Noakhali Science and Technology University

Department of ACCE
Course Title: Physics.
Course code:1104.

Name of the assignment:

1. Magnetism, Magnetic and Magnetic Materials.
2. Hall effect.
3. Lorentz Force and Torque Generation in DC Motors.
4. Dielectric Materials.
5. Coulomb’s Law ,Gauss Law.
6. Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law.

Submitted by : Submitted to:

Name:Arnab Prashad nath. Subrata Bhowmik.
Roll:ASH2204029M. Year-1. Term-1. (Assistant Professor )
Department of Applied Chemistry &
Chemical Engineering.
Department of EEE.
 TOPIC : 1
Magnets, Magnetism, and Magnetic Materials
Magnet
A material or object that produces a magnetic field that can affect materials
around it is called magnet.A magnet attracts magnetic materials like iron. Permanent
magnets always have a magnetic field.Magnets are used in magnetic compass, door
bells, refrigerators. Magnets are also used in dynamos, motors, loudspeakers,
microphones etc.

TYPES OF MAGNETS

 Permanent magnet

 Temporary magnet

 Electromagnets

PERMANENT MAGNET

 Permanent magnets are artificial magnets that retain their magnetic property even
in the absence of an external magnetic field.
 Permanent magnets are made from special alloys such as iron, nickel and cobalt,
several alloys of rare-earth metals and minerals such as lodestone.
 There are four types of permanent magnet,
i. Ceramic or ferrite
ii. Alnico
iii. Samarium Cobalt (SmCo)
iv. Neodymium Iron Boron (NIB)

TEMPORARY MAGNATE
 Temporary magnets are made of soft metals that are magnetised only when they are
exposed to a permanent magnetic field or an electric current.Paperclips, iron nails,
and other similar things are examples of temporary magnets.

ELECTROMAGNETS

It’s a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric current.
Electromagnets are made of coils of wire with electricity passing through them.
Moving charges create magnetic fields, so when the coils of wire in an electromagnet
have an electric current passing through them, the coils behave like a magnet.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGNET

 Attractive property: This property proves that the magnetic strength at the
ends of the poles is strong.
 Directive property: This property helps to understand which pole of the
magnet is north and south by suspending the magnet in mid-air.
 Law of magnetic poles: Like poles repel while unlike poles attract.
 Pair property: When a magnet is cut into two pieces, both the pieces will
have the North Pole and the South Pole.
 Sure test of magnetization: This test is conducted to check if a given rod is
magnetized or not by checking either the attraction or the repulsion of the
iron rod and magnet.

 In vector calculus, divergence is a vector operator that operates on a vector field,

producing a scalar field giving the quantity of the vector field's source at each point.
 We can write this in a simplified notation using a scalar product with the ∇ vector
differential operator: div a = ( ˆı ∂ ∂x + ˆ ∂ ∂y + k ∂ ∂z ) · a = ∇ · a (5.17) Notice that
the divergence of a vector field is a scalar field.
 If the vector field is increasing in magnitude as you move along the flow of a vector
field, then the divergence is positive. If the vector field is decreasing in magnitude as
you move along the flow of a vector field, then the divergence is negative.

MAGNETIC POLES
 Magnetic poles are regions on a magnet where the magnetic force is concentrated.
There are two types of magnetic poles: the north pole and the south pole. These
poles have distinct characteristics and behaviors.The north pole of a magnet is
attracted to the south pole of another magnet, while like poles (north to north or
south to south) repel each other. This behavior is known as the law of magnetic
poles. It's important to note that magnetic poles are always found in pairs. This
means that if you were to cut a magnet in half, you would not be able to separate
the north pole from the south pole. Instead, you would create two smaller magnets,
each with its own north and south pole.Magnetic poles are essential in
understanding the behavior of magnets and their interactions with other magnetic
materials. They play a crucial role in various applications, such as electric motors,
generators, compasses, and magnetic storage devices.

DEFINITION OF MAGNETIC FIELDS

 Magnetic Field is the region around a magnetic material or a moving electric charge
within which the force of magnetism acts
 A magnetic field is a vector field in the neighbourhood of a magnet, electric current
or changing electric field in which magnetic forces are observable.

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE MAGNETIC FIELDS

 Firstly we have to hold pairs of magnets and feel the forces between them,
repulsions as well as attractions.
 Secondly we need to use the magnets to try to attract nails and other materials.
Some of them cannot be attracted by a magnet.
 Thirdly we have to place a magnet underneath a piece of paper and scatter iron
filings on top to reveal a magnetic field pattern. The purpose of the sheet of paper is
to prevent direct contact between magnets and filings, since they can be hard to
separate. We have to tap the paper gently to ensure the filings do not stick together.
 After that we need to place compass needles tip-to-tail near to a magnet. Record
their orientations, to plot the magnet's field as continuous field lines.
 At last we have to suspend a bar magnet and show it aligns roughly North and South.
The pole which points north is the "North-seeking pole" of the magnet.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGNETIC FIELD LINES

 Magnetic field lines appear to emerge or start from the north pole and merge
or terminate at the south pole.
  Inside the magnet, the direction of the magnetic field lines is from the south
pole to the north pole.
 Magnetic field lines never intersect with each other. Magnetic field lines form
a closed-loop.

AMPERE’S RIGHT-HAND GRIP RULE

The magnetic field encircles the wire in the direction defined by the right-hand rule. We
have to point our thumb in the direction of the current in the wire and curl our fingers. Then
the direction our fingers curl is the direction the magnetic points as it curls around the wire.

FLUX DISTRIBUTION OF A CURRENT- CARRYING COIL

AMPERE’S RIGHT-HAND GRIP RULE FOR SOLINOID

An electric current passes through a solenoid, resulting in a magnetic field. When wrapping
the right hand around the solenoid with the fingers in the direction of the conventional
current, the thumb points in the direction of the magnetic north pole. An electric current
passes through a straight wire.

ELECTROMAGNET
If we hold out our right hand with our thumbs tucked in and our thumb pointing upwards,
then the thumb is equal to the direction of current. The fingers are equal to the magnetic
field direction.

FLUX DENSITY

Flux Density ,

B= Φ/A

Flux Area=A

Φ=flux

PERMEABILITY

The quality or state of being permeable. The property of a magnetizable substance that
determines the degree in which it modifies the magnetic flux in the region occupied by it in
a magnetic field.Materials with these very high µ are referred to as ferromagnetic.Magnetic
materials, such as iron, nickel, steel, cobalt, and alloys of these metals, have µ hundreds and
even thousands of times that of free space

RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

Relative permeability is the ratio of permeability of the substance to absolute

permeability. The ratio of permeability of a substance to the permeability of the
vacuum is known as relative permeability.

The formula is,

μr= μ/μm,

RELUCTANCE
 OHM’S LAW FOR MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

 The same equation can be applied for magnetic circuits. For magnetic circuits, the
effect desired is the flux
 The cause is the magnetomotive force , which is the external force required to set
up the magnetic flux lines within the magnetic material. The opposition to the setting
up of the flux is the reluctance Substituting, we have
Φ=(m.m.f)/S

MAGNETIZING FORCE

The force exerted by a magnet which is determined by the sum of all lines of magnetic flux
present in a magnetic field.

H=Magnetizing force

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
 Diamagnetic materials are those that some people generally think of as non-
magnetic, and include water, wood, most organic compounds such as petroleum and
some plastics, and many metals including copper, particularly the heavy ones with
many core electrons, such as mercury, gold and bismuth

PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS

Paramagnetic materials are materials that tend to get weakly magnetized in the
direction of the magnetizing field when placed in a magnetic field. Paramagnetic
materials have a permanent dipole moment or permanent magnetic moment.
However, if we remove the applied field, the materials tend to lose their magnetism.

FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

 Ferromagnetic substances are those materials which get strongly magnetised when
placed in an external magnetic field. They have a strong inclination to move from a
region of weak magnetic field to strong magnetic field, ferromagnetic materials are
strongly attracted towards a magnet

MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT

A magnetic dipole is a pair of magnetic poles as the dimensions of source are

reduced to zero keeping the magnetic moment constant.A magnetic dipole is a
magnetic north pole and a magnetic south pole separated by a small distance.
Magnetic dipole moments have dimensions of current times area or energy divided
by magnetic flux density

PICTORIAL EXPLANATION OF MAGNETIC DIPOLE

MOMENT
 HOW DOES AN ATOM BEHAVE AS A MAGNETIC DIPOLE?

 The electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in a closed orbit.

 The electrons revolve in anticlockwise while the current revolves in the clockwise
direction. This movement of electrons creates a south pole and north pole resulting
in atom’s behavior as a magnetic dipole.

 The direction of the magnetic dipole moment is perpendicular to the plane of the
current loop.

B-H CURVE AND HYSTERESIS LOSS

APPLICATION OF FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

 Permanent magnets: Ferromagnetic materials make permanent magnets because

their magnetisation lasts longer

 Transformer core: The material must also have intense magnetic induction to make
the transformer core and inductor subject to rapid cyclic changes. The material body
should have high permeability to show a high value of magnetic induction, and it
 must also have low hysteresis loss to decrease energy losses. Ferromagnetic
materials are popular to achieve this goal

 Magnetic strips and memory: The magnetisation of a magnet depends not only on
the field but also on the cycle. Therefore, the magnetisation value of the sample is a
record of the cycles it has undergone. Accordingly, such a machine will act as a
memory unit

 They are used as flux multipliers to expand the core of electromagnetic machines

 Preservations of either data (magnetic recording) or energy (magnets)

 Used to store non-volatile data on hard drives, tapes, and more.

 Used in information processing by collaborating with electric light and magnetic

influence power supply

WHAT IS A HYSTERESIS LOOP?

 Hysteresis is the process of demagnetizing a substance by reversing the direction of

the current.
 It is the loop is formed by continuously monitoring the magnetic flux released by the
ferromagnetic substance as the external magnetizing field is altered.

EFFECT OF AN EXTERNAL MAGNETIC FIELD

 Magnetic Alignment: The magnetic domains within the material align themselves
with the external magnetic field. This causes the material to become magnetized and
exhibit its own magnetic field, either reinforcing or opposing the external field
 Magnetic Attraction/Repulsion: If the external magnetic field is strong enough, it can
attract or repel the magnetic material depending on the orientation of the poles.
Like poles (e.g., north to north) repel each other, while opposite poles (e.g., north to
south) attract each other.
 Magnetic Induction: An external magnetic field can induce magnetism in a non-
magnetic material. This effect is known as magnetic induction. When a non-magnetic
material, such as a piece of iron, is placed in a magnetic field, it can become
temporarily magnetized. Once the external field is removed, the material loses its
magnetism.
 Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction: A changing magnetic field can induce
an electric current in a conductor. This principle, known as Faraday's Law, forms the
basis for various electrical devices, such as generators and transformers. The
changing magnetic field induces an electric field, which in turn drives the flow of
 electrons.These are just a few examples of the effects of an external magnetic field.
The behavior of magnetic materials in different magnetic fields can be quite complex
and depends on factors such as the strength and direction of the field, the properties
of the material, and the geometry of the setup

PROPERTIES OF FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

The atoms of ferromagnetic substances have permanent dipole moments present in

domains.Atomic dipoles in ferromagnetic substances are oriented in the same
direction as the external magnetic field.The magnetic dipole moment is large and is
in the direction of the magnetising field.

AN EXAMPLE OF A HYSTERESIS LOOP

An example hysteresis loop is shown below. The loop is generated by measuring the
magnetic flux B of a ferromagnetic material while the magnetizing force H is changed. A
ferromagnetic material that has never been previously magnetized or has been thoroughly
demagnetized will follow the dashed line as H is increased.

EXPLANATION OF B-H CURVE

On application of a magnetic field on a ferromagnetic material . It shows a non linear

rise Flux Density lags behind the applied external field called as HYSTERESIS ,plotted
along Y-axis.The material reached saturation as all the domains align parallel to the
applied field.
 On removing the applied field ,H=0. Some of the domains retain the alignment
resulting in residual magnetism. This loss of retracibility results as the hysteresis loop
as shown.
The residual magnetic field is called as retentivity, which arises as many of the
domains retain their alignment along the direction of the external field that was
applied.its value is given by the Y- intercept.Now a external magnetic field is applied
in opposite direction so that the residual magnetism gets reduced to zero.This value
of the field is called as Coercitivity. This term specifies the hardness or softness of
the material towards magnetization. Hard .Mateials like steel have high value while
Soft materials like soft iron have low value of corecitivityThe applied magnetic field
strength is further increased in the reverse direction till again saturation is reached
by the alignment of all the domains along the direction of the applied magnetic field
H.The process of reducing the applied field to zero is followed and again the applied
field is increased in forward direction.The said process is repeated by constantly
changing the direction of the applied magnetic field by changing the direction of the
ac supply to the coil. Magnetic Hysteresis Loop or B-H Loop is obtained. The B-H loop
give us the magnetizing behavior of a given ferromagnetic material.
The above process involves loss of energy in form of heat which is proportional to
the area of the B-H Loop.Greater the area better magnetism produced and vice versa

PRIMARY MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF A MATERIAL

 Intensity of magnetization :The electrons circulating around the nucleus have a

magnetic moment. When the material is not magnetised the magnetic dipole
moment sum up to zero. When the material is kept in an external magnetic field, the
magnetic moments are aligned in a particular direction and the material gets a net
non-zero dipole moment. The net dipole moment per unit volume is defined as
magnetization or intensity of magnetization
 Magnetic Field (H) or Magnetic intensity: The magnetic field produced only by the
electric current flowing in a solenoid is called the magnetic intensity. It is the
external magnetic field that induces magnetic property in a material.
 Magnetic susceptibility: When a material is placed in an external magnetic field, the
material gets magnetised. For a small magnetising field, the intensity of
magnetisation (I) acquired by the material is directly proportional to the magnetic
field (H).

I∝H
 Retentivity: The ability of a material to retain or resist magnetization is called
retentivity
 Coercivity: The coercivity of a material is the ability to withstand the external
magnetic field without becoming demagnetised.
 HYSTERESIS LOSS

The work done by the magnetising force against the internal friction of the molecules of the
magnet, produces heat. This energy which is wasted in the form of heat due to hysteresis is
called Hysteresis Loss.

The hysteresis loss instead is the energy entrapped in magnetic materials exposed to a
magnetic field in the form of residual magnetization—a typical behavior of FM materials—
which is then lost as heat during the demagnetization step.

AN EXAMPLE OF HYSTERESIS LOSS

 Hysteresis loss in a transformer occurs due to magnetization saturation in the

core of the transformer.

 Magnetic materials in the core will eventually become magnetically saturated

when they are placed in a strong magnetic field, such as the magnetic field
generated by an AC current.

 To prevent distortion, transformers that are used for power electronics should
be chosen so that they do not strongly saturate at the input magnetic flux
value.

 The area of the hysteresis loop shows the energy required to complete a full
cycle of magnetizing and de-magnetizing, and the area of the loop represents
the energy lost during this process

MINIMIZATION OF HYSTERESIS LOSS

 Hysteresis losses can be reduced by using material that has less area of the
hysteresis loop.
 Hence, silica steel or CRGO steel can be used for designing the core within a
transformer because it has extremely less area of the hysteresis loop

SIGNIFICANCE OF HYSTERESIS LOOPS

 The loss of hysteresis is shown by a decreased area of the hysteresis loop. The
relevance of retentivity and coercivity is provided by the hysteresis loop to a
material. As a result, the heart of machines makes it easier to choose the correct
material for making a permanent magnet

CURIE TEMPERATURE

 Curie temperature would be the temperature at which certain materials probably

lose their persistent magnetic characteristics. Curie point is another name for it.
 Around Curie temperature, a ferromagnetic material transforms into a paramagnetic
substance. The temperature where such magnetic materials lose their ferromagnetic
characteristics is known as the Curie temperature.
 Magnetic dipoles are coordinated at lower temperatures. Random thermal
movements produce dipole misalignment well above curie temperature.
 TOPIC : 2
HALL EFFECT
Hall effect is a effect that is perpendicular to the current. The Hall effect
was discovered by Edwin Herbert Hall in 1879. In this article, let us learn
about the Hall effect in detail. Hall effect is a process in which a
transverse electric field is developed in a solid material when the
material carrying an electric current is placed in a magnetic field

Principle of Hall effect:

 The principle of the Hall effect states that when a current-
carrying conductor or a semiconductor is introduced to a
perpendicular magnetic field, a voltage can be measured at
the right angle to the current path. This effect of obtaining a
measurable voltage is known as the Hall effect.

Theory:
The Hall effect is seen with the current stream in a conductor, most generally
in a semiconductor, that has an imposed orthogonal magnetic field, which
makes a mutually orthogonal potential proportional to the current and
magnetic field; consider maybe the electron stream is pushed aside.

It is usually executed in an integrated circuit to gauge a magnetic field (Gauss

meter), or the close-by current flow which is producing a magnetic field .
  For detecting wheel speed and accordingly assist the anti-lock
braking system.

Hall Effect Principle:

Hall Voltage is represented by V H. The mathematical Expression for Hall voltage
is:-

I – Current flowing through the Sensor

B – Magnetic Field Strength

q – Charge

n – number of charge carriers per unit volume

d – Thickness of the Sensor

Hall Coefficient:
1.It is represented by RH. Mathematical expression for Hall
Coefficient (RH) is 1/(qn). The Hall Coefficient (RH) is positive
if the number of positive charge Holes are more than the
number of negative charge Electrons. Similarly, The Hall
Coefficient (RH) is negative if the number of negative charge
Electrons are more than the number of positive charge Holes.
2.The electric force on a mobile charge is, F e = qE. This force acts in
opposition to the magnetic force. In a steady-state, F e = Fm and VH =

E/

3.Suppose that the thickness of the conducting material is d, and that

it contains n mobile charge carriers per unit volume. It follows that
the total current flowing through the material can be written as :

Applications of Hall Effect:

Hall effect principle is employed in the following cases:

 Magnetic field sensing equipment

 For the measurement of direct current, Hall effect Tong Tester is
used.
 It is used in phase angle measurement
 Proximity detectors
 Hall effect Sensors and Probes
 Linear or Angular displacement transducers.
 TOPIC-3
Gauss Law and Its Applications

Coulomb's Law
Colomb’s law states that the magnitude of the electrostatic force of attraction or
repulsion between two electrically charged bodies is directly proportional to the
product of the charge of the charged bodies and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between the center of the charged bodies.

This inverse-square relationship is why the law is also referred to as Coulomb’s

inverse-square law.
This concept can be confusing when first introduced. Looking at the formula for
Coulomb’s Law below can help you visualize the relationship between charge and
distance, and how this influences the electrostatic force (electrostatic force is the
electric force between charged bodies at rest. This is also known as the Coulomb
force).

Where,

1. ‘F’ is the repulsion or attraction force between two charged objects.

 2. ‘Q1’ and ‘Q2’ are the electrical charged of the objects.
3. ‘d’ is distance between center of the two charged objects.
4. ‘k’ is a constant that depends on the medium in which charged
objects are placed. In S.I. system, as well as in M.K.S. system k=1/4π
εoεr. Hence, the above equation becomes.

Gauss’s Law
# Gauss’s law is a general law in physics that gives a relationship between charges
enclosed inside a closed surface to the total electric flux passing through the
surface. The charges can be present in the air as point charges, inside a solid
conductor, or on the surface of a hollow conductor. s per the Gauss theorem, the
total charge enclosed in a closed surface is proportional to the total flux enclosed by
the surface. Therefore, if ϕ is total flux and ϵ0 is electric constant, the total electric
charge Q enclosed by the surface is

Q = ϕ ϵ0

The Gauss law formula is expressed by

ϕ = Q/ϵ0

Where,

Q = Total charge within the given surface

ε0 = The electric constant

Φ = → E.d → A = qnet/ε0..

In simple words, the Gauss theorem relates the ‘flow’ of electric field lines (flux) to
the charges within the enclosed surface. If no charges are enclosed by a surface,
then the net electric flux remains zero.

This means that the number of electric field lines entering the surface equals the field
lines leaving the surface.
 Measurement of Electric Flux
The concept of flux describes how much of something goes

through a given area. More formally, it is the dot product of a vector

field (in this chapter, the electric field) with an area. You may

conceptualize the flux of an electric field as a measure of the

number of electric field lines passing through an area.

Electric Flux Formula

The total number of electric field lines passing a given area in a unit of time is
defined as the electric flux. Similar to the example above, if the plane is normal to the
flow of the electric field, the total flux is given as:
 TOPIC :4
Lorentz Force and Torque Generation in DC
Motors
Lorentz Force

Lorentz Force law is defined as the combined force experienced by a point charge due to
both electric and magnetic fields. According to the Lorentz force definition, the Lorentz
forces are the forces on moving charges due to the electromagnetic fields. The Lorentz force
equation is given by small derivation.

Consider a charge q moving with velocity v and it is moving in the existence of both electric
and magnetic fields. The force due to the electric field is given by = F{E} = Qe.

The force due to the magnetic field is given by =

F{B} = q(v х B)

Short Notes on Electromagnetic Field

The electromagnetic force is a type of physical interaction that occurs between

electrically charged particles. It acts between charged particles and is the
combination of all magnetic and electrical forces. The electromagnetic force can be
attractive or repulsive.

Before the invention of electromagnetism, people or scientists used to

think electricity and magnetism are two different topics. The view has changed after
James Clerk Maxwell published A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism in the year
1873. The publication states that the interaction of positive and negative charges are
mediated by one force. This observation laid a foundation for Electromagnetism.
Later many scientists like Michael Faraday, Oliver Heaviside, and Heinrich Hertz
contributed their ideas in electromagnetism.

Left Hand Rule

Fleming’s left-hand rule tells us that if we stretch our thumb, middle finger and the index
finger of our left hand in mutually perpendicular (make an angle of 90 degrees)
directions to each other, we can see the relation between directions of force (F), current
(I), and magnetic field (B)..
Fleming’s left hand thumb rule states that “if the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger
are stretched to be perpendicular to each other such that the forefinger is stretched in
the direction of the magnetic field, the middle finger is stretched in the direction of the
current,

Thumb: The thumb indicates the direction of Thrust (or force) on the conductor.
Forefinger: The forefinger indicates the direction of the Magnetic Field.
Center(Middle) finger: The centre finger indicates the direction of the current

Force Between Parallel Current-Carrying

Conductors

 We have learned about the existence of a magnetic field due to a current-

carrying conductor and the Biot – Savart’s law.
 We have also learned that an external magnetic field exerts a force on a
current-carrying conductor and the Lorentz force formula that governs this
principle.
 Thus, from the two studies, we can say that any two current carrying
conductors when placed near each other, will exert a magnetic force on each
other. In this section, we will learn about this case in further details.
Consider the system shown in the figure above. Here, we have two parallel current
carrying conductor, separated by a distance ‘d’, such that one of the conductors is
carrying a current I1 and the other is carrying I2, as shown in the figure. From the
knowledge gained before, we can say that the conductor 2 experiences the
same magnetic field at every point along its length due to the conductor 1. The
direction of magnetic force is indicated in the figure and is found using the right-hand
thumb rule. The direction of the magnetic field, as we can see, is downwards due to
the first conductor.

Generation of Torque in DC Motors

When a DC machine is loaded either as a motor or as a generator, the rotor
conductors carry current. These conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air gap.
Thus each conductor experiences a force. The conductors lie near the surface of the
rotor at a common radius from its center. Hence torque is produced at the
circumference of the rotor and rotor starts rotating. The term torque as best
explained by Dr. Huge d Young is the quantitative measure of the tendency of a
force to cause a rotational motion, or to bring about a change in rotational motion. It
is in fact the moment of a force that produces or changes a rotational motion.

Commutator
Commutators are used in DC machines (DC motors and DC generators) universal
motors.

 In a motor, a commutator applies an electric current to the windings. A steady

rotating torque is produced by reversing the current direction in the rotating
windings each half turn.
 In a generator, the commutator reverses the current direction with each turn
serving as a mechanical rectifier to convert the alternating current from the
windings to unidirectional direct current in the external load circuit.

Construction of a Commutator

A commutator is built with a set of contact bars and is set into the revolving shaft of a
DC machine allied to the armature winding. The commutator reverses the current
flow within a winding when the shaft turns. Once the shaft completes a half-turn, the
windings are connected so that current supplies through it in the reverse of the first
direction.

In a DC motor, the magnetic field uses a rotating force or a torque over to the
winding to rotate. On the other hand, in a DC generator, mechanical torque is
applied in the direction of the shaft to maintain the armature winding motion. In both
cases, commutators reverse the direction of current flow throughout the winding. The
flow of current within the circuit that is external to the machine is in a single direction.
 Electric Feild
Electric field is an property associated with each point in space when charge is
present in any form. The magnitude and direction of the electric field are expressed
by the value of E, called electric field strength or electric field intensity or simply the
electric field. Knowledge of the value of the electric field at a point, without any
specific knowledge of what produced the field, is all that is needed to determine what
will happen to electric charges close to the field.

Magnetic Field
Magnetic field is a vector field in the neighbourhood of a magnet, electric current, or
changing electric field, in which magnetic forces are observable. Magnetic fields such
as that of Earth cause magnetic compass needles and other permanent magnets to
line up in the direction of the field. Magnetic fields force moving electrically charged
particles in a circular or helical path. This force—exerted on electric currents in wires
in a magnetic field—underlies the operation of electric motors. (For more
information about magnetic fields, see magnetism.

Eddy Current
According to Lenz’s law, a conducting loop when subjected to varying magnetic
field gets an emf induced into it causing flow of current in a direction opposing the
change causing it. The case goes similar to when instead of a conducting closed loop,
the change in magnetic field through a conducting body, say a filament or a slab of
magnetic material or non-magnetic material, causes currents to flow into its cross
sections at appropriate closed paths.
These currents are given the name eddy currents after the water eddies that are
small swirling whirlpools observed in lakes and oceans. These eddy current loops
can be both beneficial and undesirable.
While they cause undesirable high heat losses in the material such as transformer
core, eddy currents find applications in various industrial processes like induction
heating, metallurgy, braking etc. This article deals with the theory and applications
of eddy current phenomenon.

Minimization of Eddy Current Loss

Eddy currents are setup in any metallic block which is in the vicinity of changing
magnetic fluxes. These primarily cause heat losses, and in certain cases causes
damping of the relative motion between the metallic block (where the currents are
induced) and the magnet producing the field.To reduce these effects, we use two
strategies:-

1. Laminating the metallic core, that is to be in the vicinity of changing magnetic flux.
2. By drawing teeth along the piece of metal.
 TOPIC: 5
Dielectric Materials
Every material is made up of atoms. Atoms contain both negatively and positively
charged particles. The central nucleus of the atom is positively charged. In any
material, the atoms are arranged as dipoles represented with a positive and negative
charge on its end. When these materials are subjected to electric field dipole
moment takes place.

In Dielectric materials, when subjected to the electric field the positive charges
present in the material gets displaced in the direction of the applied electric field. The
negative charges are shifted in the direction opposite to the applied electric field.
This leads to Dielectric polarization. In dielectric material, electric charges do not flow
through the material. Polarization reduces the overall field of the dielectric .For
example :Ceramics ,Minerals ,N2 and H2.

Polarization
When we apply an external electric field to a dielectric material, we get the Dielectric
Polarization. It is the displacement of charges (positive and negative) upon applying an electric
field. The main task of the dielectric polarization is to relate macroscopic properties to
microscopic properties.

Polarization occurs through the action of an electric field or other external factors, such as
mechanical stress, as in the case of piezoelectric crystals. Piezoelectric crystals are those solid
materials which accumulate electric charge within them. The alignment of the dipole
moments of the permanent or induced dipoles with the direction of the applied
electric field is called polarization.
 Dielectric Constant
When we put a dielectric slab in between two plates of a parallel plate capacitor, the ratio of the
applied electric field strength to the strength of the reduced value of electric field capacitor is
called the dielectric constant. It is given as-

K = Eo/E

E0 is greater than or equal to E, where Eo is the field with the slab and E is the field without it.
The larger the dielectric constant, the more charge can be stored. Completely filling the space
between capacitor plates with a dielectric, increases the capacitance by a factor of the dielectric
constant:

C = KCo,

where Co is the capacitance with no slab between the plates. This is all about a quick recap. Now

let us move ahead and see what effect dielectrics have on the capacitance.

Permittivity
Permittivity is the property of every material, which measures the opposition offered
against the formation of an electric field. It is represented by the Greek alphabet ϵ. It
tells the number of charges required to generate one unit of electric flux in the given
medium.

Capacitor and Capacitance

Capacitors are also known as Electric-condensers. A capacitor is a two-terminal electric
component. It has the ability or capacity to store energy in the form of electric charge. Capacitors
are usually designed to enhance and increase the effect of capacitance. Therefore, they take into
account properties like size and shape. The storing capacity of capacitance may vary from small
storage to high.

Capacitance is the ability of a component or circuit to collect and

store energy in the form of an electrical charge.

Capacitors are energy-storing devices available in many sizes and

shapes. They consist of two plates of conducting material (usually a
thin metal) sandwiched between an insulator made of ceramic, film,
glass or other materials, even air.The insulator is also known as
 a dielectric, and it boosts a capacitor's charging capacity.
Capacitors are sometimes called condensers in the automotive,
marine and aviation industries.The internal plates are wired to two
external terminals, which sometimes are long and thin and can
resemble tiny metallic antennae or legs. These terminals can be
plugged into a circuit.

Effect of Dielectric on Capacitance

We usually place dielectrics between the two plates of parallel plate capacitors. They can fully
or partially occupy the region between the plates. When we place the dielectric between the two
plates of a parallel plate capacitor, the electric field polarises it.The surface charge densities are
σp and – σp. When we place the dielectric fully between the two plates of a capacitor, then it’s
dielectric constant increases from its.

Ways to Increase Capacitance

There are few ways to increase capacitance;
》 increase relative plate area

》decrease plate distance

》increase dielectric constant

I have assumed for clarity that each one is applied keeping the
others constant, but nothing forbids to apply all three at the same
time.
As examples, variable tunning capacitors use the first approach.
Electrolytic capacitors use the second one, and ceramic capacitors
use the third one. There are many options in between.

Some Characteristics of Capacitors

There are a bewildering array of capacitor characteristics and specifications
associated with the humble capacitor and reading the information printed onto the
body of a capacitor can sometimes be difficult to understand especially when colours
or numeric codes are used.
Each family or type of capacitor uses its own unique set of capacitor characteristics
and identification system with some systems being easy to understand, and others
that use misleading letters, colours or symbols.
The best way to figure out which capacitor characteristics the label means is to first
figure out what type of family the capacitor belongs to whether it is ceramic, film,
plastic or electrolytic and from that it may be easier to identify the particular capacitor
characteristics.
Even though two capacitors may have exactly the same capacitance value, they may
have different voltage ratings. If a smaller rated voltage capacitor is substituted in
place of a higher rated voltage capacitor, the increased voltage may damage the
smaller capacitor.
Also we remember from the last tutorial that with a polarised electrolytic capacitor,
the positive lead must go to the positive connection and the negative lead to the
negative connection otherwise it may again become damaged. So it is always better
to substitute an old or damaged capacitor with the same type as the specified
one.

Dielectric Breakdown
Dielectric breakdown is typically accompanied by “arcing,” which is a sudden flow of
current associated with the breakdown. A well known example of this phenomenon
is lightning, which occurs when charge is exchanged between sky and ground when
air (a dielectric) exhibits breakdown. Dielectric breakdown in solids typically
damages the material.

Displacement Current
Conduction Current and Displacement
Current
In a capacitor, we always have a Displacement Current and never a Conduction
Current under normal conditions i.e. when we apply a potential difference across a
Capacitor which is below its specified maximum Voltage.
Conduction Currents flow when electrons actually move. But in Displacement
Current, no charge carriers are involved. It’s just the variations in the electric field,
which are imagined to be equivalent to a current.

Capacitor contains an insulating material called dielectric sandwiched between two

conductors. Since insulators can carry only an electric field but not moving carriers,
therefore normally Capacitor has Displacement Current.
However, if we apply a huge voltage across a Capacitor, it behaves differently.
Under sufficiently large potential differences, many insulators stop insulating i.e. they
conduct electricity. So if we apply a large voltage beyond the specified limit, the
dielectric behaves as a conductor. So we get conduction current in the capacitor.
This happens just like a lightning strike, when the potential difference between the
clouds and the earth becomes so large, that the atmosphere is forced to conduct and
the electric flash strikes the ground. This is called breaking down of a capacitor.
When a capacitor breaks down, it no longer carries displacement current. Because
it’s now a conductor! So, just like any other conductor, the electric field inside it is
zero, and so is the displacement current.

Maxwell’s Equations

Maxwell derived a set of four equations that formed the very base of electric circuits. His
equations explain the working of static electricity, electric current, Power
generation, electric motor, lenses, radio technology etc. From Maxwell’s equations, it can be
concluded that in an electromagnetic wave, the electric and magnetic fields
are perpendicular to each other and also to the direction of propagation.

Maxwell's Equations:
∮E.dA=ϵ0Q Gauss Law for electricity
Gauss Law for
∮B.dA=0
magnetism
∮E.dl= −dtdΦB Faraday's Law
∮B.dl= μ0ic+μ0ϵ0
Ampere-Maxwell Law
dtdΦE
 TOPIC:6

Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law

Faraday’s Law
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, also known as Faraday’s law, is the
basic law of electromagnetism which helps us predict how a magnetic field would
interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF). This
phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction.

Michael Faraday proposed the laws of electromagnetic induction in the year 1831.
Faraday’s law or the law of electromagnetic induction is the observation or results of
the experiments conducted by Faraday. He performed three main experiments to
discover the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.

Faraday’s Law Derivation:

Consider a magnet approaching a coil.

Consider two-time instances T1 and T2.

Flux linkage with the coil at the time T1 is given by NΦ1.

Flux linkage with the coil at the time T2 is given by NΦ2

Change in the flux linkage is given by

N(Φ2 – Φ1)

Let us consider this change in flux linkage as

Φ = Φ2 – Φ1

Hence, the change in flux linkage is given by

NΦ

The rate of change of flux linkage is given by

NΦ/t

Taking the derivative of the above equation, we get

N dΦ/dt

From the above equation, we can conclude the following:

 Increase in the number of turns in the coil increases the induced emf
 Increasing the magnetic field strength increases the induced emf
 Increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil and the magnet, results in
the increased emf

Lenz’s Law
The induced electromotive force with different polarities induces a current whose
magnetic field opposes the change in magnetic flux through the loop in order to
ensure that the original flux is maintained through the loop when current flows in it.

An example Lenz’s law:

In a copper or aluminum pipe, there is the presence of large magnetic fields
that cause counter-rotating currents. Dropping the magnet through the pipe
demonstrates this particular phenomenon. When the magnet is being dropped
within the pipe it tends to descend at a rate that is lower than when it is
dropped outside the pipe. Here there is a current induced which can be
determined using the right-hand rule.

Lenz’s law and the Law of Conservation of

Energy:
Lenz’s law is based on the law of conservation of energy. From the
definition of Lenz’s law, we know that the induced current is always
opposed by the cause that produces it. Therefore, there is extra work
done against the opposing force. The work done against the opposing
force results in the change in the magnetic flux and hence the current is
induced. The extra work done is known as electrical energy, and hence
the law of conservation of energy is satisfied.When the magnet is moved
away from the coil, the coil’s nearer face obtains south polarity. In this instance,
the produced emf will oppose the magnet’s outward motion.To resist the force
of attraction between the North Pole of the magnet and the South Pole of the
mechanical labor must be done once more. This labor is transformed into
electrical energy.There is no mechanical work done if the magnet is not moved,
hence no emf is induced in the coil ,As a result, Lenz’s Law is consistent with
the law of conservation of energy.

Generating Action:
AC Generator:
AC generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
The AC Generator’s input supply is mechanical energy supplied by steam turbines,
gas turbines and combustion engines. The output is alternating electrical power in
the form of alternating voltage and current.

AC generators work on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,

which states that electromotive force – EMF or voltage – is generated in a current-
carrying conductor that cuts a uniform magnetic field. This can either be achieved by
rotating a conducting coil in a static magnetic field or rotating the magnetic field
containing the stationary conductor.

DC Generator:
A DC generator is an electrical machine whose main function is to convert
mechanical energy into electricity. When the conductor slashes magnetic flux, an
emf will be generated based on the electromagnetic induction principle of Faraday’s
Laws. This electromotive force can cause a flow of current when the conductor
circuit is closed.

CLOSED.
THANK YOU.