CH-03: CURRENT ELECTRICITY

ELECTRIC CURRENT: It is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge per unit time, normal to the cross-
section of the conductor.
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 (𝒒)
Electric current is given by i=
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒕)

For a non-steady (continuously variable) current,

𝒅𝒒
i=
𝒅𝒕
Note: (i) Current is scalar as it does not obey vector laws of addition.
(ii) S.I. unit of electric current is Ampere (A).
(iii) Current in a solid conductor flows from higher potential to lower potential, opposite to the direction of
flow of electrons.
(iv) For electric current to flow b/w two points, the potential difference is necessary for which cell/battery is
used.
(v) (+)ve terminal of battery is considered to be at higher potential & (-)ve terminal to be at lower potential.

MECHANISM OF FLOW OF ELECTRIC CURRENT IN A SOLID CONDUCTOR:

(i) In solid conductors, current flows due to the flow of free electrons only.
(ii) When no external electric field or potential difference is applied across a conductor, the electrons move
randomly due to the thermal energy possessed by them.
(iii) Hence all electrons move in all possible directions causing the net velocity & hence net electric current to
be zero.
(iv) During this thermal motion, an electron collides continuously with the cations & after each collision it
starts with same speed as before collision but in different directions.
(v) Once the external electric field or potential difference is applied, each electron experiences a force &
hence gets accelerated due to this field in a direction, opposite to the applied field.
(vi) Thus most of the electrons start moving in a certain direction (lower to higher potential) causing the net
electric current to flow in the conductor.

DRIFT VELOCITY OF ELECTRONS: It is defined as the average velocity acquired by the electron opposite to
the direction of applied electric field. This velocity is superimposed on the random thermal velocity of electrons.
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Drift velocity of electrons in a conductor is of order of 10 m/s which is very small as compared to thermal
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velocity of order of 10 m/s but still it causes electrons to constitute large current as the free electron density is very
high in a conductor.

Here (-)ve sign shows that the velocity is opposite to the direction of applied electric field.

Relaxation time is defined as the average time taken by the electrons b/w two successive collisions.
MOBILITY: It is defined as the drift speed per unit electric field. It is always positive.

since

hence S.I. unit- m2 / Ns

OHM’S LAW: It states that the potential difference applied across a conductor is directly proportional to the
electric current flowing through it, provided that the physical conditions like temperature etc remains unchanged.

Mathematically, (at constant temperature)

Where R is proportionality constant called Resistance of the conductor.

RESISTANCE: It is the opposition offered to the flow of electric current by a conductor.

More the resistance of a conductor, less will be the current through it for the given potential difference. When the
current flows through any resistance, some potential drops across the resistance.
S.I unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω).
Factors affecting resistance of a solid conductor:
From experiments, it is found that the resistance of a solid conductor-
(i) is directly proportional to the length of the conductor ……(i)

(ii) is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section of conductor ……(ii)

(iii) increases with the rise in temperature of the conductor.
From eq. (i) & (ii),

…..(iii)

Here is a constant called the resistivity or specific resistance & depends on

(i) nature of conductor

(ii) temperature of conductor.

From eq. (iii) , if l = 1 m, & A= 1m2, then

Thus the “resistivity of a material is defined as the resistance of a conductor of same material having unit length &
unit area of cross-section.”

S.I. unit of is Ohm-metre (Ωm ).

Resistivity does not depend on the size or shape of the conductor.

CONDUCTANCE: It is the reciprocal of the resistance.

S.I unit- Ohm -1 or Siemen (S)

CONDUCTIVITY OR SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE: It is the reciprocal of the resistivity or the specific

resistance.

S.I. unit- Ohm -1 metre-1 or Siemen metre-1 (S m-1)

CURRENT DENSITY: It is defined as the current flowing normally per unit area of cross section of the conductor.

It is a vector quantity.

j= Or i=j.A
S.I. unit of current denity is Ampere-metre – 2 (A m – 2)

RELATION B/W ELECTRIC FIELD & CURRENT DENSITY (Microscopic form of Ohm’s law):

From the fig, if magnitude of electric field is E

& p.d. across conductor is V, then by Ohm’s law,
DERIVATION OF OHM’S LAW BY DRIFT VELOCITY OF ELECTRON:ORIGIN OF RESISTIVITY:
LIMITATIONS OF OHM’S LAW: Ohm’s law does not hold good if –

(i) V – I relationship is not linear.

(ii) V – I relationship does not pass through origin.
(iii) V – I relationship is not unique. It means there exists more than one value of current(I) for the one value
of p.d.(V).
(iv) the value of I changes just by changing the sign of V while keeping the its magnitude same.
V – I CHARACTERISTICS:

(i) OHMIC RESISTORS: Such resistors / conductors obey Ohm’s law when small current flows for short
time interval. For Ohmic conductors, the V – I relationship will be linear (straight line graph b/w V & I).

(ii) NON-OHMIC RESISTORS: Such resistors / conductors do not obey Ohm’s law. For Non-Ohmic
conductors, the V – I relationship will not be linear.

V – I CHARATERISTICS OF DIODE V – I CHARATERISTICS OF GaAs.

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTIVITY:

For metallic conductors: As per the relation,

When the temperature of metals is increased, the free electrons gain

more kinetic energy & start moving faster due to which the rate of collision

also increases & the relaxation time decreases. It is clear from the above

relation, that decrease in relaxation time will increase the resistivity &

hence the resistance.

For metals,

For metals, 𝜶 is positive & large.

For Alloys: Like Nichrome, Manganin or Constantan show very slow increase in resistivity or resistance even for a
very large increase in temperature. Thus for alloys, the resistivity remains almost constant with temperature. This is
the reason why alloys are used to make the standard resistors.
For alloys, 𝜶 is positive & small.

For semiconductors: Like silicon(Si) & germanium(Ge) etc, on increasing the temperature, two processes take
place (i) no. of free electrons (n) increases & (ii) relaxation time(𝜏) decreases.
But here the increase in the value of n is more rapid than the decrease in 𝜏 & hence from the relation,

the resistivity (𝜌) decreases.

For semiconductors, 𝜶 is negative.

NOTE: The S.I. unit of temperature coefficient of resistivity

(𝛼) is °C – 1 or K – 1
SERIES COMBINATION OF RESISTANCE: In this combination- (a) current in all resistors will be same &
(b) P.d. ( voltage ) across resistors will be different.

PARALLEL COMBINATION OF RESISTANCE: In this combination- (a) current in all resistors will be
different & (b) P.d. ( voltage ) across resistors will be same.

CELL & BATTERY: A cell is a device that

converts chemical energy of electrolytes into
electrical energy. It contains electrolyte, a positive
electrode (cathode) & a negative electrode (anode).
The combination of cells is called battery.

Note: When current flows, circuit is closed

& when no current flows, circuit is open.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE(EMF): It is the potential difference between the two electrodes of cell when there
is no current in the circuit (circuit is open).
OR
It can be defined as the amount of work done by the cell in moving unit positive charge through the entire circuit
(external + electrolyte). It is not a force but a potential difference.
Its S.I. unit is Volt(V) & it is a scalar quantity.

TERMINAL POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE / TERMINAL VOLTAGE: It is defined as the potential difference

between the two terminals or electrodes of a cell when the circuit is closed.
OR
It can be defined as the amount of work done in moving unit positive charge from one terminal to another terminal
along the external circuit.
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF CELL: It is the opposition offered to the flow of charge (or current) by the
electrolyte between the electrodes. It is denoted by r. S.I. unit is Ohm.
Factors affecting internal resistance:
(i) It increases with increase in separation b/w the electrodes.
(ii) It decreases with the increase in area of cross section of the electrodes immersed in the electrolyte.
(iii) It increases with the increase in concentration of the electrolyte.
(iv) It decreases with the increase in the temperature of the electrolyte as the concentration decreases.

Note: Whenever current passes through any resistance, there is some loss of energy due to which potential drop is
caused.

RELATION BETWEEN EMF & TERMINAL VOLTAGE:

Note: (i) If cell is discharging, then,

(ii) If cell is charging, then

ELECTRICAL ENERGY: It is defined as the amount of energy spent by a source of emf (cell or battery) to
maintain the electric current in the circuit.
ELECTRIC POWER: It is defined as the energy spent per unit time by a source of emf to maintain current in a
circuit.

S.I. unit of power = Watt (W)

KILOWATT-HOUR (kWh): COMMERCIAL UNIT OF ELECTRIC ENERGY: It is defined as the amount of

electric energy supplied by a source of emf to operate an electric appliance of power 1 kilowatt for 1 hour
continuously.

1kWh = 1000 W x 3600 s

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1kWh = 3.6 x 10 Joule
HEATING EFFECT OF CURRENT: When free electrons move in a conductor under the effect of electric field,
they suffer collisions with the metallic ions present in their way & hence the energy of electron is transferred to these
ions due to which these ions start vibrating rapidly & hence the heat is produced. Thus the resistance of conductor
causes the heating effect due to current.
As per the energy conservation, the electric energy supplied by the source will ultimately appear as heat energy
across the resistors. Hence the heat produced in a conductor due to current ,
This is called Joule’s law of heating.

NOTE: The power is supplied to large distances through cables of low resistance (thick cables) at high voltage or
potential difference.

Note: (i) For parallel combination of resistors, the effective power

(ii) For series combination of resistors, the effective power

SERIES COMBINATION OF CELLS:

PARALLEL COMBINATION OF CELLS:
KIRCHHOFF’S RULES:

(i) First rule or Junction rule or Current rule (KCL): At any junction, the sum of the currents entering
the junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving the junction.

This law is based on the conservation of charge.

(ii) Second rule or Loop rule or Voltage rule (KVL): The algebraic sum of changes in potential around
any closed loop involving resistors and cells in the loop is zero.

This law is based on conservation of energy.

Explanation of Application in Problem Solving:
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE: It is the application of Kirchhoff’s rules which is used to determine the unknown
resistance in a circuit containing at least four resistances.

The practical application of Wheatstone bridge is METER BRIDGE / SLIDE WIRE BRIDGE for which the
basic idea is given below: (not included in theory syllabus but in practical syllabus)