mains cord to the panel and
switched on the power supply.
5. Then with the help of the variac we adjusted the voltage up to 220 volt.
 6. Now by using the values of Vs, Is & Vr we could easily calculate the dimensionless coefficient A
and admittance C.
7. We then switched off the power supply.

Dimensionless Coefficient (A) = Vs / Vr

 218/405=0.5383

Admittance (C) = Is / Vr

 0.44/405=0.0010864

Observation Table

Sending Vs=218v Is=0.44A Ps=52W Qs=80VAR Ss=96VA PFs=0.54

end
Receiving Vr=405v Ir=0.00 Pr=0 Qr=0 Sr=0 PFr=0
end

SHORT CIRCUIT THE OUTPUT TERMINAL

PROCEDURE
 1. Long line connection remained same, we just shot circuited the output terminal 20 and 30 as
given diagram.
2. Measured the sending end and receiving end current and voltage respectively with the help of
switch S1, S2 and S3 which were provided at right side of the penal.
3. Made sure that the variac knob is still on 220 volt position.
4. We then switched on the power supply.
5. Switched Off the power supply & disconnected the all patch cords.

OBSERVATION TABLE

Sending Vs=220V Is=0.12A Ps=17W Qs=21VAr Ss=27VA PFs=0.62

end
Receiving Vr=0V Ir=0.22A Pr=0 Qr=0 Sr=0 PFr=0.00
end

Impedance (B)=Vs/Vr

220/0.22=1000Ω

Dimensionless coefficient (D) =Is/Ir

0.12/0.22=0.5455

DATA ANALYSIS

Image Parameter of short line

We have already measured the value of sending end voltage and current when short lines output
terminal was short circuited, the ratio of sending end voltage and current is called Zsc

Zsc = Vs/Is

=1833.33Ω

We have already measured the values of sending end voltage and current when short lines output
terminal was open circuited the ratio of sending end voltage and current is called Zoc.

Zoc = Vs /Is

=495.45 Ω

By using these values characteristic impedance and propagation constant can be calculate by using
following formulas

Characteristic Impedance (Zo) = √ (Zsc*Zoc)

=952.064 Ω
 Propagation Constant (ῤ ) = √ (Zsc/Zoc)
=1.9236
H Parameter

By using the ABCD parameter we can easily find the H parameter as follow:

H11 = B/D

H12 = (AD – BC)/D

H21 = -1/D

H22 = C/D

Z Parameter

By using the ABCD parameter we can easily find the Z parameter as follow

Z11 = B/C

Z12 = (AD- BC)/C

Z21 = 1/C

Z22 = D/C

All Parameters

ABCD Parameters H Parameters Z Parameters Image Parameters

A 0.5383 H11 1833.3 Ω Z11 920.47KΩ ZO

B 1000Ω H12 -1.6979 Z12 999.71Ω 953.064Ω

C 0.0010864 S H21 -1.8332 Z21 920.47Ω ῤ

D 0.5455 H22 0.001992 S Z22 502.12Ω 1.9236

PROCEDURE FOR PERFORMANCE OF LONG TRANSMISSION LINE WITH DIFFERENT LOADS

1.resistive load
1. All the connections were made as those for long line open circuit experiment
2. We Connected resistive load from the Load Section between output terminal 20 and 30
as given in above figure and using the switch S3 we calculated the power factor of
Sending and Receiving Ends.
3. After completion of the entire connection,we connected the mains cord to the panel &
switched “On” the power supply.
4. With the help of variac we adjusted the voltage up to 220 volt.
5. We recorded the sending end and receiving end power factors in a table

2.Inductive Load

1. All connections were made same as open circuited of long transmission line
2. Connected inductive load from the Load Section between output terminal 20 and 30 as given in
above figure and using the switch S3 we calculated the power factor of Sending and Receiving
Ends.
3. After completion of the entire connection,we connected the mains cord to the panel & switched
“On” the power supply.
4. With the help of variac we adjusted the voltage up to 220 volt.

3.Series RL Load

1. All connections were made same as open circuited of long transmission line.
2. We Connected series R and L load from the Load Section between output terminal 20 and 30 as
given in above figure and using the switch S3 we calculated the power factor of Sending and
Receiving Ends.
3. After completion of the entire connection,we connected the mains cord to the panel & switched
“On” the power supply.
4. With the help of variac we adjusted the voltage up to 220 volt.
4.Parallel LC Load

1. All the connections were made as open circuited of long transmission line.
2. Connected parallel L and C load from the Load Section between output terminal 20 and 30 as
given in above figure and using the switch S3 we calculated the power factor of Sending and
Receiving Ends.
3. After completion of the entire cxonnection, connected the mains cord to the panel & switched
“On” the power supply
4. With the help of variac we adjusted the voltage up to 220 volt.

5.Series RLC Load

Procedure
1. All the connection were made same as open circuited of long transmission line.
2. We Connected series R,L and C load from the Load Section between output terminal 20 and 30
as given in above figure and using the switch S3 we calculated the power factor of Sending and
Receiving Ends
3. After completion of the entire connection, we connected the mains cord to the panel &
switched “On” the power supply.
4. With the help of variac we adjusted the voltage up to 220 volt
DATA TABLE

LOAD SENDING END PF RECEIVING END PF

Resistive Load 0.86 0.89
Inductive 0.74 0.00
Series RL 0.82 0.61
Parallel LC 0.71 0.28
Series RLC 0.86 0.69
SOURCES OF ERROR

 Instrument errors: These errors are caused by the limitations of the measuring instruments
used. For example, the accuracy of a current transformer is limited by its core saturation and its
ratio accuracy. The accuracy of a voltage transformer is limited by its winding resistance and its
insulation.

 Line parameter errors: These errors are caused by the uncertainty in the values of the line
parameters, such as the resistance, inductance, and capacitance. These parameters can vary
with temperature, humidity, and other environmental factors. They can also be affected by the
presence of faults on the line.

 Errors in the measurement of the short circuit current: These errors can be caused by the
limitations of the current transformers used, as well as by errors in the calibration of the
measuring instruments.
 Errors in the measurement of the short circuit voltage: These errors can be caused by the
limitations of the voltage transformers used, as well as by errors in the calibration of the
measuring instruments.
 Errors in the measurement of the short circuit impedance: These errors can be caused by errors
in the measurement of both the short circuit current and the short circuit voltage.
 Errors in the calculation of the fault location: These errors can be caused by errors in the
measurement of the short circuit impedance, as well as by errors in the modeling of the
transmission line.

A long-line transmission line can be a source of errors in an experiment due to its high impedance and
the presence of reflections.

High Impedance

The high impedance of a long-line transmission line can cause the voltage at the end of the line to be
different from the voltage at the source. This is because the line acts as a voltage divider, and the
voltage drop across the line is proportional to the length of the line and the current flowing through it.

Reflections

When a signal is transmitted down a long-line transmission line, it can be reflected back at the end of
the line. This is because the line is terminated in an open circuit or a short circuit. The reflected signal
can interfere with the original signal, causing errors in the measurement.

 Noise: Noise can be caused by a number of factors, including electromagnetic interference,

thermal noise, and shot noise.

 Distortion: Distortion can be caused by a number of factors, including nonlinearities in the

transmission line, reflections, and intermodulation.
  Attenuation: Attenuation is the loss of signal strength over the length of the transmission line. It
is caused by a number of factors, including resistance, inductance,

and capacitance.

CONCLUSION

The long line transmission line lab experiment is designed to investigate the behavior of long
transmission lines at different frequencies and under different termination conditions. The
experiment provides valuable insights into the following aspects of long transmission lines:

 The effect of line length on voltage and current waveforms: As the length of the transmission
line increases, the voltage and current waveforms become more distorted due to the distributed
resistance, inductance, and capacitance of the line.

 The effect of termination impedance on voltage and current waveforms: The termination
impedance of the transmission line has a significant impact on the voltage and current
waveforms. When the line is terminated in its characteristic impedance, the waveforms are
smooth and there are no reflections. However, when the line is terminated in an open or short
circuit, there are significant reflections and the waveforms become distorted.

 The concept of standing waves: Standing waves are formed on a transmission line when there
are reflections from the termination impedance. The wavelength of the standing waves is
inversely proportional to the frequency of the signal.

 The concept of characteristic impedance: The characteristic impedance of a transmission line is

a constant value that determines how the line will respond to different termination impedances.

 The concept of sending-end voltage and receiving-end voltage: The sending-end voltage is the
voltage at the input of the transmission line, while the receiving-end voltage is the voltage at the
output of the transmission line. The difference between the sending-end voltage and the
receiving-end voltage is due to the losses in the transmission line.

Overall, the long line transmission line lab experiment is a valuable tool for understanding the
behavior of long transmission lines. The experiment provides hands-on experience with the
concepts of standing waves, characteristic impedance, and voltage and current waveforms. The
experiment also demonstrates the importance of proper termination impedance for maximizing
power transfer and minimizing distortion

RECOMMENDATION

 Use a shorter transmission line: The shorter the transmission line, the less error there will be.

 Use high-quality measuring instruments: The accuracy of the measuring instruments used will
have a direct impact on the accuracy of the test results. It is important to use instruments that
are calibrated and that have a known accuracy.
 Use accurate line parameters: The accuracy of the line parameters used will also have a direct
impact on the accuracy of the test results. It is important to use line parameters that are based
on recent measurements or that have been verified by simulation.

 Use a fault location algorithm that is appropriate for the type of transmission line being
tested: There are a number of different fault location algorithms available. The choice of
algorithm will depend on the type of transmission line being tested, the type of fault being
simulated, and the desired accuracy of the test results.

REFERENCES
https://resources.system-analysis.cadence.com/blog/msa2021-the-types-of-transmission-lines-based-on-voltage

https://www.eeeguide.com/long-transmission-line-voltage/

https://www.myelectrical2015.com/2022/04/abcd-parameters-of-long-transmission.html

https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Electrical_Engineering/Electronics/Book
%3A_Fundamentals_of_Microwave_and_RF_Design_(Steer)/03%3A_Transmission_Lines/
3.02%3A_Transmission_Line_Theory