ENERGY MANAGEMENT

AND AUDIT
MODULE 2
 Energy Management Opportunities in Lighting system

• In today’s cost-competitive,
market-driven economy, everyone
is seeking technologies or methods
to reduce energy expenses and
environmental impact.

•
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Because nearly all buildings have
lights, lighting retrofits are very
common and generally offer an
attractive return on investment.

• Electricity used to operate lighting

systems represents a significant
portion of total electricity
consumed mainly in commercial
buildings as shown in the figure
• Electric lighting is a major energy consumer. Enormous energy savings are
possible using energy efficient equipment, effective controls, and careful
design.
• Using less electric lighting reduces heat gain, thus saving air-conditioning
energy and improving thermal comfort.
• Electric lighting design also strongly affects visual performance and visual
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comfort by aiming to maintain adequate and appropriate illumination while
controlling reflection and glare.
• Lighting is not just a high priority when considering hotel design; it is also
a high return, low-risk investment.
• By installing new lighting technologies, hotels can reduce the amount of
electricity consumed and energy costs associated with lighting. There are
several types of energy efficient lighting and affordable lighting
technology.
• The following are a few examples of energy-saving opportunities
with efficient lighting:
1. Installation of compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) in place of
incandescent lamps.
2. Installation of energy-efficient fluorescent lamps in place of
conventional fluorescent lamps.
3. Installation of occupancy/motion sensors to turn lights on and off
where appropriate.
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4. Use an automated device, such as a key tag system, to regulate the
electric power in a room.
5. Offer nightlights to prevent the bathroom lights from being left on
all night.
6. Replace all exit signs with light emitting diode (led) exit signs.
7. Use high efficiency (hid) exterior lighting
8. Add lighting controls such as photo sensors or time clocks
1.Installation of compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) in place of
incandescent lamps

• Compact Fluorescent Lamps use a different, more advanced technology

than incandescent light bulbs and come in a range of styles and sizes based
on brand and purpose.
• They can replace regular, incandescent bulbs in almost any light fixture
including globe lamps for the bathroom vanity, lamps for recessed lighting,

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dimming, and 3-way functionality lights.
• CFLs use about 2/3 less energy than standard incandescent bulbs,
give the same amount of light, and can last 6 to 10 times longer.
CFL prices range from $4 to $15 depending on the bulb, but you
save about $25 to $30 per bulb on energy during the lifetime of the
bulb.

• When looking to purchase CFLs in place of incandescent bulbs,

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compare the light output, or Lumens, and not the watts. Watts
refers to the amount of energy used, not the amount of light.

• In other words, if the incandescent bulb you wish to replace is 60

Watts, this is equal to 800 Lumens .To get the same amount of light
in a CFL, you should look to find a CFL that provides 800 Lumens
or more (equal to about a 13 watt fluorescent bulb).
2. Installation of energy-efficient fluorescent lamps in place of
Conventional fluorescent lamps.

• Many lodging facilities may already use fluorescent lighting in their high
traffic areas such as the lobby or office area. However, not all fluorescent
lamps are energy efficient and cost effective.
• There are several types of fluorescent lamps that vary depending on the
duration of their lamp life, energy efficiency, regulated power, and the

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quality of color it transmits.
• There are a few styles worth noting; these models are simply labeled as “T-
12”, “T- 8”, or “T-5”. The names come from the size of their diameter per
eighth inch.
• For example, a T-12 lamp is 12/8 inch in diameter (or 1 1/2 inch); a T-8
lamp is 8/8 inch in diameter (or 1 inch); a T-5 lamp is 5/8 inch in diameter.
This is a simple way to identify the type of fluorescent lamps your facility
is using.
• The recommended style of fluorescent lighting is a T-8. T-8 lights are the
most cost-effective. They usually cost about $0.99 a bulb and are 30% to

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40% more efficient than standard T-12 fluorescent lamps, which have poor
color rendition and cause eye strain.
• T-8 lamps provide more illumination, better color, and don't flicker (often
exhibited by standard fluorescent fixtures). T-5 lamps are the most energy
efficient and also tend to transmit the best color; however, they usually cost
about $5.00 per bulb.
3. Installation of occupancy/motion sensors to turn lights on and off
where appropriate.

• Lighting can be controlled by occupancy sensors to allow operation

whenever someone is within the area being scanned. When motion can no
longer be detected, the lights shut off.
• Passive infrared sensors react to changes in motion. The controller must
have an unobstructed view of the building area being scanned. Doors,

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partitions, stairways, etc. will block motion detection and reduce its
effectiveness. The best applications for passive infrared occupancy sensors
are open spaces with a clear view of the area being scanned.
• Ultrasonic sensors transmit sound above the range of human hearing and
monitor the time it takes for the sound waves to return. A break in the
pattern caused by any motion in the area triggers the control.

Ultra-sonic Sensor
Ceiling Mount
• Ultrasonic sensors can see around obstructions and are best for areas with
cabinets and shelving, restrooms, and open areas requiring 360-degree
coverage.
• Some occupancy sensors utilize both passive infrared and ultrasonic
technology, but are usually more expensive. They can be used to control
one lamp, one fixture or many fixtures. It can work in 3 modes: Time out,
sensor mode and motion sensitivity settings
• The table below provides typical savings achievable for specific building
areas, by the implementation of motion sensors.

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4. Use an automated device, such as a key tag system, to regulate
the electric power in a room.

• The key tag system uses a master switch at the entrance of each guest room, requiring
the use of a room key-card to activate them. Using this technique, only occupied
rooms consume energy because most electrical appliances are switched off when the
keycard is removed (when the guest leaves the room).

•
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Along with lighting, the heating, air conditioning, radio and television may also be
connected to the master switch. This innovation has a potential savings of about
$105.00 per room per year.
5. Offer nightlights to prevent the bathroom lights from being left
on all night

• Many guests opt to have a light on while they sleep. By turning the bathroom
light on and leaving the bathroom door cracked open, guests are able to find their
way through an unknown room in the middle of the night. Those who are
accompanied by children may often do the same to comfort their child.
• By offering a nightlight, the energy used to power a bathroom light during the
nighttime can be avoided and guests will still be able to feel comfortable in

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unfamiliar territory.

• One particular model uses six Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) in the panel of a
light switch to provide light for guests. LEDs are just tiny light bulbs that fit
easily into an electrical circuit. They are different from ordinary incandescent
bulbs because they don’t burn out or get really hot. They are often used in digital
clocks or remote controls.
 6. Replace all exit signs with light emitting diode (LED) exit signs.

• The development of light emitting diodes (LEDs) has allowed the

replacement of exit sign lighting with a more energy efficient
alternative.
• Multiple LEDs, properly configured, produce equivalent lighting and
consume 95% less electricity than incandescent bulbs and compact

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fluorescent lamps is 75% less energy-efficient than LED
• A major benefit is the 20-year life cycle rating of LEDs; they virtually
eliminate maintenance. Of the three different styles of exit signs,
incandescent signs are the least expensive, but are inefficient and use
energy releasing heat instead of light.
• Fluorescent signs are also inexpensive and have an expected life of
about 10,000 hours
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• LED exit signs are the most expensive, but are also the most efficient exit
signs available. Their payback time is usually about four years. The table
offers an easy comparison of the three models of exit signs.
7. Use high efficiency (hid) exterior lighting

• High intensity discharge (HID) lighting is much more efficient and

preferable to incandescent, quartz-halogen and most fluorescent light
fixtures.
• HID types (from least to most efficient) include mercury vapor, metal
halide and high pressure sodium. Mercury vapor is seldom used
anymore.
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• Both metal halide and high pressure sodium are excellent outdoor lighting
systems. High pressure sodium has a pink-orange glow and is used when
good color rendition isn’t critical.
• Metal halide, though less efficient, provides clean white light and good
color rendition. HID lighting is mostly utilized in floodlight, wall pack,
canopy and area fixtures outdoors. The best type for any application
depends on the area being lit and mounting options.

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8. Add lighting controls such as photo sensors or time clocks

• Photo sensor controls monitor daylight conditions and allow fixtures to

operate only when needed. Photo sensors detect the quantity of light and
send a signal to a main controller to adjust the lighting.
• Photo sensors are commonly used with outdoor lighting to automatically
turn lights on at dusk and off at dawn, a very cost-effective control device.
This helps to lower energy costs by ensuring that unnecessary lighting is
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not left on during daytime hours.
• Photo sensors can be used indoors, as well. Building areas with lots of
windows may not require lights to be on all of the time.
• Photocells can be used to ensure fixtures operate only when the natural
light is inadequate by either controlling one light fixture, or a group of
lights.
• The table below demonstrates the cost savings from day light controls.

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• Time controls save energy by reducing lighting time of use through
preprogrammed scheduling. Time clock equipment ranges from simple
devices designed to control a single electrical load to sophisticated systems
that control several lighting zones.
• They are one of the simplest, least expensive, and most efficient energy
management devices available.
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Time controls could include:
• Simple time switches: automatically turn lights, fans or other
electronic devices off after a pre-set time.
• Multi-channel time controls: have the ability to control from 4 to
16 duties.
• Special-purpose time controls: include cycle timers for repetitive
short duration cycling of equipment or outdoor lighting time
controls that combine time clock and photo sensor technologies.
 Energy Management Opportunities in Electric motors

• Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy by the interaction

between the magnetic fields set up in the stator and rotor windings.
• Industrial electric motors can be broadly classified as induction motors,
direct current motors or synchronous motors.
• All motor types have the same four operating components: stator

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(stationary windings), rotor (rotating windings), bearings, and frame

• Two important attributes relating to efficiency of electricity use by A.C.

Induction motors are efficiency (η), defined as the ratio of the mechanical
energy delivered at the rotating shaft to the electrical energy input at its
terminals, and power factor (PF).
• Motors, like other inductive loads, are characterized by power factors less
than one. As a result, the total current drawn needed to deliver the same
real power is higher than for a load characterized by a higher PF.
• An important effect of operating with a PF less than one is that resistance
losses in wiring upstream of the motor will be higher, since these are
proportional to the square of the current. Thus, both a high value for η and
a PF close to unity are desired for efficient overall operation in a plant.
• Squirrel cage motors are normally more efficient than slip-ring motors, and
higher-speed motors are normally more efficient than lower-speed motors.

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• Efficiency is also a function of motor temperature. Totally-enclosed, fan-
cooled (TEFC) motors are more efficient than screen protected, drip-proof
(SPDP) motors.
• Also, as with most equipment, motor efficiency increases with the rated
capacity. The efficiency of a motor is determined by intrinsic losses that
can be reduced only by changes in motor design. Intrinsic losses are of two
types: fixed losses - independent of motor load, and variable losses -
dependent on load.
Energy-Efficient Motors

• Energy-efficient motors (EEM) are the ones

in which, design improvements are
incorporated specifically to increase
operating efficiency over motors of
standard design (see Figure 2.3).
• Design improvements focus on reducing
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intrinsic motor losses. Improvements
include the use of lower-loss silicon steel, a
longer core (to increase active material),
thicker wires (to reduce resistance), thinner
laminations, smaller air gap between stator
and rotor, copper instead of aluminum bars
in the rotor, superior bearings and a smaller
fan, etc.
• Energy-efficient motors now available in India operate with efficiencies
that are typically 3 to 4 percentage points higher than standard motors.
• In keeping with the stipulations of the BIS, energy-efficient motors are
designed to operate without loss in efficiency at loads between 75 % and
100 % of rated capacity. This may result in major benefits in varying load
applications.
• The power factor is about the same or may be higher than for standard
motors. Furthermore, energy efficient motors have lower operating
temperatures and noise levels, greater ability to accelerate higher-inertia
loads, and are less affected by supply voltage fluctuations.
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• Measures adopted for energy efficiency to address each loss specifically is
as under:
1. Stator and Rotor I2R Losses
• These losses are major losses and typically account for 55% to 60% of the
total losses. I2R losses are heating losses resulting from current passing
through stator and rotor conductors.
• I2R losses are the function of a conductor resistance, the square of current.
Resistance of conductor is a function of conductor material, length and
cross sectional area.
• The suitable selection of copper conductor size will reduce the resistance.
Reducing the motor current is most readily accomplished by decreasing the
magnetizing component of current. This involves lowering the operating flux
density and possible shortening of air gap.
• Rotor I2R losses are a function of the rotor conductors (usually aluminum) and
the rotor slip. Utilization of copper conductors will reduce the winding
resistance. Motor operation closer to synchronous speed will also reduce rotor
I2R losses.

2. Core Losses
• Core losses are those found in the stator-rotor magnetic steel and are due to
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hysteresis effect and eddy current effect during 50 Hz magnetization of the
core material.
• These losses are independent of load and account for 20 – 25 % of the total
losses. The hysteresis losses which are a function of flux density, can be
reduced by utilizing low loss grade of silicon steel laminations. The
reduction of flux density is achieved by suitable increase in the core length
of stator and rotor.
• Eddy current losses are generated by circulating current within the core
steel laminations. These are reduced by using thinner laminations.
3. Friction and Windage Losses
• Friction and windage losses results from bearing friction, windage and
circulating air through the motor and account for 8 – 12 % of total losses.
• These losses are independent of load. The reduction in heat generated by
stator and rotor losses permit the use of smaller fan. The windage losses
also reduce with the diameter of fan.

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4. Stray Load-Losses
• These losses vary according to square of the load current and are caused by
leakage flux induced by load currents in the laminations and account for 4
to 5 % of total losses.
• These losses are reduced by careful selection of slot numbers, tooth/slot
geometry and air gap.
• Energy efficient motors cover a wide range of ratings and the full load
efficiencies are higher by 3 to 7 %. The mounting dimensions are also
maintained as per IS1231 to enable easy replacement.
• As a result of the modifications to improve performance, the costs of
energy-efficient motors are higher than those of standard motors. The
higher cost will often be paid back rapidly in saved operating costs,
particularly in new applications or end-of-life motor replacements.
• In cases where existing motors have not reached the end of their useful life,
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the economics will be less clearly positive. Because the favorable
economics of energy-efficient motors are based on savings in operating
costs, there may be certain cases which are generally economically ill-
suited to energy efficient motors.
• These include highly intermittent duty or special torque applications such
as hoists and cranes, traction drives, punch presses, machine tools, and
centrifuges.
• In addition, energy efficient designs of multi-speed motors are
generally not available. Furthermore, energy- efficient motors
are not yet available for many special applications, e.g. for
flame-proof operation in oil-field or fire pumps or for very low
speed applications (below 750 rpm).
• Also, most energy-efficient motors produced today are
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designed only for continuous duty cycle operation.
• Given the tendency of over sizing on the one hand and ground
realities like ; voltage, frequency variations, efficacy of
rewinding in case of a burnout, on the other hand, benefits of
EEM's can be achieved only by careful selection,
implementation, operation and maintenance efforts of energy
managers.
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Factors Affecting Energy Efficiency & Minimizing
Motor Losses in Operation

Power Supply Quality

• Motor performance is affected considerably by the quality of input

power, that is the actual volts and frequency available at motor
terminals vis-à-vis rated values as well as voltage and frequency

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variations and voltage unbalance across the three phases.
• Motors in India must comply with standards set by the Bureau of
Indian Standards (BIS) for tolerance to variations in input power
quality.
• The BIS standards specify that a motor should be capable of
delivering its rated output with a voltage variation of +/- 6 % and
frequency variation of +/- 3 %. Fluctuations much larger than these are
quite common in utility-supplied electricity in India. Voltage
fluctuations can have detrimental impacts on motor performance.
• Voltage unbalance, the condition where the voltages in the three
phases are not equal, can be still more detrimental to motor
performance and motor life.
• Unbalance typically occurs as a result of supplying single-phase
loads disproportionately from one of the phases. It can also result
from the use of different sizes of cables in the distribution system.
• The options that can be exercised to minimize voltage unbalance
include:
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i)Balancing any single phase loads equally among all the three
phases
ii)Segregating any single phase loads which disturb the load
balance and feed them from a separate line / transformer
• Power Factor Correction

• Induction motors are characterized by power factors less than unity,

leading to lower overall efficiency (and higher overall operating cost)
associated with a plant's electrical system.
• Capacitors connected in parallel (shunted) with the motor are typically
used to improve the power factor.
• The impacts of PF correction include reduced kVA demand (and hence

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reduced utility demand charges), reduced I2R losses in cables upstream
of the capacitor (and hence reduced energy charges), reduced voltage
drop in the cables (leading to improved voltage regulation), and an
increase in the overall efficiency of the plant electrical system.
• It should be noted that PF capacitor improves power factor from the
point of installation back to the generating side.
• It means that, if a PF capacitor is installed at the starter terminals of the
motor, it won't improve the operating PF of the motor, but the PF from
starter terminals to the power generating side will improve, i.e., the
benefits of PF would be only on upstream side.
• The size of capacitor required for a particular motor depends upon the
no-load reactive kVA (kVAR) drawn by the motor, which can be
determined only from no-load testing of the motor.

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• In general, the capacitor is then selected to not exceed 90 % of the no-
load kVAR of the motor. (Higher capacitors could result in over-
voltages and motor burn-outs).
• Alternatively, typical power factors of standard motors can provide the
basis for conservative estimates of capacitor ratings to use for different
size motors
• The capacitor rating for power factor correction by direct connection to
induction motors is shown in table given below

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• From the above table, it may be noted that required capacitive kVAr increases
with decrease in speed of the motor, as the magnetizing current requirement of
a low speed motor is more in comparison to the high speed motor for the same
HP of the motor.
Maintenance

• Inadequate maintenance of motors can significantly increase losses

and lead to unreliable operation.
• For example, improper lubrication can cause increased friction in
both the motor and associated drive transmission equipment.
• Resistance losses in the motor, which rise with temperature, would
increase.
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• Providing adequate ventilation and keeping motor cooling ducts
clean can help dissipate heat to reduce excessive losses.
• The life of the insulation in the motor would also be longer: for
every 10°C increase in motor operating temperature over the
recommended peak, the time before rewinding would be needed is
estimated to be halved.
• A checklist of good maintenance practices to help ensure proper motor
operation would include:
1. Inspecting motors regularly for wear in bearings and housings (to reduce
frictional losses) and for dirt/dust in motor ventilating ducts (to ensure
proper heat dissipation).
2. Checking load conditions to ensure that the motor is not over or under
loaded. A change in motor load from the last test indicates a change in the
driven load, the cause of which should be understood.
3. Lubricating appropriately. Manufacturers generally give recommendations
for how and when to lubricate their motors. Inadequate lubrication can

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cause problems, as noted above. Over lubrication can also create problems,
e.g. excess oil or grease from the motor bearings can enter the motor and
saturate the motor insulation, causing premature failure or creating a fire
risk.
4. Checking periodically for proper alignment of the motor and the driven
equipment. Improper alignment can cause shafts and bearings to wear
quickly, resulting in damage to both the motor and the driven equipment.
5. Ensuring that supply wiring and terminal box are properly sized and
installed. Inspect regularly the connections at the motor and starter to be
sure that they are clean and tight.
Age

• Most motor cores in India are manufactured from silicon steel or de-
carbonized cold-rolled steel, the electrical properties of which do not
change measurably with age.
• However, poor maintenance (inadequate lubrication of bearings,
insufficient cleaning of air cooling passages, etc.) can cause a

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deterioration in motor efficiency over time.
• Ambient conditions can also have a detrimental effect on motor
performance. For example, excessively high temperatures, high dust
loading, corrosive atmosphere, and humidity can impair insulation
properties; mechanical stresses due to load cycling can lead to
misalignment.
• However, with adequate care, motor performance can be maintained
Energy Management Opportunities in Electrolytic process

• An electrolytic process is the use of electrolysis industrially to refine

metals or compounds at a high purity and low cost.
• Some examples are the Hall- Héroult process used for aluminum,
the production of hydrogen from water, production of chlorine and
caustic soda etc.
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• Electrolysis is usually done in bulk using hundreds of sheets of
metal connected to an electric power source. Electrolysis process
uses an electric current to drive a chemical reaction which otherwise
would not occur spontaneously.
Energy Management Opportunities in Electrolytic process

• Electrolytic hydrogen production has been scientifically studied for

more than a century. Nowadays, electrolytic hydrogen has a share of
only 4% in the global production of the most abundant element of
the universe.
• Electricity expense constitutes the largest fraction of hydrogen
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production costs. High hydrogen production expenses count as the
main deficiency of commercial and industrial electrolyzers.
• Hence electrolytic methods are usually outperformed by other
approaches such as steam methane reformation. An electrolyzer is
usually subjected to massive current values in order to break the
water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen.
Factors to improve electrical efficiency in electrolytic
hydrogen production process

1. Electrolyte quality
2. Temperature
3. Pressure
4.
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Electrical resistance of the electrolyte
a. Space between electrodes
b. Size and alignment of the electrodes
5. Electrode material
6. Separator material
7. Applied voltage waveform
Electrolytic systems

Electrolysis involves movement of positively- or negatively-charged

ions within an electrolyte between an anode (positively-charged
electrode) and a cathode (negatively-charged electrode). These familiar
processes involve electrolysis:
• Storage batteries.
• Welding.
• Corrosion.
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• Electrowinning (refining of metals such as aluminum).
• Plating and anodizing.
• Electroforming, electrochemical machining, and etching.
• Fuel cells.
Corrosion

• Corrosion occurs as a result of oxidation-reduction reactions between a

metal or alloy and a corroding agent.
• Corrosion can occur as a result of chemical reactions, which usually require
high temperatures and a corrosive environment, or due to electrochemical
reactions, which are more common. Note that corrosion is an important
indirect use of energy.
• The electrochemical reactions resemble the processes that take place in a
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battery. They can arise when dissimilar metals occur in the presence of an
electrolyte or in the presence of external electric currents.
• A common electrolyte is water with trace amounts of dissolved salts, acids,
or alkalis. The rates of corrosion reactions are dependent on the
concentration of salts, acids, or alkalis in the electrolyte, and on the surface,
temperature, and chemical constituents of the corroding metal.
Welding

• Where possible, AC welders are preferred as they offer a better power

factor and more economical operation.
• Automated systems reduce standby power losses compared to manual
welding because they place the weld bead more consistently (less
start/stop).

Electrowinning

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• An important use of electrolysis is the refining of metals such as aluminum.
Basically the original process involved the electrolysis of a solution of
aluminum oxide in molten cryolite, using carbon anodes and electrodes.
• In the electrolyte solution, aluminum oxide disassociates into aluminum
and oxygen ions. As currents on the order of 105 amperes pass through the
cells (at potentials of 5.0 - 5.4 V), the aluminum ions migrate to the cell
lining (cathode) where they are reduced to metallic aluminum.
• This process required 15 - 20 kWh per kg of electricity. New processes
have been developed that reduce the amount of electricity required.
Plating and Anodizing

• An electric current flows in a tank where the object to be plated or anodized

serves as one of the electrodes. In plating, the plated object serves as the
cathode and the anode has the material to be electrodeposited.
• Alternatively, the anode may be non consumable carbon and the plating
material may be drawn from the bath.
• In anodizing (typical for aluminum), the object to be anodized is the anode and
a direct current produces a buildup of aluminum oxide on the surface. By use of
various organic acids, colored finishes can be produced.

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Electroforming, Electrochemical Machining

• Electroforming is a process whereby a thin layer of metal is deposited on an

object to be coated or on a mold that is later removed. The classic example is
copper plated baby shoes.
• Electrochemical machining is the reverse of plating; a high current is passed
between an electrolyte and the part, removing metal. This process is used for
fine, intricate parts or hard, difficult-to-machine metals.
Energy Management Opportunities in Electrolytic
Processes

Corrosion protection
• Use protective films, paints, epoxy
• Provide cathodic protection (sacrificial anodes)
• Cathodic protection with an applied voltage
• Electroplating and anodizing
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• Use chemical water treatment (corrosion inhibitors)
• Avoid contact of dissimilar materials (dielectric unions)

Storage batteries
• Provide adequate maintenance (replace electrolytes, clean terminals, etc.)
• Use efficient charging techniques, charge at proper rates
• Avoid overheating, provide adequate ventilation
Energy Management Opportunities in Electrolytic
Processes

Electrolytic processes
• Insulate plating tanks
• Provide proper maintenance of electrodes and rectifiers
• Recover waste heat
• Use more efficient rectifiers (semiconductor vs. mercury arc)
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• Use more efficient controls
• Develop improved electrode design and materials to increase efficiency
Energy Management Opportunities in Electric heating

Electric Heat Applications

• Due to its relatively higher cost, electricity is not used extensively for
process heat. However, there are some types of applications where
electricity offers advantages for heating.
• Electric heat can take several forms:
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1. Resistance heating.
2. Induction heating.
3. Dielectric heating.
4. Electric arc heating.
5. Microwave heating.
6. Infrared heating.
7. Heat pumps
1. Resistance heating:

• Resistance heating makes use of the i2R law; i.e., power dissipated is
proportional to the square of the current times resistance.
• An example of this is a conventional residential electric water heater, which has
two resistance heating elements, nominally rated at 3800 W and 240 V, single
phase.
• This form of resistance heating has a high first law efficiency because all the
heat is transferred to the material being heated; i.e., the water.

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2. Induction heating:

• Induction heating is similar to resistance heating in that the actual heating is

caused by current flowing through resistance. However, in the induction heater,
the heating current is induced in the work piece.
• An example is the heating of transformers, cores, and motor windings. Even
though they are laminated to produce high resistance to the flow of such
currents, transformers are in effect inductance heaters.
• In an induction furnace, a coil surrounds the work piece, which must be a
conductor.
• A variable frequency power source (oscillator) is connected to this coil,
inducing eddy currents that in turn heat the work piece. The eddy currents
exhibit a “screening” effect; i.e., the current density at the surface of the
work piece is maximum and decreases exponentially with depth.
• A “penetration” depth can be defined, wherein the current has decreased to
about 37% of the surface value. Approximately 90% of the heating occurs
within the penetration depth.

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• Since the penetration depth is inversely proportional to frequency, a low
frequency would be used for heating a large piece and a high frequency for
a smaller size.

3. Dielectric heating:

• Dielectric heating refers to the heating of nonconducting materials by an

electric field.
• Basically, this is similar to the heating that occurs in the dielectric of a
capacitor on which a high-frequency voltage is impressed. The
electromagnetic fields excite the molecular makeup of material, thereby
generating heat within the material.
• As a result, the heat is distributed uniformly throughout the work piece.
Dielectric heating can be applied to wood, paper, food, ceramics, rubber,
glues, and resins.
• The heating effect is proportional to the dielectric loss factor, the applied

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frequency, and the electric field strength.
• Dielectric systems can be divided into two types: RF (radio frequency) and
microwave.
• RF systems operate in the 1-100 MHz range, and microwave systems
operate in the 100-10,000 MHz range. RF systems are less expensive and
are capable of larger penetration depths because of their lower frequencies
and longer wavelengths than microwave systems, but they are not as well
suited for materials or products with irregular shapes.
4. Electric arc furnace:

• The electric arc furnace has three electrodes connected to the secondary
windings of a three-phase transformer.
• The principle is the same as in electric arc welding. When an arc is struck, the
nearby gas is raised to such a high temperature (in excess of 5000°C) that it
becomes highly ionized.
• In this state, it is a sufficiently good conductor to be maintained at high
temperature by the resistive heating produced by the current. The high
temperature of the plasma permits very efficient heat transfer.
• Arc furnaces with capacities in the range of a few tons to hundreds of tons are
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in use. The primary application of electric arc furnaces is for melting and
processing recycled steel.

5. Microwave heating:

• Microwave heating (a form of dielectric heating) is a highly efficient technique

for heating by high-frequency electromagnetic radiation.
• Typically, frequency bands are 896 or 915 MHz and 2450 MHz, corresponding
to wavelengths of about 0.33 and 0.12 m. Energy is deposited in the work piece
according to the same principles as the dielectric heater described above.
• Furnaces can be designed to be resonant or non-resonant. The microwave
oven found in many homes is an example of a resonant cavity device.
• Resonant systems have efficiencies generally in excess of 50%. Again,
because the heat is deposited in the work piece, losses are minimized.

6. Infrared heating:
• Infrared heating is generated by i2R losses in heating lamps or devices, and
this is a special case of resistance heating.

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• The difference, however, is that infrared energy can be generated in a
narrow bandwidth. This can be applied more efficiently in some cases than
combustion energy that spans a broader bandwidth.
• To be most efficient, infrared heaters should concentrate their output at the
peak of the absorption spectrum for the material being heated. For water,
this corresponds to a wavelength of about 2.8X1026 m.
• There are applications in papermaking, drying paints and enamels, and
production of chemicals and drugs.
7. Heat pump:

• The heat pump is basically a refrigerator operating in reverse.

• An evaporator receives heat from a low temperature heat source (the air,
waste heat, ground water, etc.). This causes evaporation of the working
fluid; the vapor is then compressed by the compressor.
• In the condenser, it gives up the heat collected at the evaporator as well as
the heat of compression. As this heat is delivered, the vapor condenses, and

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the hot condensate passes through the expansion valve.
• Heat pumps fall into the several categories, depending on the type of
heating and the purpose. Those used for residential HVAC and water
heating are primarily air-source or ground-source heat pumps, meaning
they extract heat either from the air or from underground pipes.
• Therefore they use air-to-air or liquid-to-air heat transfer. Larger units for
commercial and industrial applications employ liquid-to-liquid heat
transfer.
• Energy Management Opportunities in Electric heating can be divided into
three categories
1. Reduce heat losses
2. Use more efficient processes or equipment
3. Recover heat

1. Reduce heat losses

•
•
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Insulate furnace walls, ducts, piping
Put covers over open tanks or vats
• Reduce the time doors are open
• Avoid cooling time for heated products
• Shutdown heating systems on tanks and ovens when not in use, or at least
lower temperatures (reduce standby losses)
2. More efficient equipment or processes

• Use alternative processes (microwave, dielectric rather than fuel-fired)

• Employ recuperators, regenerators, or preheaters
• Use direct-fired rather than indirect-fired systems
• Use less energy-intensive materials and processes
• Use heat pumps for low temperature process heat
• Reduce moisture content mechanically in materials used in drying
processes
• Use lower temperature processes (cold rinses, etc.)

3. Recover heat
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• There are multiple sources: stacks, processes, building exhaust streams,
cooling towers, compressors, etc.
• Recovered heat can be used for space heating, water heating, process
preheating, cogeneration, etc.
• Many types of heat recovery systems are commercially available (heat
wheels, run-around systems, heat pipes, heat exchangers, heat pumps, etc.)