Transmission modes

o The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device
is known as transmission mode.
o The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
o Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and
transmission media provide the direction. Therefore, the transmission
mode is also known as a directional mode.
o The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.

The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

o Simplex mode
o Half-duplex mode
o Full-duplex mode

Simplex mode

o In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data

flow in one direction.
o A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive
the data but cannot send the data.
 o This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications
require the two-way exchange of data. The simplex mode is used in
the business field as in sales that do not require any corresponding
reply.
o The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the
listeners but never allows them to transmit back.
o Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a
keyboard can only accept the data from the user and monitor can only
be used to display the data on the screen.
o The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the
communication channel can be utilized during transmission.

Half-Duplex mode

o In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can

transmit and receive the data as well.
o Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
o The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one
direction at a time.
o In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and
if any error occurs, then the receiver requests the sender to retransmit
the data.
o A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-
talkie, one party speaks, and another party listens. After a pause, the
other speaks and first party listens. Speaking simultaneously will create
the distorted sound which cannot be understood.
Full-duplex mode

o In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data

flow in both the directions.
o Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
o Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic
moving in one direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in the
opposite direction.
o The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between
devices.
o The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone
network. When two people are communicating with each other by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.

Differences b/w Simplex, Half-duplex and Full-

duplex mode
Basis for Simplex mode Half-duplex Full-duplex mode
comparison mode

Direction of In simplex mode, In half-duplex In full-duplex mode,

communication the mode, the the communication
communication is communication is is bidirectional.
unidirectional. bidirectional, but
one at a time.
Send/Receive A device can only Both the devices Both the devices can
send the data but can send and send and receive the
cannot receive it receive the data, data simultaneously.
or it can only but one at a time.
receive the data
but cannot send it.

Performance The performance The performance The Full-duplex

of half-duplex of full-duplex mode has better
mode is better mode is better performance among
than the simplex than the half- simplex and half-
mode. duplex mode. duplex mode as it
doubles the
utilization of the
capacity of the
communication
channel.

Example Examples of Example of half- Example of the Full-

Simplex mode are duplex is Walkie- duplex mode is a
radio, keyboard, Talkies. telephone network.
and monitor.

Transmission media
o Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the
information from the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted
through the electromagnetic signals.
o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the
information in the form of bits through LAN(Local Area Network).
 o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data
communication.
o In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
o In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
o In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media
supports the Layer 1. Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1
component.
o The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics,
atmosphere, water, and vacuum.
o The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by
the characteristics of medium and signal.
o Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless
media. In wired media, medium characteristics are more important
whereas, in wireless media, signal characteristics are more important.
o Different transmission media have different properties such as
bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of installation and maintenance.
o The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI
reference model, i.e., Physical layer.

Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission

media:

o Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the
bandwidth of a medium, the higher the data transmission rate of a
signal.
o Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical
to the transmitted one due to the transmission impairment. The quality
of the signals will get destroyed due to transmission impairment.
o Interference: An interference is defined as the process of disrupting a
signal when it travels over a communication medium on the addition
of some unwanted signal.
Causes Of Transmission Impairment:

o Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength

of the signal decreases with increasing the distance which causes the
loss of energy.
o Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of
the signal. This type of distortion is examined from different signals
having different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own
propagation speed, so they reach at a different time which leads to the
delay distortion.
o Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some
unwanted signal is added to it which creates the noise.

Classification Of Transmission Media:

Guided Media
It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are
transmitted. It is also known as Bounded media.

Types Of Guided media:

Twisted pair:
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each
other. A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media.
Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The
frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular

spiral pattern.

The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number

of turns per foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise
interference.

Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following
are the categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:

o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-

speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for
long-distance communication.
o Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:

o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of

attenuation.

Shielded Twisted Pair

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire
that allows the higher transmission rate.

Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:

o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very
low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
Disadvantages

o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

o It has a higher attenuation rate.

Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example,
TV wire is usually a coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel
to each other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the
outer conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made
up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from
the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the
copper mesh prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a

single signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting
multiple signals simultaneously.

Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

 o The data can be transmitted at high speed.
o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

Fibre Optic
o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for
communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that
are used to send the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold,
electromagnetic interference from other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable:

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic

known as a core. A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The
 more the area of the core, the more light will be transmitted into the
fibre.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main
functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at
the core interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the
light waves are transmitted through the fibre.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a
jacket. The main purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength,
absorb shock and extra fibre protection.

Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:

o Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth

as compared copper. Therefore, the fibre optic carries more data as
compared to copper cable.
o Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light.
This allows the fibre optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
o Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer
distance as compared to copper cable.
o Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the
copper cable as it is immune to any temperature changes while it can
cause obstruct in the connectivity of copper cable.
o Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight
so it can withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.

Communication Satellites
A communication satellite is an artificial satellite that acts as a large
repeater in the sky. It receives signals from the source transmitter,
amplifies using transponders, and relays them to the receiver. Thus,
it creates a communication channel between locations of the earth
that would not have been able to communicate due to long distance
or obstruction by earth’s curvature.
Communication satellites may be owned by government or private
organizations. Presently, there are more than 2000 communication
satellites in the sky. Some of its uses are −

• Internet
• Military operations
• Television
• Telephone
• Radio

Communication satellites are broadly categorized into three types

depending upon the orbit in which they are placed.

• Geostationary Satellite (GEO) − They are at 36,000 km from the earth’s

surface. They have same orbital period as earth’s rotation. So they appear to be
still in the sky. At least 3 GEOs are needed for global coverage.
• Medium Earth Orbit Satellite (MEO) − They are placed between the two Van
Allen belts, at a distance between 2,000 km to 36,000 km from the earth’s
surface. At least 10 MEOs are needed for global coverage.
• Low Earth Orbit Satellite (LEO) − They are situated below the Lower Van
Allen belt. Their orbital altitude is 160 km to 2000 km. For global coverage, as
high as 50 LEOs are required.
Switching
o When a user accesses the internet or another computer network
outside their immediate location, messages are sent through the
network of transmission media. This technique of transferring the
information from one computer network to another network is known
as switching.
o Switching in a computer network is achieved by using switches. A
switch is a small hardware device which is used to join multiple
computers together with one local area network (LAN).
o Network switches operate at layer 2 (Data link layer) in the OSI model.
o Switching is transparent to the user and does not require any
configuration in the home network.
o Switches are used to forward the packets based on MAC addresses.
o A Switch is used to transfer the data only to the device that has been
addressed. It verifies the destination address to route the packet
appropriately.
o It is operated in full duplex mode.
o Packet collision is minimum as it directly communicates between
source and destination.
o It does not broadcast the message as it works with limited bandwidth.

Why Switching required?

Switching concept is developed because of the following reasons:

o Bandwidth: It is defined as the maximum transfer rate of a cable. It is

a very critical and expensive resource. Therefore, switching techniques
are used for the effective utilization of the bandwidth of a network.
o Collision: Collision is the effect that occurs when more than one device
transmits the message over the same physical media, and they collide
 with each other. To overcome this problem, switching technology is
implemented so that packets do not collide with each other.

Advantages of Switching:

o Switch increases the bandwidth of the network.

o It reduces the workload on individual PCs as it sends the information
to only that device which has been addressed.
o It increases the overall performance of the network by reducing the
traffic on the network.
o There will be less frame collision as switch creates the collision domain
for each connection.

Disadvantages of Switching:

o A Switch is more expensive than network bridges.

o A Switch cannot determine the network connectivity issues easily.
o Proper designing and configuration of the switch are required to
handle multicast packets.

Switching techniques
In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The
switching technique will decide the best route for data transmission.

Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one

communication.

Classification of Switching Techniques

Circuit Switching
o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated
path between sender and receiver.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established
then the dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is
terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the
telephone works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication
takes place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the
data, voice, video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the
receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of
the dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated
path transfers the data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for
voice transmission.
 o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect

Advantages of Circuit Switching:

o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel

is dedicated.
o It has fixed bandwidth.

Disadvantages of Circuit Switching:

o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the
speed of data transmission.
o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during
which no data can be transmitted.
o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated
path is required for each connection.
o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data
is transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can
be transferred even if the channel is free.
Message Switching
o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is
transferred as a complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes
at which it is stored and forwarded.
o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a
dedicated path between the sender and receiver.
o The destination address is appended to the message. Message
Switching provides a dynamic routing as the message is routed
through the intermediate nodes based on the information available in
the message.
o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can
provide the most efficient routes.
o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to
the next node. This type of network is known as store and forward
network.

o Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Advantages of Message Switching

o Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that

improve the efficiency of using available bandwidth.
o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily
stored in the nodes.
o Message priority can be used to manage the network.
 o The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied.
Therefore, it supports the data of unlimited size.

Disadvantages Of Message Switching

o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to

enable them to store the messages until the message is forwarded.
o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility
provided by the message switching technique.

Packet Switching
o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is
sent in one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent
individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets
are given a unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source
address, destination address and sequence number.
o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as
possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to
resend the message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the
acknowledgment message will be sent.
Approaches of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a

datagram, is considered as an independent entity. Each packet
contains the information about the destination and switch uses this
information to forward the packet to the correct destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

Virtual Circuit Switching

o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented

switching.
o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is
established before the messages are sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the
connection between sender and receiver.
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.

Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through a diagram:

 o In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively.
1 and 2 are the nodes.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection
between the sender and receiver.
o When a route is established, data will be transferred.
o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the
receiver that the message has been received.
o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for
the termination.

Differences b/w Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit approach

Datagram approach Virtual Circuit approach

Node takes routing decisions to Node does not take any routing decision.
forward the packets.

Congestion cannot occur as all the Congestion can occur when the node is busy,
packets travel in different and it does not allow other packets to pass
directions. through.
 It is more flexible as all the packets It is not very flexible.
are treated as an independent
entity.

Advantages Of Packet Switching:

o Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not

require massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is
minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet
switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
o Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This
ensures that the Packet Switching technique provides reliable
communication.
o Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require
any established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use
the same communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of
available bandwidth very efficiently.

Disadvantages of Packet Switching:

o Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those

applications that require low delay and high-quality services.
o The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex
and requires high implementation cost.
o If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires
retransmission of lost packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical
information if errors are nor recovered.

What is Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data
streams over a single medium. The process of combining the data streams is
known as multiplexing and hardware used for multiplexing is known as a
multiplexer.

Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer ( MUX) that

combines n input lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows
many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output line.

Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer ( DEMUX)

available at the receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component
signals (one input and n outputs). Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing
follows the one-to-many approach.

Why Multiplexing?
o The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to
receiver. The medium can only have one signal at a time.
o If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium
must be divided in such a way that each signal is given some portion
of the available bandwidth. For example: If there are 10 signals and
bandwidth of medium is100 units, then the 10 unit is shared by each
signal.
o When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility
of collision. Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
o Transmission services are very expensive.

Concept of Multiplexing

o The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and

multiplexer combines the signals to form a composite signal.
 o The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and
demultiplexer separates a signal to component signals and transfers
them to their respective destinations.

Advantages of Multiplexing:
o More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.
o The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

Multiplexing Techniques
Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:

Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

o It is an analog technique.
o Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the
available bandwidth of a single transmission medium is subdivided
into several channels.
 o In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into
several frequency channels, and each frequency channel is given to
different devices. Device 1 has a frequency channel of range from 1 to
5.
o The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using
modulation techniques, and they are combined by a multiplexer to
form a composite signal.
o The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into
different frequency channels and allocate them to different devices.
o Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into
frequency bands and then combined to form a composite signal.
o The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known
as sub-carriers. They are represented as f1,f2..fn.
o FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.

Advantages of FDM:
 o FDM is used for analog signals.
o FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
o A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
o It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.

Disadvantages of FDM:

o FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.

o It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
o A Large number of modulators are required.
o It requires a high bandwidth channel.

Applications of FDM:

o FDM is commonly used in TV networks.

o It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has
different frequencies, and they are multiplexed to form a composite
signal. The multiplexed signal is transmitted in the air.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

o Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the

optical signals are transmitted through the fibre optic cable.
o WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
 o It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
o It is an analog multiplexing technique.
o Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider
band of light with the help of multiplexer.
o At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit
them to their respective destinations.
o Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
o Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various
optical signals to form a composite signal, and the composite signal is
transmitted through a fibre optical cable.
o Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.

Time Division Multiplexing

o It is a digital technique.
o In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the
same time with different frequency, but in case of Time Division
Multiplexing technique, all signals operate at the same frequency with
different time.
o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in
the channel is distributed among different users. Therefore, each user
is allocated with different time interval known as a Time slot at which
data is to be transmitted by the sender.
o A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
 o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted
simultaneously rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.
o In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain
a cycle of time slots in which each frame contains one or more slots
dedicated to each user.
o It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly
used to multiplex digital signals.

There are two types of TDM:

o Synchronous TDM
o Asynchronous TDM

Synchronous TDM
o A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to
every device.
o In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective
of the fact that the device contains the data or not.
o If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
o In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots
are organized in the form of frames. If a device does not have data for
a particular time slot, then the empty slot will be transmitted.
o The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN
multiplexing, and SONET multiplexing.
o If there are n devices, then there are n slots.
Concept of Synchronous TDM

In the above figure, the Synchronous TDM technique is implemented. Each

device is allocated with some time slot. The time slots are transmitted
irrespective of whether the sender has data to send or not.

Disadvantages of Synchronous TDM:

o The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are
also transmitted which is having no data. In the above figure, the first
frame is completely filled, but in the last two frames, some slots are
empty. Therefore, we can say that the capacity of the channel is not
utilized efficiently.
o The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total
speed of the input lines. An alternative approach to the Synchronous
TDM is Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing.

Asynchronous TDM
o An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.
o An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed
as in the case of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to only
those devices which have the data to send. Therefore, we can say that
Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits only the data from
active workstations.
o An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots
to the devices.
 o In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater
than the capacity of the channel.
o Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data
streams and creates a frame that contains only data with no empty
slots.
o In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that
identifies the source of the data.

o The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is

that many slots in Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in
Asynchronous TDM, slots are fully utilized. This leads to the smaller
transmission time and efficient utilization of the capacity of the
channel.
o In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n
time slots. In Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then
there are m time slots where m is less than n (m<n).
o The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of
the number of input lines.

Concept of Asynchronous TDM

In the above diagram, there are 4 devices, but only two devices are sending
the data, i.e., A and C. Therefore, the data of A and C are only transmitted
through the transmission line.

Frame of above diagram can be represented as:

MODEM and Modulation Techniques

MODEM: Modulator and Demodulator
Modem stands for modulator and demodulator. It is a network device
between the computer system and the telephone line.

The modem consists of two parts which are the modulator and the
demodulator. The primary function of the modulator part of any modem is
to convert all the digital signals received into analogue signals. The
demodulator works just opposite the modulator as it converts all the
analogue signals to digital signals.

In simple language, when the sender sends any data, it is in the form of a
digital signal; when these digital signals reach the modulator of the modem,
the modulator converts those digital signals into an analogue signal. These
analogue signals are transmitted to the demodulator through a telephone
line, and then the demodulator converts these analogue signals again into
digital signals and sends them to the receiver.
Types of Modem
The types of modems can be divided on the basis of their shape and size.
They are usually categorized into the following three types:-

1. External Modem
a. It is an external unit connected to the computer's serial port, such as
COM or COM2, by a cable. In other words, the external modem we use is the
external part of the computer that we connect to the computer externally
through an available communication port, such as COM or COM2, using a
wire or cable.
b. External modems are also connected to the telephone through a wall
jack. In the modem itself, a jack is a specific port used for the telephone,
using which we connect it to the telephone.
c. The external modem is portable, which means we can easily carry the
modem from one place to another.
d. The installation of the external modem is much easier as external
modems are fitted externally, and there is no need to fit them inside
the computer.
e. An external modem is expensive.
f. The modem speed or the data transmission speed of the External
Modem is high compared to the internal modem.

2. Internal Modem
a. An internal modem is a circuit board commonly installed in the
expansion slots inside the computer's system unit. After the installation, we
connect this internal modem through telephone lines.
b. Internal Modems are not portable, so we cannot carry or transfer them
from one computer to another easily.
 c. Internal Modems are pretty difficult to configure as they need to be
installed inside the computer in a specific slot, and that is why they are
usually installed by the respective professional technicians.
d. Internal Modems are less expensive compared to External Modems.
e. The drawback of internal modems is that internal modem data
transmission speed is slower than the external modem.

3. Wireless Modem
a. Wireless Modem transmits the data signals through the air, which
means that no kind of physical media is involved in this kind of modem to
transmit the signals.
b. Wireless modems are also known as radio frequency modems because
the data which they transmit are in the form of radio waves. Radio
waves are such kinds of waves which can be passed through any
obstacle.
c. Wireless modems are used with laptops and desktop computers to
connect wirelessly to available networks.
d. A specific device is installed in a wireless modem, and it also contains
antennas for transmitting signals.

Modulation :

The process by which data/information is converted into

electrical/digital signals for transferring that signal over a medium is
called modulation. It increases strength for maximum reach of the
signals. The process of extracting information/data from the
transmitted signal is called demodulation. A Modem is a device that
performs both modulation and demodulation processes.

Working of Modulation:
The most common characteristics of modulation include amplitude,
frequency, and phase. modulation is applied to electromagnetic
signals like radio waves, optics, and computer networks. It can also
be applied to direct current that can be treated as a degenerate carrier
wave with a fixed amplitude and frequency of 0 Hz by turning it off and
on as in a digital current loop and in Morse code telegraphy. The two
signals under modulation are:
Carrier signal: The signals which contain no information but have a
certain phase, frequency, and amplitude are called carrier signals.
Modulated signals: The signals which are the combination of the
carrier signals and modulation signals are modulated signals. The
modulated signal is obtained after the modulation of the signals.

Types of modulation:

1. Amplitude modulation: It is a type of modulation in which only the

amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to represent the data being
added to the signals whereas the phase and the frequency of the
signal are kept unchanged.

Amplitude Modulation

2. Frequency modulation: It is a type of modulation in which only the

frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent the frequency of
the data whereas the phase and the amplitude of the signals are kept
unchanged.

3. Phase modulation: It is a type of modulation in which the phase

of the carrier signal is varied to represent the data being added to the
signal. Different information values are represented by different
phases. For example: ‘1’ may be represented by 0° while ‘0’ by 180°.

Phase Modulation

PCM (Pulse Code Modulation)

A PCM system converts an analog input signal to the digital signal, which is a combination of the binary
sequence created from the binary digits 0 and 1. An analog signal is a continuous wave, and the PCM
signal is a wave with a series of digits. Thus, we can define PCM as the modulation method that
transmits the pulses in the form of binary digits representing a code number.

What is the need for modulation?

• Size of antenna: As we know that the size of the antenna is

inversely proportional to the frequency of the radiated signal and
antenna size must be 1/10th of the wavelength. If the frequency
signals are more than 5KHz in that case it is quite impossible to
set up an antenna of that size. So, by using the modulation
technique the size of the antenna is reduced.
• Wireless communication: Modulation provides a wireless
connection to transmit the signals to a longer distance. Earlier we
 used wire systems (like the telephone) to transfer information with
the help of telephonic wires but it was not possible to spread the
wires all over the world for communication. By using the
modulation technique, the cost of wire is saved and even
information can be transferred to longer distances faster.

Advantages of modulation:

• It reduces the size of the antenna.

• It reduces the cost of wires.
• It prohibits the mixing of signals.
• It increases the range of communication.
• It improves the reception quality.
• It easily multiplexes the signals.
• It also allows the adjustment of the bandwidth.

Disadvantages of modulation:

• The cost of the equipment is higher.

• The receiver and the transmitter are very complicated.
• For better communication, the antennas for the FM system must
be kept closed.
• It is not efficient for large bandwidth.
• Power wastage takes place.

What is ADSL?
ADSL is an abbreviation for "Asymmetric Digital Subscriber line". It is a
technology that will provide quicker Internet connection speeds than
standard dial-up telephone lines. It is the technology that powers many
Internet connections throughout the world. It necessitates the use of two
modems, one at the source and one at the subscriber’s end. It sends both
phone and internet service via the same twisted pair connection.

ADSL is an asymmetric technique that offers downstream and upstream

speeds, with the downstream speed being much faster than the upstream
speed. The downstream bandwidth is enhanced by adopting this unequal
bandwidth partitioning, which eliminates crosstalk between downstream
channels of the same amplitude. Upstream signals are more prone to
interference due to their lower amplitude and the signals originating at
different distances. The distance between the user and the public carrier
central office may affect the speed, which implies the signal quality declines
as it travels.

The primary benefit of the ADSL technique is that its bandwidth is not shared
among customers. It may reach distances of up to 18000 feet. The frequency
range of an ADSL modem is 25 kHz to 1.1 MHz, and it has a maximum
downlink speed of up to 200 Mbps.

Advantages and Disadvantages of ADSL

There are various advantages and disadvantages of ADSL. Some main
advantages and disadvantages of ADSL are as follows:

Advantages

1. It is the broadband connection that has the greatest coverage and

connects most houses.
2. You can use both services without one affecting the other because it
doesn't interact with the telephone line.
3. It provides a better speed/price ratio than dialling methods, which can
only typically deliver 56 kbps while also using the phone line. ADSL can
deliver speeds of up to 4 Mbps.
4. Your privacy is protected by the independent, non-transferable nature
of the services.
5. In terms of speed and stability, fibre optic connections considerably
outperform ADSL.

Disadvantages

1. It might be costly in places where installation materials are scarce. It is

because it necessitates a high level of copper quality.
 2. It is unable to use the complete telephone line. As it has a 3km limit, it
requires more than one connection to be used.
3. ADSL technology is sensitive to interference; your speed may be slower
on occasion.
4. It is not as stable or as quick as a fibre optic connection.

What is Cable Modem?

The cable modem uses coaxial cable and works on HFC (Hybrid Fibre
Coax) and cable TV coax networks. The main con of this method is that it
shares bandwidth across users, which causes overloading. Cable modems
should be able to filter out various traffics, including DHCP traffic, local LAN
broadcasts, and ARP packets, among others.

The cable network employs a tree or branch topology. If the transmitter and
receiver are on the same network branch, all connected hosts will receive the
broadcasted upstream traffic, making the strategy exceedingly
insecure. Cable modems (IEEE 802.14) provide isochronous and immediate
access. It utilizes the FIFO transmission rule, priority, and the n-ary tree
retransmission rule to resolve collisions.

The distance between the user and the ISP has no effect on the signal
transmission rate in the cable modem. The frequency range of a cable
modem is 54-1000 MHz. It may give a maximum downlink speed of up to 1.2
Gbps, and it depends on the manufacturer and organization.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Cable Modem

There are various advantages and disadvantages of the Cable Modem. Some
main advantages and disadvantages of the Cable Modem are as follows:

Advantages

1. It provides faster internet speeds than remote access, satellite, and

DSL.
2. Cable modems accelerate the downloading and uploading of huge
files.
 3. Cable modems improve online gaming experiences for gamers.
4. Cable modems do not lose connections.
5. Access to the internet is available from any location. Furthermore, it is
a dial-up connection, so the internet is available 24/7. If you have to
make or receive calls on your landline, you have to disconnect from the
internet.

Disadvantages

1. You have to pay expensive monthly, quarterly, or yearly fees to use a

cable modem connection.
2. Cable modem connections are not available in all places.
3. Internet speeds are slower than those of fibre optic internet. The
quantity of connections to the same internet line in your location also
has an impact on speed. Additionally, a lot of people utilize the Internet
at once, which could slow things down.

The head-to-head comparisons between ADSL and Cable Modem. The main
differences between ADSL and Cable Modem are as follows:

Features ADSL Cable Modem

Full Forms ADSL is an abbreviation It has no full form.

for Asymmetric Digital
Subscriber line.

Cables It utilizes twisted pair It utilizes the coaxial cable.

cables.

Speed It offers a maximum It offers a maximum speed of 1.2

speed of 200 Mbps. Gbps.

Security It offers high security. It doesn't offer any security.

Reliability It is more reliable than a It is less reliable than an ADSL

cable modem. modem.
Additional Users may utilize the ISP It doesn't offer any option.
Options in an ADSL modem.

Frequency The frequency range It provides a frequency range of

Range offered by an ADSL 54 to 1000 MHz.
modem is 25 KHz to 1.1
MHz.