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 Algebra and
Number Jhaary
P. SlvaramakrlshnaDa
Professor of Mathematics
and ;
Head of the P.G. Department of M~thema\iNRetired)
Ramakrishna Mission Vivekdnanda ~~
Mylapore, Chenb.ai
Formerly
Professor of Mathematics
and
Head of the Department of Science and Humanities
Presently
Professor of Mathematics
K.C.G. College of Technology
(a unit of Hindustan Group of Institutions
Karapakkam, Chennai)

C. Vijayakumari
Professor of Mathematics (Retired)
Queen Mary's College (Autonomous)
Mylapore, Chennai

@Pearson
 Eaitor=Acquistuonst-e; Dneeptka. ,
'Editor-Production: M. Balakrishnan

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 Syllabus

UNIT I Groups and Rings

Groups: Definition - Properties - Homomorphism - Isomorphism - Cyclic groups -
Cosets - Lagrange's theorem. Rings: Definition - Sub rings - Integral domain - Field -
Integer modulo n - Ring homomorphism.

UNIT II Finite Fields and Polynomials

Rings - Polynomial rings - Irreducible polynomials over finite fields - Factorization of
polynomials over finite fields.

UNIT III Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions

Division algorithm - Base-b representations - Number patterns - Prime and composite
numbers - GCD - Euclidean algorithm - Fundamental theorem of arithmetic - LCM.

UNIT IV Diophantine Equations and Congruences

Linear Diophantine equations - Congruence's - Linear Congruence's - Applications:
Divisibility tests - Modular exponentiation - Chinese remainder theorem - 2 x 2 linear
systems.

UNIT V Classical Theorems and Multiplicative Functions

Wilson's theorem - Fermat's little theorem - Euler's theorem - Euler's Phi functions -
Tau and Sigma functions.
 Contents

Preface xi
About the Authors xiii

1. Groupsand Rings 1.1

1.0 Introduction 1.1
1.1 Binary Operation 1.1
1.1.1 Properties of Binary Operations 1.3
1.2 Groups 1.4
1.2.1 Abelian Group 1.4
1.2.2 Order of a Group 1.4
1.2.3 Elementary Properties of a Group 1.4
Worked Examples 1.9
Exercise I.I 1.23
1.2.4 Modular Arithmetic 1.24
Worked Examples 1.27
Worked Example 1.31
1.2.5 Permutation Group 1.32
Worked Examples 1.34
Exercise 1.2 1.47
1.2.6 Subgroup 1.48
Worked Examples 1.50
Worked Examples 1.59
1.2.7 Cycles and Transpositions 1.60
Worked Examples 1.62
1.2.8 Cosets and Lagrange's Theorem 1.63
Worked Examples 1.67
1.2.9 Normal Subgroups and Quotient Groups 1.69
Worked Examples 1.70
1.2.10 Direct Product of Two Groups 1.74
Exercise I.3 1.75
1.2.11 Group Homomorphism 1.76
Worked Examples 1.85
Exercise 1.4 1.92
 viii • Contents

1.3 Rings and Fields 1.9:'.

1.3.l Elementary Properties of a Ring 1.9~
1.3.2 Some Special Rings 1.9~
Worked Examples 1.9~
1.3.3 Subring 1.11~
Worked Examples 1.112
1.3.4 Ring Homomorphism t.n-
1.3.5 Properties of Ring Homomorphism 1.11~
Worked Examples i.n:
Exercise 1.5 1.121
Part A Questions and Answers 1.121

2. Finite Flelds and Polynomlals 2J

2.0 Introduction 2.1
2.1 Polynomials 2.1
Worked Examples 2.i
Worked Examples 2.14
Worked Examples 2.H
Worked Examples 2.lS
Exercise 2.1 2.2(
Answers to Exercise 2.1 2.2(
2.2 Irreducible Polynomials 2.21
Worked Examples 2.21
Worked Example 2.2'i
2.3 Characteristic of a Ring 2.27
2.4 Congruence Relation in F[x] 2.31
Worked Examples 2.3~
Exercise 2.2 2.3~
Answers to Exercise 2.2 2.3'i
Part A Questions and Answers 2.31

3. DlvlslbllltyTheory and Canonica!Decompositions 3J

3.0 Introduction 3.1
3.1 The Principle of Mathematical Induction 3.1
3.1.l The Well-ordering Principle 3.2
3.1.2 Pigeon Hole Principle 3.2
3.2 Divisibility Theory and Division Algorithm 3.2
Worked Examples 3.4
3.2.1 Inclusion - Exclusion Principle 3.~
Worked Examples 3.7
3.3 Base - b Representations 3.14
3.3.1 Binary Expansions 3.14
3.3.2 Hexadecimal Expansion 3.15
Worked Examples 3.15
 Contents • ix

3.3.3 Base Conversion Algorithm - Decimal to Base b 3.16

Worked Examples 3.16
3.3.4 Base Conversion from Binary to Octal 3.19
Worked Examples 3.19
3.3.5 Base Conversion from Binary to Hexadecimal 3.20
Worked Examples 3.20
Exercise 3.1 3.24
Answers to Exercise 3.1 3.24
3.4 Number Patterns 3.25
Worked Examples 3.26
3.5 Prime and Composite Numbers 3.30
Worked Examples 3.31
Worked Examples 3.34
3.6 Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) and Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic 3.36
Worked Examples 3.40
3.7 The GCD and the Euclidean Algorithm 3.44
3.7.l The Euclidean Algorithm 3.45
3.8 Least Common Multiple (LCM) 3.51
Worked Examples 3.52
Exercise 3.2 3.57
Answers to Exercise 3.2 3.57
Part A Questions and Answers 3.58

linear DiophantineEquationsand Congruences 4.1

4.0 Introduction 4.1
4.1 Linear Diophantine Equations (LDE) 4.1
Worked Examples 4.3
4.2 Congruences 4.9
Worked Examples 4.12
4.3 Linear Congruence 4.19
Worked Examples 4.20
4.3.l Divisibility Tests 4.25
4.4 System of Linear Congruences 4.26
4.5 2 x 2 Linear Systems 4.33
Worked Examples 4.34
Exercise 4.1 4.38
Answers to Exercise 4.1 4.38
Part A Questions and Answers 4.39

ClassicalTheorems and MultlpllcatlveFunctions 5.1

5.1 Wilson's Theorem 5.1
Worked Examples 5.2
5.2 Fermat's Little Theorem 5.6
Worked Examples 5.7
 X • Contents

5.3 Euler's Theorem 5.14

Worked Examples .5.17
5.4 The Tau and Sigma functions 5.23
Worked Examples 5.23
Assorted Examples 5.29
Exercise 5.1 5.31
Part A Questions and Answers 5.32

Solution to Anna University Question Paper -April 2018 Q-1

Index I-1
 Preface

This text book of Algebra and Number Theory is designed to meet the requirements of students of
B.E. Computer Science and B.Tech. LT. courses as per the latest syllabus of Anna University. The
book covers the syllabus completely and exhaustively. The units of the. syllabus are presented as five
chapters in the book. The topics have been presented to provide a firm foundation on the basic con-
cepts of groups, rings, field, polynomials, division algorithm, Euclidean algorithm, congruences and
Diophantine equations.
Special care has been taken to present the subject as simple as possible with clarity and rigour.
A lot of standard problems and university questions are worked out step by step so as to induce con-
fidence in the students.
A salient feature of the book is that at the end of each chapter, a collection of important and
frequently asked Part A questions are given with solution for the benefit of the students.
Self-confidence and perseverance are the essentials to success. Mathematics is a subject to be
studied by working. Practice is the key-word in the learning process of the mathematics. Remember the
maxim "Mathematics without practice is Blind and Practice without understanding is Futile."
We are sure that this book is student friendly and we hope it will be well received by students and
teachers. Suggestions for the improvement of the book will be gratefully accepted.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
P. Sivaramakrishna Das: I express my gratitude to our chairperson, Dr Elizabeth Varghese, CEO
and Directors Dr Anand Jacob and Annie Jacob. I am obliged to my department colleagues for their
encouragement.
The inspiration to write this book came from my wife, Prof. C. Vijayakumari, who is also the
co-author of this book.
P. Sivaramakrishna Das and C. Vijayakumari: We are grateful to the members of our family for
lending us their support for the successful completion of this book.
We are obliged to Sojan Jose, R. Dheepika and M. Balakrishnan of Pearson India Education
Services Pvt. Ltd, for their diligence in bringing this work out to fruition.

P. Sivaramakrishna Das
C. Vijayakumari
 About the Authors

Prof. Dr P. Sivaramakrishna Das started his career in 1967 as assistant

professor of Mathematics at Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda College,
Mylapore, Chennai, his alma mater and retired as Head of the P.G.
Department of Mathematics from the same college after an illustrious
career spanning 36 years.
Formerly, he was professor of Mathematics and Head of the
Department of Science and Humanities, K.C.G. College of Technology,
Karapakkam, Chennai (a unit of Hindustan Group of Institutions).
Currently he is professor of Mathematics in the same college.
P. Sivaramakrishna Das has done pioneering research work in the
field of "Fuzzy Algebra" and possess a Ph.D. in this field. His paper on
fuzzy groups and level subgroups was a fundamental paper on fuzzy algebra with over 600 citations
and it was the first paper from India. With a teaching experience spanning over 52 years, he is an
accomplished teacher of Mathematics at undergraduate and postgraduate levels of Arts and Science
and Engineering colleges in Chennai. He has guided several students to obtain their M.Phil. degree
from the University of Madras, Chennai.
He was the most popular and sought-after teacher of Mathematics in Chennai during 1980s for
coaching students for IIT-JEE. He has produced all India 1st rank and several other ranks in IIT-JEE.
He was also a visiting professor at a few leading IIT-JEE training centres in.Andhra Pradesh.
Along with his wife C. Vijayakumari, he has written 15 books covering various topics of
Engineering Mathematics catering to the syllabus of Anna University; Chennai, and has also written
"Numerical Analysis" and "Engineering Mathematics", all India books, catering to the syllabi of all
major universities in India.

Prof. Dr C. Vijayakumari began her career in 1970 as assistant professor

of Mathematics at Government Arts College for Women, Thanjavur, and
has taught at various Government Arts and Science colleges across Tamil
Nadu before retiring as professor of Mathematics from Queen Mary's
College (Autonomous), Mylapore, Chennai after an illustrious career of
spanning 36 years.
As a visiting professor of Mathematics, she has taught the students at
two engineering colleges in Chennai. With a teaching experience spanning
over 40 years, she is an accomplished teacher of Mathematics and
Statistics at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She has guided
xiv • About the Authors

many students to obtain their M.Phil. degree from the University of Madras, Chennai and Bharathia
University, Coimbatore.
Along with her husband P. Sivaramakrishna Das, she has co-authored several books on Engineeriru
Mathematics catering to the syllabus of Anna University, Chennai and has also co-authored "Numerica
Analysis" and "Engineering Mathematics", all India books, catering to the syllabi of all major universi
ties in India.
Groups and Rings 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Before the introduction of set theory by the German mathematician Georg Cantor towards the latter
part of the 19th century, mathematics was based on number sets. The developments of set theory
brought about not only new mathematics but a fresh out look-abstraction. Many problems in
mathematics which were earlier considered totally unrelated are now recognized as diverse
manifestations of one common problem because of the abstract approach in mathematics,
For example, in elementary school you learned adding two pencils to four pencils and getting six
pencils or two marbles to four marbles and getting six marbles. By abstracting these physical problems
about pencils and marbles, we get a simple relation 2 + 4 = 6.
Thus abstraction is to identify the similarity of certain physical or theoretical situations and to
describe the pattern or form of these situations without any reference to the objects which make these
situations seemingly different.
Abstract algebra which has evolved as an independent subject in this way serves as the unifying
thread which interlaces almost all of mathematics - geometry, number theory, analysis, topology and
applied mathematics.
An algebraic system can be described as a set of objects together with some operations for
combining them. Some of the algebraic systems we will be discussing in this section are Groups,
Rings and Fields.

1.1 BINARY OPERATION

In the set of natural numbers N we can add two numbers a, b and get a unique number a + b. The
operation addition combines two numbers and yield a third number and so it is a binary operation.
Suppose such an operation is to be defined in a set S, we have to view addition in a different way.
We can regard + in N as a function from N x N ~ N.
i.e.,+: Nx N ~ Nis defined by+ (a, b) =a+ b.
Thus+ assigns a pair (a, b) to a+ b. This idea is useful to define binary operation on any set S.
[The image of x under the function/ is denoted by fix)].

Definition1.1 Binary operation

Let S be a non-empty set. A binary operation * on S is a function * : SxS~ S. The image of any
ordered pair (a, b) of elements of Sunder * is denoted by a * b.

Note
1. Under the binary operation * the image of (a, b) is written as a * b instead of *(a, b) following
the notation in number system where we write 2 + 3, 2•3, 2- 3.
2. Binary operations on an arbitrary set Sare also denoted by •, o, E9, 0, + etc.
3. The Caretesian products S x S, S x S x S, ... , S x S x ... x Sn times are denoted by
S2, s». ... , S".
A function/: S3 ~Sis called a 3-ary operation on S.
A function/: s4 ~Sis called as 4-ary operation on Sand so on.
1.2 • Algebra and Number Theory

In general, a function/: S" ~Sis called a n-ary operation on S.

A set with one or more n-ary operations is called an algebraic system or . algebraic structure.
If Sis a non-empty set and/1,/2, ... are n-ary operations on S, then (S,Jj ,/2, ... ) is an algebraic system
or algebraic structure.
However, we shall consider here only algebraic systems with one or two binary operations.

Examples
1. The usual addition+, i.e., addition on number sets is a binary operation.
The number sets are
N = the set of all positive integers
={1,2,3, ... }
Z = the set of all integers
= { ... ,-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ... }

Q = the set of all rational numbers

={flp,q,e Z,q~o}
R = the set of all real numbers
C = the set of all complex numbers
I
= {a+ ib a, b, E R}

Thus, (N, +), (Z, +), (Q, +), (R, +),and (C, +)are algebraic systems.
2. Subtraction - is not a binary operation on N, since
'
1-3 =-2 ~ N
3. Let S = { 0, 1, 2}. A binary operation * on Sis defined by
0 * 0 = 0, 0 * 1=1*0 = 1, 0 * 2 = 2 * 0 = 0
1 * 1 = 2, 1 * 2 = 2 * 1 = 1, 2. * 2 = I
The result of the operation can be displayed as a two way table.
The Cayley table is

* 0 1 2
0 0 1 0
I 1 2 0
2 0 1 1

This table is called the multiplication table or operation table or Cayley table.
Cay/ey Table
Let S = {a 1, a2, ... , an} be a finite set with n elements and * be a binary operation on S.
There are n2 products ai * aj for all ai, aj e S. These n2 products are arranged in n rows and
n columns with ai * aj occurring in the intersection of the ith row and /h column. Such an operation
table is called a Cayley table, named after the great British mathematician Arthur Cayley.
 Groups and Rings • 1.3

1.1.1 Properties of Binary Operations

Any Binary operation can have the following properties
1. Associative property 2. Commutative property
3. Existence of identity 4. Existence of inverse 5. Closure property
(1) Associative Property
Definition 1.2 A binary operation * on S is said to be associative if
a* (b * c) =(a* b) * c \;/a, b, c E S.
For example,
Usual addition+ is associative on Zbecause a+ (b + c) =(a+ b) + c \;/a, b, c E Z
But subtraction - is not associative on Z since (2 - 3) - 5 '# 2 - (3 - 5).

Note Associative property enables us to insert brackets at will.

(2) Commutative Property
*
Definition 1.3 A binary operation on S is said to be commutative if a * b = b * a \;/ a, b E S.
For example,
Addition + on Z is commutative, because a + b = b + a \;/ a, b E Z.
But subtraction - is not commutative on Z, because 2 - 3 '# 3 - 2.
(3) Existence of Identity
Definition 1.4 A binary operation * on S is said to have an identity element e E S if
e e a e a e e e a v a e S.
For example,
For the operation+ on Z, 0 is the identity element, because a+ 0 = 0 +a = a \;/a E Z.
For the operation multiplication • on Z, 1 is the identity element, because 1 «a = a- 1 = a \;/ a E Z.
(4) Existence of Inverse
Definition 1.5 Let * be a binary operation on S with an identity element e in S. An element a E S is
said to have an inverse a' E S if a * a' = a' * a = e.
For example,
In the algebraic system (Z, + ), inverse of any element a is -a because
a+ (-a)= a - a= 0.
So, every element in Z has inverse under +.
(5) Closure Property
Definition 1.6 Let * be a binary operation on Sand A be a subset of S. A is said to be closed under *•
if a * b E A \;/ a, b E A.
In particular, if a * b E S, \;/ a, b E S, then Sis closed under *·
Note
1. It is obvious that closure of S'under » is a consequence of the definition of binary operation on S.
2. To verify an operation is binary, it is enough to verify closure property.
1.4 • Algebra and Number Theory

1.2 GROUPS
Group is a single operation algebraic system and it is an important building block for other algebraic
structures. Group theory finds applications in a wide variety of fields like physical sciences and
biological sciences, in the study of crystal structures, configuration of molecules and structure ot
human genes. Quantum mechanics and the theory of infra-red spectra rely on group theory to some
extent. Hamming code used in communication systems for automatic error-correction are groups.
Groups are used in film animations too.

Definition1. 7 Groups
A non-empty set G with a binary operation * defined on it is called a group if the following axioms
are satisfied.
l. Closure: For all a, b E G, a * b e G
2. Associativity: For all a, b, c E G, we have a* (b * c) =(a* b) * c
3. Identity: There exists an element e E G such that
a e e=e e a=a si a e G
4. Inverse: For each a E G, there exists an element a' such that a * a'= a' * a = e
The group is denoted by ( G, * ), the set and the binary operation.
Note In axiom (3), e is called an identity element for « on G. In axiom (4) element a' is called an
inverse of a with respect to *·
The definition does not say e is unique and a' is unique.
We will prove below that in a group (G, *)identity element and inverse of an element are
unique.

1.2.1 Abelian Group

Definition1.8 A group ( G, *) is said to be abelian or commutative if a * b = b * a "II a, b E G.

Note A commutative group is also called abelian group in honour of the great Norwegian
Mathematician Neils Henrik Abel.

1.2.2 Order of a Group

Definition1.9 Let G be a group under the operation *· The number of elements in G is called the
order of the group G and is denoted by O(G).
If G has n elements, then O(G) = n.
If the O(G) is finite, then G is called a finite group, otherwise it is called an infinite group.

1.2.3 Elementary Properties of a Group

Theorem 1.1 Let (G, *)be a group, then (i) identity element is unique
(ii) For each a e G, inverse is unique.
 Groups and Rings • 1.5

Proof Given ( G, *) is a group.

(i) Let e and e' be two identity elements of G. Then by identity axiom (2) of a group, we get
e*e'=e [Treating e' as identity]
and e*e'=e' [Treating e as identity]
e = e'
Hence identity element is unique.
(ii) Let e be the identity element of G. Let a E;: G be any element.
Suppose a' and a" are two inverses of a, then by inverse axiom,
a*a'=a'*a=e
and a*a"=a"*a=e
Now a'=a'*e [·: e identity]
=a'* (a* a'') [ ·: a* a"= e]
=(a'* a)* a" [by associative axiom]
=e*a"=a" l: a'* a= e]
•
Note
1. In view of uniqueness of identity in a group, we can say the identityelement of the group.
2. The inverse of a is unique and this is denoted by a-1 (multiplicatively).We say theinverse of a is a-1•

Theorem 1.2 In a group(G, *)the cancellation laws hold.

For all a, b, c e G.
(i) a * b = a * c ~ b = c [Left cancellation law]
(ii) b * a = c * a ~ b = c [Right cancellation law]

Proof Given ( G, *) is a group. Let e be the identity element of G.

(i) Given a * b =a * c
Let a-1 be the inverse of a.
Premultiplying by a-1, we get
a-1 *(a* b) = a-1 *(a* c)
~ (a-1 *a)* b = (a-1 *a)* c [by associative axiom]
~ e*b=e*c [by inverse axiom]
~ b=c [by identity axiom]
(ii) Given b*a=c*a
~ (b *a) * a-1 = (c *a)* a-1 [post multiplying by a-1]
~ b *(a* a-1) = c *(a* a-1) [by associative axiom]
~ b*e=c*e [by inverse axiom]
~ b=c [by identity axiom]
•
 1.6 • Algebra and Number Theory

*
Theorem 1.3 In a group (G, *) the equation a * x = b and y a = b have unique solutions for the
unknowns x and y as x = a-1 * b,y = b * a-1, where a, b e G. [AU 2003)

Proof Given ( G, *) is a group. Let e be the identity element of G and a-1 be the inverse of a.
Given a*x=b
::::} a-1 * (a* x) = a-1 * b [premultiplying by a-1]
::::} a-1 * (a* x) = a-1 * b [by associative axiom]
::::} e * x=a-1 * b [by inverse axiom]
::::} x=a-1 * b [by identity axiom]
Thus, x = a-1 «b e G is a solution.
We shall now prove the uniqueness.
Suppose xi' x2 e G be two solutions of a * x = b,
then a * x 1 = b and a * x2 = b
a* x1 =a* x2
::::} x 1 = x2 [by left cancellation law]
Hence the solution is unique and the unique solution is x = a-1 * b.
Similarly, we can prove that y * a = b has unique solution y = b * a-1•
Now Y* a=b
(y *a) * a-1 = b * a-1 [postmultiplying by a-I]
y *(a* a-1) = b * a-1 [by associative axiom]
y * e = b * a-1 [by inverse axiom]
y=b * a-1
y = b * a-1 e G is a solution.
We shall now prove the uniqueness.
Letyl'y2 be two solutions ofy *a= b
y1 *a= b and y, *a= b

[by right cancellation law]

Hence the solution is unique and the unique soiution is y = b * a-1•
•
Theorem 1;4 Let (G, *)be a group.
Then (l) for each a e G, (a-1)-1 =a
(ii) for all a, be G, (a* b)-1 = b-1 * a-1
Proof
(i) Let a e G. Then a-1 is the inverse of a and (a-1t1 is the inverse of a-1.
a * a-1 = a-1 *a= e [by inverse axiom]
and a-1 *(a-It!= (a-ltl * a-1 = e [by inverse axiom]
 Groups and Rings • 1. 7

a-1 *a= a-1* (a-It!

==> a= (a-ltl [by left cancellation law]
(ii) We have to. prove that the inverse of a * b is b-1 * a-1
Consider (a* b) * (b-1 * a-1) =a* (b * b-1) * a-1 [by associative law]
=a* e * a-1 [·: b*b-1=e]
=a* a-1 = e [·: a*a-1=e]
Now consider (b-1 * a-1) *(a* b) = b-1 * (a-1 *a)* b
= b-1 *e*b
= b-1 * b =e
Thus, (a* b) * (b-1 * a-1) = (b-1 * a-1) *(a* b) = e
Hence b-1 * a-1 is the inverse of a* b.
(a* btl = b-1* a-1
•
Note
1. (a-1t1 =a means the inverse of the inverse is the original.
2. (a* bt1 = b-1 * a-1 is known as the inverse reversal law.
3. In general, we have
-1 - -1 -1 -1 -1
( a1*a2* ... *an-1*an ) -an *an-l* ... *a2 *al
Definition 1.10 Integral powers of an element a.
Let ( G, *) be a group and a E G. For any positive integers n, we define an = a * a * a * ... * a n times.
We define an = e,

Theorem 1.5 Let (G, *)be a group and a e G then for all integers m, n.
(i) am * an = am + n
(ii) (am)n = amn

Proof Let a be any element of the group G.

(i) Let m, n be any integers (positive, negative or zero).
If n = 0, then a0 = e by definition.
am+ o = am and am * a0 = am * e = am
am+O =am* aO
Case (i) If n > 0, then we prove the result by induction on n.
When n = 1, the result is am * a = am+I.
We shall prove this is true for any integer m.
If m ;;::: 0, then am * a = am+ 1 is true by definition.
Ifm =-1, then am+l=aO=e
and ·am* a= a-1 *a= e
If m ~ -2, let m = -k, where k > 2.
am*a=a-k*a
1.8 • Algebra and Number Theory

= (a-l)k *a
= (a-l)k-1 * a-1 *a [·:k-1>0]
= (a-l)k-1 * e
= (a-l)k-1=a-k+1 =am+ I
Hence am * a = am + 1 for all integers m.
Thus, the result is true for n = 1.
Now we assume the result is true for n = k (> 1 ).
Then am * ak = am+ k
We have to prove that the result is true for n = k + 1
i.e., to prove am* ak+ I= am+k+ I
Now am* ak+ 1 =(am* a~* a [by Definition 1.9]
=am+k•a [by induction hypothesis]
=am+k+I [by definition]
:. the result is true for n = k + 1.
Hence by induction, the result holds for all positive integers n.
Case (ii) If n < 0, let n = -s, wheres is a positive integer.
Since s > 0, by case (i), we have
am-s.as=am-s+s=am
am-s =am* (astl =am* a=
~
Hence am+n =am* an is true for all integers m, n.
(ii) To prove (am)n ~ amn for all integers m, n.
When n =0, (am)n = (am)O = e
and amn=aO=e
(am)n = amn
Case (i) Let n be a positive integer.
We prove by induction on n.
Ifn = 1, then (am)l =am= am•I
So, the result is true for n = 1.
Now we assume that the result is true for n = k
i.e., (am)k = amk is true.
To prove the result is true for n = k + 1
i.e., to prove (am)k+ I = am(k+ 1)
Now (am)k+ I = (am)k * (am) · [by Definition 1.9]
=amk* am, [by induction hypothesis]
= amk+ m = am(k+ 1)
:. the result is true for n = k + I.
Hence by induction the result is true for all positive integers n.
Case (ii) Let n be a -ve integer, say n = -r, where r > 0.
Then (am)n = (am)-r
 Groups and Rings • 1.9

= ((amn-1 [by definition]

= (am')-1 [by case (i)]
= a-mr = am(-r) = amn
Thus, (am)n = amn is true all integers m, n.
•
WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Let G = {1,-1}.
Prove that G is a group under usual multiplication.

Solutlon.
Given G = { 1, -1} and the binary operation is usual multiplication.
Since G is a finite set, we form Cayley table and verify the axioms of a group.
Cayley table is
. 1 -1
1 1 -1
-1 -1 1
Closure: The body of the table contains only elements of G.
So, G is closed under multiplication.
Associativity: Since multiplication is associative in any number set, it is true here also.
Hence associative axiom is satisfied.
Identity: 1 is the identity element.
Inverse: Inverse of 1 is 1 and inverse -1 is -1.
So, ( G, •) is a group.
Further it is abelian group, since • is commutative.

EXAMPLE 2

Let G= {[~ OJ1 ' [-10 OJ1 ' [10 J

0 [-1
-1 ' 0
0
-1
J} .
Show that G is a group under the operation of matrix multiplication.

Solution.

Let/= [ 01 OJ1 ,A= [-10 OJ1 ,B=. [ 01 -10 ] 'C= [-10 -10 ]
:. G= {l,A,B, C}.
Since it is a finite set we shall form Cayley table and verify the axioms of a group.
I is the identity element.
A•l=J.A =A, B•l=f.B=B, C•l=f.C=I
1.10 • Algebra and Number Theory

-1
A-B= [ 0
1
0J[10 -1oJ=[-10 l-
o
-1

-1
A-C= [ 0
1
OJ[-10 -1OJ=[l0 -10 J=B
B2=B•B=[l
0 -1OJ[l0 -1OJ=[l0 OJ=/ 1
c2=C•C= [ -10 -10 J [-10 -10 ] = [ 01 OJ1 =I
BC=[l0 -1OJ[-10 -1o]=[-10 o]=A
1
CA= [-1 0 J[-1 OJ= [1 0 J = B
0 -1 0 1 0 -1
BA=[~ ~lJ[~l ~]=[~l ~]=C
CB-
[ -1 0 ][1 0 J
0 -1 0 -1
-A

:. Cayley table is

• I A B c
I I A B c
A A I c B
B B c I A
c c B A I
1. Closure: The body of the table contains only all the elements of G.
So, G is closed under matrix multiplication.
2. Associative: Since matrix multiplication is associative it is true for G also.
So, associative axiom is satisfied.
3. Identity: I is the identity element.
4. Inverse: Inverse of I is I, Inverse of A is A, Inverse of B is B, Inverse of C is C.
So, (G, •)is a group under matrix multiplication.
5. Commutativity: Further, elements equidistant from the main diagonal are same.
Hence, the operation is commutative.
:. (G, •)is abelian.

Note This is an example of a famous group called Klein's four group. A2 = B2 = c2 =I

AB=BA = C; BC= CB=A and AC= CA =B.
 Groups and Rings • 1.11

EXAMPLE 3
Show that M2 the set of all 2 x 2 non-singular matrices over R is a group under usual matrix
multiplication. Is it abelian? [AU 2015]

Solutlon.
M2 = {[: ! Ja,b,c,de Rand ad-be :;e 0}

To prove (M2, •) is a group under matrix multiplication.

1. Closure: Let A, Be M2, then !Al :;e O,l~l'.c O and AB is a 2 x 2 matrix
with IABI = IAllBI :;e 0 :. AB e M2
So, M2 is closed under matrix multiplication.
2. Associative: We know matrix multiplication is associative and hence it is true for M2.
i.e., A(BC) = (AB)C "i/ A, B, Ce M2

3. Identity: I=[~ ~] e M2 such that AI= IA =A 'II A E M2.

:. I is the identity element in M2

4. Inverse: Let A e M2, then IAI :;e 0 and so A-1 exists and A-1 = a~I

So, inverse exists for every element in M2.

:. (M2, •)is a group.
But matrix multiplication is not commutative.
i.e., AB:;eBA
So, (M2, •) is not abelian.

EXAMPLE 4
Show that the set of all non-zero real numbers is an abelian group under the operation * defined
ab
by a* b
2
= -. [AU 2007, 2016]

Solutlon.
Let G be the set of all non-zero real numbers.
:. G = R - { 0} ,. where R is the set ofreal numbers.
The operation * on G is defined by a * b = ab "i/ a, b e G.
2
We verify the axioms.
ab
1. Closure: a * b = - where a and b are non-zero real numbers.
2
ab . l b .
S o, - is non-zero rea num er.
2
ab
- e G => a * b e G "i/ a, b, E G
2
Hence G is closed under *·
1.12 • Algebra and Number Theory

2. Associativity: For any a, b, c E G.

a•(b*c)~a*bc
2
~ill~
2
a(bc)
4

and (a=by=c ~(a; )*J"~} ~ a(!c)'

[ ·: usual multiplication is associative.]

a* (b * c) =(a* b)* c Va, b, c E G
So, associative axiom is satisfied.
3. Identity: suppose e E G be the identity, then a* e =a Va E G

ae =a ~!!._=1 [·: a':f:.0]

2 2
~ e=2
So, identity is 2.
4. Inverse: Let a be any element of G. Suppose a' is its inverse, then
, aa' , 4
a=a =2~-=2~a =- [·: a':f:.0]
2 a
4
So, for every element a E G inverse is - .
a
Thus inverse axiom is satisfied.
:. (G, *)is a group
5. Commutativity: Let a, b be any two elements of G.

Then a=b =ab= ba [usual multiplication is commutative]

2 2
=b*a
Hence ( G, *) is an abelian group.

EXAMPLE 5
If Sis the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) of real numbers with the binary operation E0 defined by
(a, b) E0 (c, d) =(a+ c, b + d), where a, b, c, dare real, prove that (S, E0) is a commutative group.
[AU 2008)

Solution.
Given S={(a,b)la,bE R}
1. Closure: Let x, y E S. Thenx =(a, b);y = (c, d),
where a, b, c, d E R
Now x E9 y =(a, b) E9 (c, d) =(a+ c, b + d)
Since a, b, c, d are real numbers, a + c, b + dare real numbers.
Hence (a+c, b+d) ES ~ x E9 yE S
So, S is closed under E9
 Groups and Rings • 1.13

2. Associativity: Let x, y, z be any three elements in S.

Then x =(a, b), y = (c, d), z = (p, q),
where a, b, c, d,p, q are some real numbers.
Now x EFl (y EFl z) =(a, b) EFl ((c, d) EFl (p, q))
=(a,b) EFl (c+p,d+q)
=(a+ (c + p), b + (d + q))
=((a+ c) + p, (b + d) + q) (1)
[ ·: usual addition is associative]
and (x EFl y)EF> z=((a,b)EF>(c,d))EF>(p,q)
=(a+ c, b + d) EFl (p, q)
=((a+ c) + p, (b + d) + q) (2)
From (l) and (2),
x EFl (y EFl z) = (x EFl y) EFl z \::/ x, y, z e S.
So, associative axiom is satisfied.
3. Identity: Let x = (a, b) be any element in S.
Suppose e = (c, d) be the identity element in S.
Then x EFl e = x
=> (a, b) EFl (c, d) =(a, b)
=> (a+ c, b + d) =(a, b)
=> a + c = a, b+d=b
=> c= 0, d=O
e = (0, 0) is the identity element of S.
4. Inverse: Let x = (a, b) be any element of S.
Suppose x' = (c, d) be the inverse,
Then xEF>x'=e
=> (a, b) EFl (c, d) = (0, 0)
=> (a + c, b + d) = (0, 0)
=> a + c = 0, b+ d=0
=> c=-a, d=-b
x' ='(-a, -b) is the inverse of x.
So, inverse axiom is satisfied.
:. (S, EF>) is a group.
5. Commutativity: Let x =(a, b) andy = (c, d) be any two elements ofS.
Now x EFl y =(a, b) EFl (c, d)
=(a+ c, b + d)
= (c+a, d+ b) [usual addition is commutative]
= (c, d) EFl (a, b) [by definition of EFl ]
1.14 • Algebra and Number Theory

=y Ee x
X ® y =y ® X \::/ X, y E S.
Hence (S, Ee) is a commutative group.
i.e., (S, Ee ) is an abelian group.

EXAMPLE 6

Examine G = { (: : ) : a -:;:. 0 e R} is a commutative group under matrix multiplication, where

R is the set of all real numbers. [AU 2017)

Solution.

1. Closure:LetA= [: :JB= [! !] e,G,a-:;:.O,b:tO.

Then AB = [a a] [b b] = [2ab 2ab] E G ·: 2ab -:;:.O

a a b b 2ab 2ab
So, closure axiom is satisfied.
2. Associative: Since matrix multiplication is associative in general, it is true in G.
i.e., for v A, B, Ce G, A(BC) = (AB)C is true.

3. Identity: Let I= [: : ] , x-:;:. 0 is the identity element in G.

Then forany A = [: : ]. a -:;:. 0 in G

Now Al=A => [: :] [: :]= [: :]

[~: ~:] = [: :]

. 1
2ax=a=>x=
. -2

I~ rt !] fa the identity element,

4. Inverse: Let A = a a] .
[ a a , a -:;:. 0 m G. If B = [b
b b] is the inverse, then AB= I
b
 Groups and Rings • 1.15

[: :][: .] tJ
2ab 2ab] =
[ 2ab 2ab 1
2
r~ ~1 1
2

1 1
2ab= - ~b= -
2 4a

_!_j
l
_l_
_1 4a 4a .
Inverse of B =A = _l ___!_ exists.

4a 4a
Inverse axiom is satisfied.
G is a group under matrix multiplication.
5. Commutative: Since ab = ba V a, b, E R, for any

A = [: : l l
B= [: : we have AB= BA

:. G is a commutative group under matrix multiplication.

EXAMPLE 7
If G = {l, w, w2} is the set of cube roots of unity, the prove that G is groupundermultiplication.

Solutlon.
Given G = {1, co,<02}
where co is the complex cube root of unity.
2n . . 2n
and co=cos-+zsm-
3 3

w3 3
= ( cos 2n+zsm
.. 32nJ3
2; 2;)
= cos(3 }isin(3 (by De. Morgon 's theorem)

=cos 2n+ i sin 2n= 1

Now 1 • co= co, 1 • co2 = co2, co2 • co2 = co4 = co3• co= co (i)
we verify the axiom of a group by forming cayley table since G is a finite set.
1.16 • Algebra and Number Theory

The Cayley table is

. 1 w w2
1 1 w w2
w co w2 1
w2 ro2 1 co
1. Closure: The body of the table contains all the elements of G only.
: . closure axiom is satisfied.
2. Associativity: Since multiplication is associative in the complex system, it is true in G.
i.e., it is inherited in G.
:. associative axiom is satisfied.
3. ldentity:wehavel•l=l, l•ro=ro, l•ro2=w2
:.1 is the identity elements in G.
4. Inverse: we have 1 • 1 = 1. :. the inverse of 1 is 1
and w • w2 = w2 • w = 1 :. the inverse of w is ro2
and the inverse of w2 is to.
:. the inverse axiom is satisfied
: . all the axioms for a group are satisfied.
:. (G, •)is a group
5. Commutativity: For V a, b E G, a- b = b «a [From (i)]
So, commutative axiom is true in G.
Hence (G, •) is an abelian group.

EXAMPLE 8
The set of fourth roots of unity {1, -1, i; -i} is a group under usual multiplication.

Solution.
Let G={l,-1,i,-i}
We have to prove G is a group under usual multiplication.
We know i2 =-1
We have 1 • i = i, 1(-i) =-i, {-i)(-i) = i2 =-1
i(-i) = -i2 = 1
Since G is a finite set, we form Cayley table and verify the axioms.
The Cayley table is
. 1 -1 i -i
1 1 -1 i -i
-1 -1 1 -i i
i i -i -1 1
-i -i i 1 -1

1. Closure: The body of the cayley table contains only the elements of G.
:. closure axiom is satisfied.
 Groups and Rings • 1.17

2. Associativity: Associativity axiom is inherited in G.

3. Identity: From the table, we have
l s l = 1, l•(-1)=(-l)•l =-1, l•i=i•l =i and l•(-i)=(-i)•l =-i
:. 1 is the identity element in G.
4. Inverse: We have 1 • 1 = 1.
inverse of 1 is 1
i(-i) = -i2 = 1 and (-i) • i = -i2 = 1
-i is the inverse of i and i is the inverse of -i
and (-1)(-1) = 1 : . -1 is the inverse of -1
inverse axiom is satisfied
all the axioms for a group are satisfied.
Hence (G, •) is a group.
Commutativity: We have a- b = b «a V a, b E G
commutative axiom is satisfied
Hence (G, •)is an abelian group.

Note
l. The fourth roots of unity are the roots of the equation
x4- 1 = 0 ~ (x2- l)(x2 + 1) = 0
~ (x2-1)=0 ~ x2= 1 ~ x=±l
and x2 + 1 = 0 ~ x2 -1 = ~ x = ±i
:. the fourth roots are 1, -1, i, -i.
2. The cube roots of unity are the roots of the equation
x3 - 1 = 0 ~ (x - 1 )(x2 + x + 1) = 0
x-1=0 x=l
-1±"'1-4 -l±i../3
and x2+x+1=0 x= =---
2 2
-l+i../3 h -1-i../3
If m= 2 , t en m 2 = --- 2 ,
Since mis root of x3 - 1 = 0, m3 - 1 =0 ~ m3 =1
: . the roots are 1, m, m2.

EXAMPLE 9

Show that set of nth roots of unity {1, w, m2, ... , mn - 1 }, where n ;:: land m = cos 21r + sin 21r , is
n n
an abelian group under usual multiplication.

Solution.
The nth roots of unity are denoted by 1, m, m2, m3, ... , mn -1, where m = cos 21r + i sin 21r .
L etG = {1 , m, m 2 , m 3 , ... , m n-1}· n n

where
1.18 • Algebra and Number Theory

=cos
( n-;;2n) +zsm
. ( n-;;2n) (by De Morgan's theorem)

= cosZx+ i sin 2n= 1

Since G is finite, we shall form the Cayley table and verify the axioms.
The Cayley table

. 1 w w2 w3 ... wn-1
1 1 w w2 w3 ... wn-1
w w w2 w3 w4 ... 1
w2 w2 w3 w4 w5 ... w
w3 w3 w4 w5 w6 ... w2
... w3

wn-1 wn-1 1 w w ... wn-2

1. Closure: The body of the table contains only all the elements of G. So, G is closed under
multiplication.
the closure axiom is satisfied.
2. Associativity: Since multiplication of complex numbers is associative, it is true here also,
So, the associative axiom is inherited.
associative axiom is satisfied.
3. Identity: The number l is the identity element of G, since
l •a= a- 1 =a Va E G.

4. Inverse: We have l•l =1 . :. the inverse of 1 is 1.

W• wn -- I = wn -- I •W = wn = 1
the inverse W is to" -- I
In general wr. co" -- r = wn -- r. w = wn = 1
This true for r = 1, 2, 3, 4, ... , n - 1
the inverse of wr is or :", r = 1, 2, 3, ... , n - 1
every elements in G has inverse in G.
the inverse axiom is satisfied.
all the axiom are satisfied for a group.
Hence (G, •)is a group.
5. Commutativity: Va, b E G, a-b = b+a
Hence ( G, •) is an abelian group.

EXAMPLE 10
Show that (R - {-1 }, *) is an abelian group under the binary operation * defined by
a* b =a+ b +ab 'Va, he R - {-l}.
 Groups and Rings • 1.19

solution.
Givena* b =a+ b +ab,"\/ a, be R - {-1} = G.
1. Closure: Since a, b are real numbers -:F- -1, we have
a + b + ab is a realnumber and a + b + ab -:F- -1
For,if a+b+ab=-1
Then 1 +a+b+ab=O
=> (1 + a)(l + b) = 0
=> a = -1 or b = -1, which is a contradiction.
a+b+ab-:F--1
=> a+b+ ab e G=R-{-1}
aebe G
So, G is closed under *
2. Associativity: Let a, b, e e G
Then 'a* (b * e) =a* (b + e +be)
=a+ b + e +be+ a(b + e +be)
=a+ b +e+ be+ab +ac +abc (1)
and (a* b) * e =(a+ b +ab)* e
=a +b +ab +e+ (a +b + ab)e
=a +b + e +ab +ae +be+ abe (2)
From (1) and (2), a* (b * e) =(a* b) * e "\/a, b, e e G
3. Identity: Suppose e e G be the. identity, then
a•e=a=>a+e+ae=a
=> e(a+l)=O
=> e=O [·: a:;t-1]
Identity element is 0.
4. Inverse: Let a e G he any element. :. a -:F- -1
If a' is the inverse of a, then a * a' = 0
=> a+a'+aa'=O
=> a'(l+a)=-a
' -a
a=-- [·: a-:F--1., 1 +a-:F-0]
l+a

Clearly
-a
--:F--1
l+a
[·. l:aa eG]
Thus inverse exists for every element.
So, inverse axiom-is satisfied.
5. Commutativity:)·>. a * b =a+ b +ab
=b+a+ba=b•a
(G, •)is an abelian group.
1.20 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 11

Prove that the set of all matrices ( a

~
b) forms an abelian group with respect to matrix
a .
multiplication, where a and b are real numbers, not both 0. [AU 2003]

Solution.

Let G = { ( :b : )a, be R, a # 0 or b # 0}

We verify the group axioms. * is matrix multiplication.

I. Closure: Let A = ( -ba ab )· B = ( -dc d)
c
be any two elements of G.

Not both a, b zero and not both c, d zero.

i.e., a2 + b2 # 0 and c2 + d2 # 0

A•B=(:b :J:d ~)-(::c~b:d ::d:b:c)

Where x = ac - bd and y = ad+ be are real numbers.

• and x2 + y2 = (ac-bd)2 +(ad+ bc)2
= a2c2 + b2d2 - 2abcd + a2d2 + b2c2 + 2abcd
= a2c2 + b2d2 + a2d2 + b2c2
= a2(c2 + d2) + b2(c2 + d2)
= (a2 + b2)(c2 + d2) # 0

x y)eG~A•BeG
( -y x ,
I

G is closed under *
2. Associativity: We know matrix multiplication is associative. Hence it is true in G also.

3. Iden.;.,,: Let I~ ( ~ ~ }• G be the identity element,

Since A•I= ( -ba b)a *·(10 0)1 = (a-b b)a =A

and l•A=.(1 0 O)*.
1
(a-b b)=(a
a
b)=A
-b a
 Groups and Rings • 1.21

4. Inverse: Let A= ( a b.) be an element in G, where a2 + b2 -: F- 0.

-b a .·

Suppose A' = ( x
-y
y)
x
be the inverse of A

then A •A'= I

(:b : ) * (:Y, ~) = ( ~ ~)

(=x~~ ::y:~ )=(~ ~) ax-by= l (1)

and ay+bx=O (2)
(l)Xa=> a2x-aby=a
(2) x b => b2x+aby=O
a
Adding, (a2 + b2)x =a=> x = a2 + b2

-i a b
(2) => ay=-bx=>y= -• =
a a2 +b2 a2 +b2

A' =[a ;b a :b
2 2 2 2]

a2 +b2 a2 +b2

2 2 a2 b2 a2 + b2 1
Now x +y = + = = -::F-0
(a2 +b2)2 (a2 +b2)2 (a2 +b2)2. a2 +b2
A'e G.
Hence inverse exists.
:. Inverse axiom is satisfied.

5. Commutative: Let A = ( a b)a , B = ( -de d) be any elements. in G,

. then
-b e

A•B=(a
-b
b)*(e
a -d
d)
e

=(ae-bd -ad-be)
be+ad -bd+ae

and
B•A= (:d ;}(:b :)=(::::~ -ad-be)
-bd+ac
A * B = B *A VA, B e G.
Hence (G, •)is an abelian group.
;1.22 • Algebra arid Number Theory

EXAMPLE 12
Show that if every element in a group G is its own inverse; thenthe group G must be ~belian.
[AU 2005, 2006]
.(OR)
In a group G, if a2 = e 'V a e G, then G is abelian.

Solution.
Let a, b E G be any two elements, then a * b e G.
Given every element is its own inverse.
a-1 =a, b-1 =band (a* bt1 =a* b
=>
=> b * a = a * b 'V a, b e G
G is abelian.

Note
1. · Consider the second part.
Given a2=e'V aeG
a-1* a2 = a-1 * e
=> (a-1 *a) *a= a-1 * e
=> a= a-1 'Va e G.
i.e., every element is its own inverse.
Hence G is abelian by first part.
2. Is the converse true?
i.e., if G is abelian, then every element is its own inverse.
Ans. No. for example, (Z, +)is an abelian group. But inverse of2 is -2 and not 2.
3. Let (G, *)be a group. An element a e G is called an idempotent element if a2 =a.
Then a-1 * a2 = a·-1 * a =>a= e. So, the only idempotent element ·in a group is the identit
element.

EXAMPLE 13
If ( G, *) is a group of even order, then show that there is an element *
a e in G such that a2 = e,

Solution.
Let (G, *) be a group of even order. Let 0( G) = 2n and let e be the identity element of G.
Omitting e there are 2n - 1 other elements in G.
We know in a group the inverse of an element in unique.
Inverse of e is e.
Since 2n - 1 is an odd number, pairing off the elements and their inverses as (ap a[1), (a2, a;:1
... , we will be left with at least one element a :t:. e, left out of the pairing.
So inverse of a is itself.
i.e., a = a-1 => a * a =a * a-1 => a2 = e
 Groups and Rings • 1.23

EXAMPLE 14
Jn a group (G, •),if (a• b)2 = a2 • b2 \:/a, be G, then show that (G, •)is abelian. [AU 2013]

Sofutlon.
Given (G; •)is a group.
and (a• b)2 = a2 • b2 \:/a, be G
(a• br» (a• b) =(a• a)• (b • b)
a• (b •a)• b =a• (a• b) • b [by associative axiom]
=> b • a=a• b [by left and right cancellation laws]
This is true for all a, b e G.
Hence (G, •)is abelian.

EXERCISE 1.1
1. Show that Qi" of all positive rational numbers form an abelian group under the operation • defined
by a • b = -ab2 'Va,b e Q + .
2. The set ofall 2 x 2 matrices {[: : ]Ix'* 0, x e R} is a group under multiplication.

3. Let G be the set of all 2 x 2 matrices (: _~). where a ¢ O. Prove that G is an abelian group
0
under matrix multiplication.
4. Show that (Z8 - {O}, •)is a group.
5. Show that (Z17- {O}, •)is a group.
6. Ifin a group G, (ab)c = a(cb) for all a, b, c e G, then show that G is abelian.
7. Ifin a group G1 b-1 a-1 b a== e for all a, be G, then show that G is abelian.
8. Show that in a. group a-1 = b-1 => a= b.
9. Show that H = {(~ ! )ad :F- 0} is a group under matrix multiplication .

. 0. If G is a group in which (a• W = ai •bi for three consecutive integers i for all a, b, e G, then show
that G is abelian.
1. Prove· that the set of all complex numbers C= ·{a +ibja,be R} is a group under usual addition.

2. Prove that of 2 x 2 matrices {[: !]ix e R} is a group under addition.

l~24 • Algebra and Number Theory

We shall now consider some special groups which will be typical examples of many concepts ii
the development of group theory.
They are
1. Congruence modulo group
2. Permutation group

1.2.4 Modular Arithmetic

Definition 1.11 Euclidean division algorithm.
If a is any integer and n is a positive integer, then there exists unique integers q and r such that
a =qn +r, O~r<n (1:
q is called the quotient and r is called the remainder when a is divided by n
Then we write =
r a (mod n)
Since a - r = qn, nJa - r
We also write a = r mod n
When we divide any integer a by n, the remainder is one among 0, 1, 2, 3, .... , (n - 1)
:. the division ofall integers by n gives the set of all remainders as {O, 1, 2, 3, .... , (n - 1)}
This system of numbers is called integer mod n or the modular system.
The specialty of the modular system is that all the integers can be expressed in terms of only these
n integers for the modulus n.
In the modular system Zn= {O, 1, 2, 3, .... , (n - l)} addition modulo n is defined as a+ n b = 1
where r is the remainder when a + b is divided by n, 0 ~ r < n.
Multiplication mod. n is defined as a •n b = r, where r is the remainder
when a-b is divided by n, 0 ~ r < n.
The arithmetic that uses modular system of numbers is called the modular arithmetic.
For example,
= =
If n 6, the modular system is Z6 {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,}
2+65 = 7(mod 6) = 1
Since when 2 + 5 = 7 is divided by 6, the remainder is 1
and 3°64 = 12 (mod 6) = 0
since when 3 •4 = 12 is divided by 6,the remainder is 0.
'
1.2.4(a) Group of Residue Classes mod n
We shall now consider another important group called group of residue classes module n 'or group
of equivalence classes module n,

Deflnltlon.1.12 Congruence mod n,

Let n be a fixed positive integer. Let a and b be integers. We define a= b (mode n), if a - bis divisible.
byn. '

=
Note a b (mod n) is read as "a is congruent to b modulo n", The relation a is an equivalence
relation on the set of integers Z.
The relation is called congruence modulo n and n is called the modulus .of the relation.
 Groups and Rings • 1.26,

For example, 2 =-1(mod3),

Since 2 - (-1) = 3 is divisible by 3.
25 E 5(mod 2), Since 25 - 5 = 20 is divisible by 2.
-1 = 3(mod 2), since -1-3 = -4 is divisible by 2.

Remark For any two integers a, be Zand an integer n > 1, by division algorithm
a= q1 n + r1 and b = q2 n + r2, where 0 s; r1<nand0 s; r2< n.
Then (1)
Since 0s;r1< n and 0 s; r 2< n, we have lri -r1I < n.
If a= b(mod n), then a - bis divisible by n
(1) => r1 - r2 is divisible by n
Since Os; lri-r21 <nand nl(ri-r2)=>1ri-r2l=O

=> r1-r2=0

=> rl =r2
=> a(mod n) = b(mod n)
Thus a=b(modn)
=> a(mod n) = b(mod n)
Conversely,if a= q1 n + r1 and b = q2 n + r2 with r1 = r2,
then a-b=(q1-q2)n
=> a -.bis divisible by n
=> a=b(modn) [by Definition 1.9]
.a= b(mod n) if and only if
a(mod n) = b(mod n)
In other words, a = b(mod n) if and only if a and b have the same remainder when divided by n.

Theorem 1.6 Prove that the congruence modulo n relation is an equivalence relation on Z.

Proof. Let n be an integer > 1

.The congruence relation is an equivalence relation if it is (1) Reftexivity (2) Symmetric and
(3) Transitive.
(i) Reftexivity:
For any integer a,
a - a = 0 is divisible by n
=> a=a(modn)
a= a(mod n) 'ii a eZ
So, the relation is reflexive
1.26 • Algebra and Number Theory

(ii) Symmetry:
if a= b(mod n), then a - b is divisible by n
~ b - a is divisible by n
~ b=a(modn)
So, the relation is symmetry.
(iii) Transitive:
If a= b(mod n) and b = c(mod n)
~ a - b is divisible by n
~ a=b==qi n
and b - c is divisible by n
b-c=q2n
a-·b + b-c = q1 n +s»
a - c = (q1 + q2)n
a - c is divisible by n
a =c(modn)
So, the relation is transitive.
:. the congruence relation is reflexive, symmetry and transitive.
Hence the relation of congruence is an equivalence relation on Z.
Hence the theorem
A characteristic property of the equivalence relation on a set is that it partitions the set.
:. the equivalence relation =on Z are called congruence classes mod n. I

The congruence class ofan integer a is denoted by [a] and is defined as

[a]= {x eZ: a =x(mod n)}

= {x eZ: x =a+ kn for some integer k}
By the above remark, a residue class consists of all those integers with the same remainder whet
divided by n.
So, there are n such residue classes and each residue class consists of only one of the integers it
the set {O, 1, 2, ... , n-1}. '
:. the residue classes mod n are denoted by [O], [1], [2], [3], ... , [n - 1]
For example, the residue classes mod 4 are
[O] = { , -8, -4, 0, 4, 8, 12, }
[1] = { , -7,-3, 1, 5, 9, 13, }
[2] = { , -6, -2, 2, 6, 10, 14, }
[3]={ ,-5,-1,3, 7, 11, 15, }
We find Z= [O] u [1] u [2] u [3]

1.2.4(b) Operation in the Set of Residue Classes mod n

The set ofresidue classes mod n is {[O], [l], [2], ...... , [n - 1]}
Let us denote this by Cn for time being.
 Groups and Rings • 1.27

If [a], [b] E en, then+ and- are defined by

[a]+[b]=[a+b]
[a]•[b] = [a•b] or [ab]
from the operations of Zn and en, we find that there is no essential difference between the two
operations of Zn and operations of en.
So, we often simplify [a] by writing a and
so, they will be used interchangeably.
we write Zn= {O, 1, 2, ... , (n - 1)} also.

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Show that the set G = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is group under addition modulo 6.

Solution.
Given G = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is the modular set we have to prove that (G, +6) is a group.
We form the Cayley table and verify the group axioms.
The Cayley table is

+6 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4

1. Closure: The body of the table contains only elements of G once is each row and column.
So, G is closed under +6.
2. Associativity: Since usual addition is associative, +6 is associative.
3. Identity: 0 is the identity element
t Inverse: Inverse ofO is 0, Inverse of 1 is 5.
Inverse of 2 is 4, Inverse of3 is 3
Inverse of 4 is 2, Inverse of 5 is 1.
, Further a + 6b = b + 6a 'if a, b E G, since the elements equidistant from the main diagonal are the
fame.
. (G, + 6) is an abelian group.
j Similarly, G = { 0, 1, 2, 3, ... , (n - 1)} isa group under+n'

~ote But G is not a group under • 6

1.28 • Algebra and Number Theory

The Cayley table is given below:

•6 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 4 5
2 3
2 0 2 4 0 2 4
3 03 0 3 0 3
4 04 2 0 4 2
5 0 5 4 3 2 1
In the body of the table the elements are repeated in some of the rows and columns.
For a group, there should not be repetition in any row or column.
So (G, •6) is not a group.
If n = p is a prime, then the non-zero modular set { 1, 2, 3, ... p - 1} is a group under multiplicatio
modp. But {O, 1, 2, 3, ... (n -1)} is not a group under multiplication.

EXAMPLE 2
If G = {I, 2, 3, 4}, the non-zero elements of Z5, then prove that Gin an abelian group unde
multiplication modulo 5.

Solution.
Given G = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }. Let x5 denote multiplication modulo 5.
We shall form the Cayley composition table and verify the axioms of a group.
2 x5 3 = 6 = 1 (mod 5)
3 x5 4 = 12 = 2 (mod 5)
Same way compute all the products and the Cayley table is given below:
X5 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4
2 2 4 1 3
3 1 4 2
3
4 4 3 2 1
1. Closure: The body of the table contains only all the elements of G.
So, G is closed under x5
2. Associativity: Since multiplication of integers is associative, and x5 depends on usual multiplier
tion and so, x5 is associative.
i.e., ax 5(b x 5c) =(ax 5b) x 5c, 'c;/ a, b, c e G.
3. Identity: 1 is the identity, since 1 x 5a =a\;/ a e G.
i.e., lx51=1, lx52=2, lx53=3, lx54=4
4. Inverse: From the table we find inverse of 1 is 1, inverse of2 is 3, inverse 3 is 2 and inverse of
is 4. So, inverse axiom is satisfied.
5. Commutativity: In the table, we find elements equidistant from the main diagonal are all equ
and so, x5 is commutative.
Hence ( G, x5) is an abelian group.
 Groups and. Ril'lgs • 1;2?

EXAMPLE 3
Verifywhetherthe non-zero elements of Z6 form a groupundermultiplicationor not?

solutlon.
The non-zero elements of Z6 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 we denote it as z;.
z; ={l,2,3,4,5}
Since it is finite, we verify the axioms by forming cayley table.
The Cayley table is
"6 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5
2 2 4 0 2 4
3 3 0 3 0 3
4 4 2 0 4 2
5 5 4 3 2 1

jNotethat 2 °6 3 = 0, since 6 leaves remainder 0 when divided by 6 and 0 E z;

So closure axiom is not satisfied hence z;
is not a group under multiplication.

EXAMPLE 4
rove that the non-zero elements of Z7 is a groupundermultiplication.

e know Z7 = {O, l, 2, 3 ,4, 5, 6}

We write the non-zero elements of Z7 by z;
:. Let z; = Z -{0} 7

={l,2,3,4,5,6}
?Smee z; is finite set, we verify the axioms by forming Cayley table.
=
Te have 2•8 = 16 2(mod 7)
3 • 5 = 15 = l(mod 7) and so on
fhe Cayley table is
•7 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 4 6 1 3 5
3 3 6 2 5 1 4
4 4 1 5 2 6 3
5 5 3 1 6 4 2
6 6 5 4 3 2 1
i.30 • Algebra and Number Theory

I. Closure:
The body of the cayley table contains only all the elements of z; z;
and so, is closed under
multiplication.
2. Associativity:
We have a, ( b • 7 · c) = (a• 7 b) • 7c \:/ a e z;as it depends upon the product of elements in z which
is associative ..
:. associative axiom is satisfied. ,
3. Identity:
Since 1 • 7 a = a- 1 \:/ a ez;
1 is identity of z;
4. Inverse:
The inverse of 1 is l
We have 2·,4 = 8 = l(mod 7) and 4°72 = 8 = l(mod 7)
4 is the inverse of 2 and 2 is the inverse of 4
3°75 = 5°73 = 15 = l(mod 7)
5 is the inverse of 3 and 3 is the inverse of 5
and 6•76 = 36 = l(mod 7)
6 is the inverse of 6 ,
all the axiom are satisfied
Hence ( z; 7) is a group
0

5. Commutative:
Clearly a•7 b = b•1 a\:/ a, be z;
Since it depends on the product in Z, which is commutative.
:. ( z;'·,)is an abelian group.

Note We observe that z;

is not a group under multiplication but z;
is a group under multiplication
because 7 is a prime.
In the same way, we can prove that ( z;,
•)is a group for any prime p and (Zn,+) is a group for any
integer n > l.
We have jz;j = p-1, and jznl = n
When z;
contains only non-zero elements of zp; where p is a: prime.
These two groups are standard examples for many concepts in group theory.

EXAMPLE 5
Prove that (Zn,+) is a group. Where Zn= {[O], [l], [2], •••• , [n - 11}.

Solution.
Given Zn= {[O], [1], [2], ... , [n - l]}
We verify the axioms for a group
l. Closure:
lf[a], [b] e Zn, then [a]+ [b] =[a+ b] = [r] where r is the remainder when a+ bis divided by n
[r] E Zn :. [a]+ [b] E Zn
closure axiom is satisfied.
 Groups and Rings • 1.31

2. Associativity:
We have [aJ + ([bJ + [c]) = ([aJ + [b]) + [cJ V [aJ,
, [bJ, [cJ E Zn
since it depends on the associative property y + in Z.
:. associative axiom is satisfied.
3. Identity:
Since [aJ +[OJ= [a+ OJ= [aJ Va EZn
and [OJ+ [aJ = [O + aJ = [aJ Va EZn,
[OJ is the identity element in Zn
identity axiom is satisfied.
4. Inverse:
If[aJ EZn, then [n-aJ is the inverse of[aJ,
Since [aJ+ [n-aJ =[a +n-aJ = [nJ =[OJ
inverse axiom is satisfied
all the axiom are satisfied in Zn
(Zn, +) is a group.
5. Commutative:
We have [aJ + [bJ =[a+ bJ = [b + aJ = [bJ + [aJ V [aJ, [bJ a EZn
(Zn,+) is an abelian group
We have seen that (Z6 •) is not a group and even (z;, •)
is not a group.
However we can prove that the subset { 1, 5} if z;, which are less than 6 and relatively prime to
6 is a group. This group set is denoted by U6 or U(6).

Definition1.13 If n is an integer> 1, then the set of all positive integers less than n and relatively
prime to n is denoted by Un or U(n ).
For example,
z; = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} then U = {1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8}
9

WORKED EXAMPLE

EXAMPLE 6
Prove that U9 = {1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8} is a group.

Solution.
Given U9 = {l, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8}
Since it is finite set, we verify the axioms of a group by forming the Cayley table.
We have
2•5 = 10= l(mod 9)
4•8 = 32 = 5(mod 9)
5•7 = 35 = 8(mod 9)
7•8 = 56 = 2(mod 9) and so on.
1~32 • Algebra and Number Theory

The Cayley table is

•9 1 2 4 5 7 8
1 1 2 4 5 7 8
2 2 4 8 1 5 7
4 4 8 7 2 1 5
5 5 1 2 7 8 4
7 7 5 1 8 4 2
8 8 7 5 4 2 1

1. Closure: The body of the Cayley table contains only all the elements of U9.
So, U9 is closed under multiplication mod 9.
closure axiom is satisfied.
2. Associativity: We have a» (b • c) =(a• b) • c "i/ a, b, c E U9 because it depends on the associative
property of integers for multiplication.
associative axiom is satisfied.
3. Identity: From the table we find that
I • a = a • 1 "i/ aE U9 .

1 is the identity element of U9

identity axiom is satisfied.
4. Inverse: From the table, we find
1 • 1 = 1 :. the inverse of 1 is 1
We have 2 • 5 = 10 = 1(mod9) and 5 • 2 = 10 = 1(mod9)
the inverse of 2 is 5 and the inverse of 5 is 2.
We have 4 • 7 = 28 = 1 (mod 9) and 7 • 4 = 28 = 1 (mod 9)
the inverse of 4 is 7 and the inverse of 7 is 4
and 8 • 8 = 64 = 1 (mod 9)
inverse of 8 is 8
the inverse exists for every element in U9
the inverse axiom is satisfied for a group.
So, (U9 •)is a group
=
5. Commutative: From the table, we find that a» b b «a for "i/ a, b E U9
Hence (U9 •) is an abelian group.

1.2.5 Permutation Group

We shall now consider an important group which is called the permutation group. First let us define
what is a permutation.
Consider the set S = {a, b, c} consisting ofthree elements.
In school you have seen a permutation is defined as an arrangement of objects in a definite order.
The total number of arrangements of the three different 'elements is 3 ! = 6.
The different arrangements of a, b, c are a, b, c; a, c, b; b, c, a; b, a, c; c, a, b; c, b, a.
 Groups and Rings • 1.33

We shall now put these permutations in a two row notation with the first row in the given order and
the second row in the rearranged order. So, we can write the above permutations as

(: : :} (: : ~} (: : :}
(: : :} (: : ~} (: : :)
In the new notation we can look upon these permutations as one-one functions from S ~ S, with the
second row elements as images of the first row elements. In the case of finite set a one-one function
from S ~ Sis also onto. So, these permutations are bijective functions on S.
We now define a permutation.

Definition 1.14 Permutation

Let S be a non-empty set. A bijective function f: S ~ Sis called a permutation. If S has n elements,
then the permutation is said to be of degree n.
Usually we take S = { 1, 2, 3, ... , n}
The set of all permutations on a set of n symbols is denoted by Sn.
Sn is a group under composition of functions as operation. The group Sn is called the permutation
group on n symbols. It is also known as symmetric group of degree n and O(Sn) = n!

Definition 1.15 A symmetry of a rigid body is a one to one distance preserving mapping or
transformation of the body onto itself.

Definition 1.16 Dihedral group

The group of symmetries of a regular polygon of n sides is called a dihedral group (Dn' * ) of order
' 27r 4n 2mr
2n, where the 2n transformations are n rotations about its center through angles - , - , ...., - = 27r
n n n
in the anticlockwise sense and the n reflections about the lines of symmetry and the operation * is
composition of functions.
If n is odd, there are n reflections about the line joining the centre of the regular polygon to the n
vertices.

If n is even ; there are !!.. reflections about the lines through opposite vertices and !!.. reflections
2 ·2
about the lines through the mid-points of opposite sides.
Dn is called the nth dihedral group.
If n = 3, D3 is the group of symmetries of an equilateral triangle, since a regular polygon of3 sides
is the equilateral triangle.
D3=S3
If n = 4, the regular polygon of 4 sides is the square, then O(D4) = 8, but O(S4) = 4! = 24
D4 is a proper subgroup of S4.
;,· 1.34 • Algebra and Number Theory

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
If S = {l, 2, 3}, then prove that (S3 •)is a non-abelian group, where• is composition offunction.

Solution.
Given S = { 1, 2, 3}.
The total number permutation on Sis 3 ! = 6.
The permutations are

Pi=G
2
2 ~). P2=G
2
3 ~). ~=G
2
3 ~)
P4 = 2
(1
2
~). Ps=G
2
~). P6=G
2
2 ~)
Then S3 = {ppp2,p3,p4,p5,p6} and the binary operation on S3 is the composition of functions.
The operation is performed on the left as below.
1-+1-+2
For example (1) (p2 • p3) = ((l)p2)p3 = (l)p3 = 2, i.e.,...____... (i) [p2 • p3] = 2
Similarly for other elements.
Since (l)p1=1, (2)p1=2, (3)p1=3,
p1 is the identity element on S.

P1 • P1 = P1; P1 • P2 = P2 • P1 = P2; P1 • P3 = P3 • P1 = P3;

P1 • P4 =p4 • P1 =p4;P1 • Ps =ps • P1 =p5;P1 • P6 =p6 • P1 =p6
P2 . P2
P2 •p2= G 2
3 3)(1 2 3) (1 2 3)
2 1 3 2=123=Pi
,,.-----...._
1-+1-+l
,,.-----...._
P2 •p2= G 2
3)
2 3 =r,
2-+3-+2
,,.-----...._ P2•P2

3-+2-+3
2 2
P2 •p3= G 3)(1 2 D=p4
3 2 2 3 ~)=G P2 P3
,,.-----...._
2 1-+1-+2
P2•P3 =G 1 ~)= p4 ,,.-----...._
2-+3-+1 P2•P3
2 2 2 ,,.-----...._
P2•P4 =G ~)=G n=p3 3-+2-+3
3 ~)G 3
2 2 2
P2 •p5 =G
3 ~)G ~)=G 2 ~)=p6
2 2 2
P2•P6 =G ~)= Ps
3 ~JG 2 ~)=G
 Groups and Rings
• 1.11

2 2 2
p3·P2 =G 3 DG 3 ~l=G 2 D=p6
p3•p3 = (12 2
3
2 2
~)G 3 ~)=G 1 ~)=Ps
p3·p4 =G
2
3 ~)G D=G 3 ~)= P2
2 2

2 2 2
p3•P6 =G ·3 .nG 2 D=G ~J=p4
2 2 2
P4 •P2 =. (12 ~)G ~)=G D=p5
3
2 2 2
p4 •p3 =(~
DG 3 ~)=G 2 D=p6
2 2
p4 ·p4 =·G
2
~)G 1 ~)=G 2 ~)=Pi
2 2 2
P4 • Ps =, (12 1 DG 1 ~)=G 3 D=P2

3 ~)= P3
2 2 2
p4·P6 .=G ~)=G
DG 2
Ps•P2 =G
2
~)G 3 D=G l ~)= p4
2 2

2 2 2
Ps·P3 =G
DG 3 ~)=G 2 D=P1
2 2
Ps·P4 =G ~)=G 2 D=p6
2_3)(1
1 2 2

2 2 2
Ps•Ps =G 1 DG D=G 3 n=p3
2 2 2 3)
Ps•P6 =G 2 D=G 3 2 = P2
.
~)G
2 2 2
P6·P2 =G 2 DG 3 ~J=G 3 3)1 =. PJ .

2 2 2
P6•P3 =G 2 ~)G 3 ~)=G 3 ~)= P2
1.~36 • Algel;>ra and Number Theory

P6"P4 =G nc ;)=G · D=Ps

2
2
2 2

~)G D=G ;)= p4

2 2 2
P6"Ps =G 2
2 2 2
P6 "P6 =G ~)G ~)=G D=P1
2 2 2
The Cayley table is

• P1 P2 P3 P4 Ps P6
P1 P1 P2 P3 p4 Ps P6
P2 P2 P1 p4 P3 P6 Ps
P3 P3 P6 Ps P2 P1 P4
P4 P4 Ps P6 P1 P2 P3
Ps Ps p4 P1 P6 P3 P2
P6 P6 P3 P2 Ps p4 P1

Closure: Since the body of the table contains only the elements of S3, S3 is closed with respect to.
Associativity: We know composition of functions is associative and so it is true in S3 also.
So, associative axiom is verified,
2 3)
Identity: p1 = (l1 2 3
is the identity element of S3•

Inverse: To find the inverse ofan element pi, find p. in the row through pi, to column head ofp1 is the
inverse ofpi i.e., pj1.
: . From the table we see that
-1 -1 -I
P1 =r.. P2 = P2, P3 = Ps,
-1 -1 -1
p4 = p4, Ps = p3, P6 = P6·
Thus inverse exists for every element. Hence inverse axiom is verified. So, (S3, •)is a group.
From the table we find thatp3 • p4 = P: andp4 • p3 = p6•

P3"P4*-P4"P3
Hence the group is not commutative.

Note
I. (S3, •) is the smallest non-abelian group. So the order of the smallest non-abelian group is 6. All
groups of order < 6 are abelian.
2. The permutation group (S3, •) is also known as symmetric group because certain permutation
groups can be considered as the group of symmetries of regular polygons.
 Groups and Rings • 1.37

EXAMPLE 2
Show that D3 is same as S3•

Solution.
D3 is the dihedral group of symmetries ofan equilateral triangle whose vertices are 1, 2, 3.
1 3

2 3

The symmetries are the rotations about the centre 0 and the reflectionsRj,R2, R3 about the altitudes
through the vertices 1, 2, 3 respectively. 1
2 2
R1=G 3 ~) = Pz, R2=G 2 ~) = P6,
2 2
R3=G ~)= P4, R120° = (~ 3 ~)=~,

R240° = (~
2
D = Ps' R360° = G
2
2 D=Pi 2 3
The three rotations and the three reflections are the symmetries of the equilateral triangle, which are
the six permutations of { 1, 2, 3}.

EXAMPLE 3
Find the dihedral group D4•

Solution.
D4 is the dihedral group of symmetries of a regular polygon with 4 sides, which is a square.
Let 1, 2, 3, 4 are the vertices of the square.
1~38 • Algebra and Number Theory

4 3 4 .------~----.
B 3
~------~
' , '' ,
''
'' ,, '' ,,
,
'' , ,, '' ,,
'' , ,, '
''
I
r ,, /
,

)(0 C ------?!(------- D
,, '' ,." 1c),
, ,, '' , I '

,, '' ,,
,, '' ,,
'
2 A 2

The symmetries are the rotations about the centre 0 through 90°, 180°, 270°, 360° and the reflections
about the diagonals and the bisectors of the sides.

The rotations are

~0° =(~ 2
3 4
3
~)
R1go 0 =(~ 2
4
3
; } R270 o =(: 2
1
3
2 ;)
2 3
R360° = (~ 2 3 : )= Roo
Reflections about the diagonals joining the vertices 1, 3 and 2, 4 is

R13 = ( ~ ! ~ ;} R24 ~ ( ~ ~
3
:)

The reflections about

. the bisectors AB and CD of the sides
. are

RAB=(~ ~ : ;}RcD =(: ~ ~ ~)

:, D4 consists of these 8 symmetries of the square.
Since D 4 has 8 elements, it is also called the octic group.

Note Permutation group S4 on four symbols { 1, 2, 3, 4} has 4! = 24 elements.

:. D4 is a subset of S4 and indeed D4 is a subgroup of S4.
Hence D4 is also a permutation group.

EXAMPLE 4
Let G be the set of all (symmetric) rigid motions of a equilateral triangle. Identify the elements
of G and show that it is a non abelian group of order six. [AU 2013, 2017, 2018)

Solutlon.
Let the vertices of the equilateral triangle be 1, 2, 3.
 Grpups and Rings • 1.39

2 3 2

--+

The symmetries are the three rotations about centre 0 through 120°, 240° and 360° in the anticlock-
wise sense and the reflections RI' R2, R3 about the _i_r bisectors to opposite sides through the vertices
l, 2, 3 respectively in the plane.

R120° = G ~ ~). R240° = G ~ ~).' R360° =G ~ D = Ro

2 2 2

The reflection about the _i_r bisector through l, 1 goes to l , 2 goes to 3, 3 goes to 2( ....
The reflection about the .ir bisector through 2, 1 goes to 3, 2 goes to Z; ~ gq~s.tQ._1.·
The reflection about the .ir bisector through 3, l.goes to 2, 2 goes to 1;,an!l 3 gOeSto3,/.
1'·<
R1 = L
1 2
3 2).
3
R2 =(
.1 2 3
3 2 1).
.
R3 =
>·1·\~'-1
(2 i 3)
Since it is a finite set we shall prove it is a group by forming Cayley's Table.
In the compositions, we use left operation x(f • g) (xi) • g =
Ro --(1 2
l 2 ~) and so, R0 is the identity permutation -.»

Ro •Ro = Ro, Ro • R120° = R120°, Ro • R240° = R240°

Ro •R1 = R1, Ro •R2 = Rz, Ro •R3 = R3
.1.40
~ . . :• '. • Algebra.and Number Theory

R240° • R120° = ( ~ 2 23)(12 23 3)=(1 2

1 1 2 ~)=Ro
.....-----.
1~3~2
.....-----.
2 3}(1 2 2~1~1
.....-----.
R2400 •R1 = G 2 1 3 ~) 3~2~3
2
=(~ ~)=R3
2 2 ...------.
R240° •R2 = (~ ~}G 2 ~) 1~3~1
......-----...
2 ~)=R1 2~1~3
...------.
=G 3 3~2~2
2 2 ...------.
1~3~3
R2400 •R3 =G ~}G ~) ...------.
2~1~2
2 ...------.
=G 2 ~)=R2 3~2~1
2 3) (1 2.
R120° • R240° = ( ~ 3 1 3 1 23) = (11 22 3)
3 =Ro
2 2
R120° • R120° = ( ~ 3 ~}G 3 ~)=G
2 ~) = R240°
2
R120° •R1 =(~ 3 ~}G 3
2 2 D=R2
D=G 2
R1200 •R2 = G
2 2 2
'3 ~}G 2 ~)=G D=R3
R1 •R2400 =G
2 2 2 ~)=R2
3 ~}G 1 ~)=G 2
2
R1 ·R1200 =G 3 ~}G 3
2 2
D=G 1 D=R3
R3 •R2400 = (~ 21 ~}G 2 ~)=G 23 ~)=R1
R2400 •R3 =G
2 2 2
~}G ~)=G 2 ~)=R2
R3 ·R1200 = G 2 ~}G 23 ~)=G 22 ~)= R2
R120° •R3 = (~ 23 ~}G 2 ~)=G 23 ~)=R1
 Groups and Rings
• 1~41

R1 •R1 =G 2
3
2
~}G ~)=G3
2
2 ~)=Ro
R1·R2 =G 2
3 ~}G D=G
2
2
2
~) = R240°

R1 •R3 =G 2
3 ~}G D=G
2 2
3 ~) = R120°

R2 ·R2400 =G 2
2 ~}G ~)=G2 2
~)=R3
R2 •R1200 =G 2
2
2
~}G ~J.=G
3
2
3 ~)=R1
2
R2•R1 =G 2 ~}G ~)=G
2
3
2
3 ~) = R120°

R2·R2 =G 2
2 ~}G ~)=G
2
2
2
2 D=Ro

R2 •R3 =G 2
2 ~}G D=G
2 2
1 ~) = R240°

R3•R2 =G 2
~}G ~)=G
2
1
2
3 ~) = R120°

R3•R1 =G 2
1 ~}G ~)=G
2
3
2
1 ~J= R240°

R3•R3 =G 2
~}G D=G
2
1
2
2 ~)=Ro
The Cayley Table is

• Ro R120° R240° RI R2 R3
R.
Ro 0 R120° R240° R1 R2 R3

R120° R1200 R240° Ro R2 R3 RI

R240° R240° Ro R120° R3 RI R2

RI R1 R3 R2 Ro R240° R120°
R2 R2 RI R3 R120° Ro R240°

R3 R3 R2 RI R240° R120° Ro

We now verify the axioms.

I . Closure: The body of the table contains only all the elements of G.
So, G is closed under composition of functions.
So, closure axiom is satisfied.
1.42 • Algebra and Number Theory

2. Associativity: In general composition of functions is associative and hence it is true here in G also.
3. Identity: The identity map R0 is the identity element; since R0 • f =f V f E G.
4. Inverse: Inverse of R0 is R0.
Since R1200 R2400 = R2400 • R1200 =Ro
The inverse of R120o is R240o and the inverse of R240o is R120o
the inverse of R1 is RI' since R1 • R1 = R0
the inverse of R2 is R2, since R2 • R2 = R0
the inverse of R3 is R3, since R3 • R3 = R0
So, the inverse exists for every element in G
So, (G, •) is a group of order 6.
we have R120o • R1 = R2 and R1 • R120o = R3
:. we find R120o R1 ::!:- R1 • R120o
So, the group is non abelian and the order of the group is six.

Note The group of symmetries of an equilateral triangle P 3 = S3.

EXAMPLE 5
Show that the set of symmetric rigid motions of a square with the binary operations of
composition of functions is a non abelian group of order 8. [AU 2015]

Solutlon.
Let the vertices of square be 1, 2, 3, 4.
2 A 2
~-----~ ~-----~
'
'' ,, '
'' ,,
,
'
, ,, ' ,
''
'' ,,
'' ,,
,,
-. I ",,
' "'O ' I
)( D ------*------ C
//" 0 -. .: I ''

,,
, I '
'' ;'" I ',,
, ''
,, ' //,
, '
',
'
4 3 4 B 3

The symmetries are the rotations about 0 through 90°, 180°, 270°, 360° in the anticlockwise sense,

~0° =G
2
3
3
4 ~} R1goo =G
2 3
4 ~)
R210° = (~
2 3
2 ;} R3600 =G
2 3
2 3 :)=Ro
Reflections about the diagonals joining 1, 3 and 2, 4 are R13 =G 2 3
4 3 ~)
3
R24 = (13 2
2 :)
 Groups and Rings • 1.43

Reflections about AB and CD are

RAB =C ~ ~ ~). (
RcD=432
1 2 3 41)

These are the 8 symmetries ofa square which form the group D4.

D4 ={Ro, R90°• R1so0• R210°• R13, R24• RAB• RcD}

Now RAB •&;oo = c 2 3
4}(1
1 4 3 2
2 3 4)
3 4 1

2 3
. =(~ 2
4)
4 =R24-
&;oo •RAB= G 2
3
3
4
4}(1
1 2
2
3
1 4 ~)
2 3
4)
=G 4 3
2 =R13

RAB •&;0° "¢ &;0° •RAB

4
So, D is not abelian.

Note D4 is a non abelian group with 8 elements and so, it is a called an octic group.
But S4 contains 4! = 24 elements.
So D4 is a subgroup of S4•

EXAMPLE 6

Let/andg be the permutations of the elements of {l, 2, 3, 4, 5} given f =G 2 3

4 5) and
3 1 4 5
g = (15 2 3 4 5) find gf 2g- and g-1Jg1-1.
4 3 1 2
. 1 .
[AU2007]

Solutlon. ·

Given
t=(~
2 3
3
4
4 ~} g=
(15 2 3 4
4 3 ~)
Then
r' = (~
3
2 3
4
4 ~)=(~
2 3
2
4
4 ~) [Reversing/, we getj1]

g
-1
= (5
1
4
2
3
3 4 ~)=(~
2
5
3
3
4
2
n
1.44 • Algebra and 'Number Theory

2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4
f 2 = (12 3 1 4 ~)G 3 1 4 ~)=G 1 2 4 ~)
2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3
4 5)
fg=G 3 4 ~)G 4 3 D=(: 3 5 1 2
2 3 4 2 3 4 5)(1 2 3 4 5)
gf2g-1 =G
4 3 DG 2 4 545321
2 3 4
=G 2 5 3 !)
g-1/gf-1 = (:
2 3 4
5 3 2 n(: 2 3 4
3 5 1 ~)G
2 3 4
2 4 ~)
2 3 4
=G 1 5 2 !)
EXAMPLE 7
2 3 2 3
If /=G ;) and g=G :). thenfind/-1gfandgfg-1• [AU 2006]
3 4 1 4

Solution.

Given
2 3
f =(~ 3 4 4)
1
and
.
g= (13 2 3 4)
1 4 2
. on four symbols.
are Permutations

3 2 3
1-1 =(~ 2 4 1 )=(1
3 4 4 1 2 ;)
1 2 3
g -1 = (3 4_2)=(1 ;)
1 2 3 4 2 4
2 3 2 3
1-lgf =(: 2 3 4)(1
2 ;)G 1 4 2 2 3 4 ;)
2 3
=(~ 4 2 ;)
and gfg-1 =G
2
1
3
4 ~)G 2 3
3 4 ;)G 2 3
4 1 ;)
2 3
=(~ 4 2 ;)
 Groups and Rings • 1:45

EXAMPLE 8

If f = G ~ : :) and g = G ~ ! :) are permutations, prove that ts- rr' = r' . «'.

[AU 2006]

Solutlon.

Given
I=
(1 3
2 3 4)
2 I .4 '
(1
s= 2 3 4
2 3
;)
g·l=G
2 3
3 4
·;}G 2 3 4}=(1
2 1 4 2
2 3
1 4 ;)
(g• f)- I = 2(1 2 3
4 ;) (1)

2 3 2 3 4)
Now 1-1 =(~ 4)
4 , g-1 =(14 1 2 3
2
2 3 2 3
1-1•g-t = (1
3 2 :}(: 2
4) =(1 2
3
3
2 1 4 ;) (2)

:. From (1) and (2) we get, (g. f)-t =J-1. g-1

EXAMPLE 9

If f = ( 1 2 3 4 5) and h = ( 1 2 3 4 5. ) are permutations on the set A = {l, 2, 3, 4, 5},

2 4 5 1 3 5 2 4 3 1
find a permutation g on A such that f • g = h • f. [AU 2008]

Solutlon.

G iven f =(l 2 3 4 5) , h=(l 2 3 4 5) .

are permutations on five symb o1 s
2 4 5 1 3 5 2 4 3 1
A={l,2,3,4,5}.
1 2 3 4 5
So,they are bijective functions on A and 1-1
.
= (4 1 5 2 3
)

We have to find g such that/• g = h •f

Now, l•g=h•f => J-1·(f•g)=l-1·(h•f)
(J-1.J) •g=l-1 • (h ·f) [compositions of functions is associative]
IA • g = 1-I • (h • f)
g = 1-1 • (h • !)
1.4. • Algebra and Number Theory

g=(: 2
I 5
3 4
2 ~)G 2 3 4
2 4 3 ~)G 2
4 5
3 4
D

EXAMPLE 10
=G
2 3 4
3 2 4 n
In the group S5, let a = (~ 2
3 4 5) and f3
3 1 4 5 '
= (12 2 3 4 5)
1 5 3 4
.
. Determme

(i) afJ, (ii) a3 (iii) p4

(iv) a-1 and p-1 (v) (af:Jt1 (vi) p-1 a-1•

lllutton.
2 3 4
Given a=G
2 3 4 5)
3 l 4 5 ' P=G 5 3 !)
2 3 4 2 3 4 5)
(i) af3=G 3 1 4 ~}G 1 5 3 4
[left operation]

2 3 4
=G 5 2 3 !) ~;~

(ii) a2=G 2
3
3 4
I 4 ~}G
2
3
3 4
4 ~)
=G
2 3 4
2 4 ~)
:. a3 = a2 •a= (1 3
2 3
l 2
4
4 ~}G
2 3 4
3 1 4 ~)
=(1 2
1 2
3
4
4
5 ~)
(iii) p4 =P·P~G 2 3
s
4
3 !}G 2
I 5
3 4
3 !}
=(1 2
1 2
3
4
4
5
n
:. /34 = p2 • p2 = c 2
l 2
3
4
4
5 ~}G 2
2
3 4
4 5 D
=(1I 2
2
3 4
5 3 4
5)
 . Groups and Rings • 1.47
:··::i·

(iv) a-1 = (13

2 3 4
2 4 ~) [To write a-1, for the second row of a images are first row elements]

p-1 =( ~
2 3 4
4 5 ~) [i.e., 1 ""2, 2"" 1, 3 ""4, 4 ~ 5, 5 "" 3,]

2 3 4
(v) we have (aP) = G
5 2 3 !)
(ap)-1 =G
2 3 4
3 4 5 ~)
(vi) p-la-1 =G
2 3 4
4 5 ~}G 2 3 4
2 4 ~)
=G
2 3 4
3 4 5 ~)
We find
Which is inverse reversal law.

EXERCISE 1.2

I. Show that z; ={[l], [2], [3], [4]} is a group under x5.

2. /=(~ !~ ;}g=(~ ~: ~)find/•g,g•/Alsoverifythat(g•/t1=/-1•g-1,

[AU 2009]

3. Given. f = (1
3 4
2
31 4)
2 . s = 2
2 3
4) (1
3 4 1,h=324
(1 2 3 ~}Compute (i) if• g) • h (ii) h-1

(iii) h-1 gh

[Ans: (i) ( ~
2 3
2 3
4) (1
.. h = 4
'1 ' (ii)
2 3
2 (1
3 ' (iii) h = 3
4)
2 3
4 2 ~}
4. Show that z;
= { 1, 2, 3, 4} is group under 's-
5. Show that the set U6 = { 1, 3, 5, 7} is group under-j,
6. Show that the set G = {O, 1, 4, 7} is not a group under +8.
2. 3 4)g=(l 2 3 4)
7. lf/=(l Thenfindf·g·g•/alsoverifyif•gt1=g-1·/-1•
3412 2341' '.
[AU 2009]

8. mven/= (~ ! 3
; } g= (~ ~ : ~} h = (~ ! J3
; compute (i) c- g)h, (ii) h-1,
(iii) h-1gh.
1~48 • Algebra and Number Theory

1.2.6 Subgroup
Definition 1.17 Let (G, •)be a group. A non-empty subset Hof G is said to be a subgroup of G if
H itself is a group under the same operation • of G.
For example, (Q, +)is a group and Z is a subset of Q. We know that (Z, +)is a group and so (Z, +)
is a subgroup of (Q, +)
In the group ( G, • ), if e is the identity then the singleton { e} and G are subsets of G.
It is obvious ({e}, •)and (G, •)are subgroups of(G, •).
These two subgroups are called trival subgroups of ( G, • ).
All other subgroups of (G, •)are called non-trival subgroups.
The non-trival subgroups are also known as proper subgroups.
Theorem 1. 7 Let (H, •) be a subgroup of ( G, •) and e is the identity of G.
Then (i) e is also the identity of H.
(ii) Every a e . H bas the same inverse as a treated as an element of G has.
i.e., inverse of a is tr1•
Proof Given (H, •) is a subgroup of ( G, •) and e e G is the identity.
(i) Suppose e' be the identity element of H. Let a e H
Then a • e' = a.
Sinceae HcG~ae G
a•e=a [ ·: e is identity of G]
a•e'=a•e
Treating this as an equation in G, by left cancellation law in G, we get e' = e.
Hence e is the identity of H.
(ii) Let a e H be any element.
Let a-1 be the inverse of a as an element ofG.
Let a' be the inverse of a as an element of H.
a • a-1 = e and a • a'= e [ ·: e is the identity of G and H]
a• a-1 =a• a'
Treating this as an equation in G, by left cancellation law, we get a-1 =a'.
Thus inverse of a in His a-1•
The above theorem means that identity of any subgroup Of G is the identity of G and the inverse of any
element in a subgroup is the inverse of that element in G. •
Criterion for Subgroup
According to the definition of a subgroup, to test a subset is a subgroup we have to verify all the
axioms of a group. Instead, we find a set a minimum conditions to decide a subset is a subgroup.
The next theorem gives this condition.
Theorem 1.8 A non-empty subset Hof a group (G, •) is a subgroup of G if and only if
a * b-1 e H 'V a, b e H. [AU 2008, 2012)

Proof Let H be a subgroup of G.

Then H itself is a group under "'.
a, b e H ~ a, b-1 e H.
Hence a• b-1 e H, by closure.
 Groups and Rings • L49

Conversely,let H be a non-empty subset of G such that

a * b-1 E H, V a, b E H
we have to prove His a subgroup of G. So, we have to verify the axioms.
Since H is non-empty, there exists an element a E H.
Then by the given condition a * a-1 E H => e E H.
So, identity exists in H.
If x E His any element, then
x, e E H => e * x-1 E H => x-1 E H;
: . inverse exists in H for every element in H.
Further, a.b EH=> a, b-1 EH [ ·: inverse exists is H]
a* (b-1 1t E H =>a* b E H.
So, H is closed under * and hence closure axiom is satisfied.
Since H c G, associative axiom is inherited in H.
So, associative axiom is satisfied.
:. (H, *)is a group and hence a subgroup of(G, *).
•
Note If the binary operation of the group G is denoted by +, then the inverse of a denoted by -a
instead of a"'"1. So, the condition a* b-1 E His written as a - b E H.
Next we shall prove that a finite subset is a subgroup if closure is satisfied.

Theorem 1.9 Let (G, *)be a group and let H be a non-empty finite subset of G • (H, •)is a
subgroup of (G, •)if a* be H'V a, b, e H.

Proof Given H is a non-empty finite subset of G such that

a• b E HV a, b, EH (1)
Since H is non-empty, there exists an element a E H.
:. therefore a• a= a2, a2 *a= a3, ... , an- I *a= an, ... are all in Hby closure condition (1)
Since His finite, all these elements cannot be different.
So, there must be repetitions.
Let ar =a", 0 < r < s
Then as-r=e.
\
Since s - r > 0, as - r E H => e E H
So, identity element exists in Hand identity axiom is satisfied.
Since s - r > 0 => s - r -1 ~ 0, as - r- 1 e H
Thus a, as-r-1 EH
a * as - r - I = as - r = e and as - r - I * a = as - r = e
a•as-r-l=as-r-l •a=e
Hence the inverse of a is as-r- I=> a-1 = or:": IE H.
So, inverse axiom is satisfied.
Associativity is inherited in H.
Hence (H, *) is a group and so, is a subgroup of ( G, *)
1.10 • Algebra and Number Theory

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
Prove that nZ = {11.X Ix e Z} is a subgfoup of (Z, +).

Selutlon.
Given nZ={nxlxe Z}.
Ifx=O then nx = 0 => 0 e nZ, So nZ is non-empty.
Let a,be nZ
Then a'"= nx and b = ny for some integers x, y.
Then a-b= nx-ny= n(x-y) e nZ.
a
Hence (nZ, t) is subgroupof(Z, +).

EXAMPLE 2
If H1 and H2 are subgroups of a group (G, •)prove that H1 r.H2 is a subgroup of (G, •).
[AU 2008, 2013, 2014, 201!)

Sohltlon.
Given Hp H2 are subgroups of(G, •).
Let a, b e H1 n H2 => a, b e H1 and a, b e H2•
Since H1 and H2 are subgroups by criterion for subgroup (Theorem 1. 7).
a,be H1 =>a•b-1 e H1
and a, b e H2 => a • b-1 e H2
a • b-1 e H1 n H2
, I
Thus a, b e H1 n H2 => a • b: e H1 n H2•
Hence H1 n H2 is a subgroup of G.

Note It can be extended to more than two subgroups.

IfHI' H2, ... , Hn are subgroups of G, then H1 n H2 n , ..., n Hn is a subgroup of G.
EXAMPLE 3
Let S be a non-empty set andP(S) denote the power set of S. Verify whether (P(S), n) is a group.
[AU 2008)

Selutlol.
We know that the power set P(S) is the set of all subsets of S. The binary operation on P(S) is n.
Let G = P(S). We shall verify the axioms of a group.
Closure: Let A, B be any two subsets of S.
A n B is a subset of S.
Thus A, B e P(S) =>A n B e P(S)
So, P(S) is closed under n.
 1.51

;\ssociativity: Since 11 is associative in any collection or setsjn is ~fin P(.r;:\

so, associative axiom is satisfied.

fdentity: Let A e P(S) be any element. i.e., A is any subset of S.'
;.:~

Then A 11S=S11A=A
:. Sis the identity element in P(S) for 11.
Inverse: Let A be any subset of S.
Since S is the identity, it is obvious there is no subset B or ~ sucn mat A n B = S.
So, the inverse axiom is not satisfied.
Hence (P(S), n) is not a group.

Note (P(S), 11) is only a semi-group with identity or Monoid.

EXAMPLE 4
If H1, H2 are subgroups of (G,*),then prove that H1 u H2 is a subgroup of H if and only if
H1 c H2 or H2 !;;;; Hr [AU 2015]

Solution.
Given H1, H2 are subgroups of ( G, * ).
Let H1 u H2 be a subgroup of(G, *).
To prove H1 ~ H2 or H2 c H1•
Assume the contrary.
i.e., assume H1 ~ H2 and H2 c H1•
Then there exists d e H1 and a e H2; b e H2 and b e H1.
Since a e H1 and b e H2, a, b e H1 u H2 => a * b e H1 u H2
Since H1 u H2 is a subgroup of ( G, *)

a * b e H1 or a * b e H2
=:ase (i): Let a * b e H1•
Since a e HI' a-1 e H1
a-1 *(a* b) e Hp as H1 is a subgroup.
~ (a-1 *a)* be H1 => e «b e H1 => be Hp
Which contradicts the assumption b e H1•
::ase (ii): Let a * be H2.
Since be H2, b-1 e H2
(a* b) * b-1 e H2, as H2 is a subgroup.
~
Which contradicts the assumption a e H2.
Hence in either case we have contradiction.
Our assumption H1 er. H2 and H2 er. H1 is wrong.

H1 ~H2 or H2 ~H1
 1.s2:< Ill' .. Alaebra and'N'i.Jmber Theorv

Conversely, let 1(.1 s;;; H2 or H2 s;;; H1•

' 'y
\To;proVe H1 H2 is a subgroup.
If H1 s;;; H2,t4en HI u H2 = H2
H1 u Ht is a subgroup.
ff[f2 r;;i;,/J( then H1 u H2 = H1•
f1i.'w1i2 is subgroup.
Thus H1 u H2 is a subgroup of ( G, * ).
Note Give an example to show that union of subgroups is not a subgroup.
We know (Z, +)is a group. LetH1=2Z, H2 = 3Z
(H1, +) and (H2, +) are subgroup of Z.
Now 2 E H1 and 3 E H2 :. 2, 3 E H1 u H2
But 2 + 3 = 5 fit H1 u H2, since 5 fit H1 and 5 fit H2
So, H1 u H2 is not a subgroup.

EXAMPLE 5
Find all the non-trivial subgroups of (Z6, +6). (AU 200(i

Solution.
We have Z6 = {[O], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]}
Let H1 = {[O], [3]} and H2 = {[O], [2], [4]} are all the non-trivial subgroup of (Z6, +6)

+6 [O] [3] +6 [O] , [2] [4]

[O] [O] [3] [O] [O] [2] [4]
[3] [3] [O] [2] [2] [4] [O]
[4] [4] [O] [2]

Since Hp H2 are finite subsets of G, H1 and H2 are closed under +6,

(Hp +6) and (H2, +6) are subgroups of(Z6, +6).

EXAMPLE 6
Determine H = {O, 5, 10} and K = {O, 4, 8, 12} are subgroups of the group (Z15, +15). [AU 2007

Solution.
The modular set Z15 = {O, 1, 2, 3, ... , 14}.
Given H = {O, 5, 10} and K = {O, 4, 8, 12} are finite subsets of Z15.
To verify they are subgroup, it is enough to verify the closure axiom.
+s 0 4 8 12
+15 0 5 10 0 0 4 8 12
0 0 5 10 4 4 8 12 1
5 5 10 0 8 8 12 1 5
10 10 0 5 12 12 1 5 9
H K
 Groups and Rings • 1.53

His closed under +15 and so His a subgroup.

But K is not closed under +15, because the body of the composition table contains elements not in K.
Hence K is not a subgroup ofZ15. •

EXAMPLE 7
Let (G, *)be a group and let a e G be a fixed element. If H ={an I n e Z}, prove that His a
subgroup of G.

Solutlon.
Given
Since a0 = e e H, His non-empty.
Letx,y e H, thenx = am,y =a", where m, n e Z.
Then x * y-1 =am* (anti
[·:m-neZ]
(H, *) is a subgroup of ( G, *)

EXAMPLE 8
Find all subgroups of S3•

Solutlon.
Let S3 = { e,fi,fi,f3,f4,J5}

where
e=C ~ ~} Jl=G f2=G ~ :} 2 ~}

h=C ~ ~} J4=G ~ ~} fs=G 2 ~)

Since O(S3) = 6 = 2.3, the subgroups are of orders 1, 2 and 3, since 2 and 3 are primes.
They are (i) { e} - order 1
We have f3, 14, fs are cycles of order 2.
and so

ff= J3 • J3 = C ~ ~) C ~ ~) = C ~ ~) =e

11 =G ~ :)G ~ :)=C ~ ~)=e

fl =G ~)G 2 2 ~)=C ~ ~)=e
{e,f3}, {e,f4}, {e,fs} are subgroups oforder 2.
and {e,fi,fi} is a sub group oforder 3.
Now
1 2 3) ( 1 2 3) (1 2 3)
Jl·f2=3( 12°2 3 1=12 3=e
1.54 • Algebra and Number Theory

!2 • Ii = C ~ ~} G .~ ~) ~ C ~ ~) =e

Jj • f2 =Ji• Jj forfj,fi E {/pfi}

:. It is an abelian subgroup.
Thus all the subgroups of S3 are
{e}, {e,f3}, {e,/4}, {e,/5} and {e,J3,f2}

EXAMPLE 9
In the group U9, H = {l, 4, 7} is a subset of U9• Is it a subgroup?
Solution.
We know U9 = { 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8} and (U9, •)is a group.
To prove H = { 1, 4, 7} is a sub-group of U9.
Since His finite, to prove His a subgroup it is enough to verify closure property.
We have 4 • 4 = 16 = 7 (mod 9)
4 • 7 = 28 = 1 (mod 9)
7 • 7 = 49 = 4 (mod 9)

•9 1 4 7
1 1 4 7
4 4 7 1
7 7 1 4
Since the body of the table contains only all the elements of H, His closed under multiplication mod 9.
His a subgroup of (U9, •)

EXAMPLE 10
In G=S4•

Let H={G 2
3 2
3

Prove that His an abelian subgroup of G.

Solution.
Let

Where e = G ~ ~ :} ft = G ~ ; ~} /2 = G ~ ~ ;} J3 = ( ~ ~ ~ ~)
To prove His subgroup, it is enough to proveH is closed under composition of functions.
We form the Cayley table.
e is the identity map
:. e is the identity element of H.
 Groups and Rings
• 1~51

4 4)(1 4 ;JG 4)=e

2 3 3 2
fi·fi=G 3
2
2 1
3
2 3 4
4 4)(1 '4 ;)
2 3 3
fi·f2=G 3 3
2

=(~ 2 3
3 2
4)=13
1 .
2 3 2 3 2 3
fi·13=G 4 ;JU 3 2 ~J=G 4 ;)=12
f.2. Ji= . (13
2 3 2 3 2 3
4 ;JG 4 ;)=(~ 3 2 ~)=13
f2·l2 =G 4
2 3 2
;JG 4
3
;)=G 2 3
2 3
4)4 = e
f2·13=G 42 3 ;)(~ 23 3
2 ~)=G
2 3
4 ;)=Ji
2 3
13·ii=(~ 23 32 ~)G 21 3
4 ;)=G 4 ;)=12
2
13·/2=(; 23 23 ~)G 42 3
;J=G
3
4 ;)=ii
2 3
13·13=(; 23 23 ~)(~ 23 3
2 ~)=G 2 3 :)=e
The Cayley table is
. e f1 ii 13
e e Ji ii 13
Ji Ji e 13 ii
ii ii 13 e Ji
13 .13 ii Ji e
I From Cayley table, we find His closed ~der composition of function.
Hence His a subgroup of G = S4.

XAMPLE 11
Let Hand Kare subgroups of G with O(Jl) = 10, O(K) = 21, then prove that H l'I K = {e}.
olutlon.
~
piven O(H) = 10, O(K) = 21.
1.56 • Algebra and Number Theory

Since H n K is a subgroup of Hand K.

O(H n K)IO(K) and O(H n K)IO(K)
If O(H n K) = r, then rlO(H) and rlO(K)
=> rllO and rl21
Since (10, 21) = 1, it follows r = 1
0 (H n K) =I => H n K = { e}
Definition1.18 Cyclic subgroup
Let (G, *)be a group and a E G. Then H ={an In E Z} is a subgroup of G. His called the cyclic
subgroup of G generated by a and it is denoted by (a) or <a>.

Note If the binary operation of G is denoted by+, then instead of an, we write na.
For example, in the group (Z, +), 2Z = <2> is the cycfic subgroup generated by 2.
In the group (Z12, +12), {[O], [3], [6], [9]} is the cyclic subgroup generated by [3], since
2[3] = [6], 3[3] = [9], 4[3] = [12] = [O]
Definition1.19 Cyclic group
A group ( G, *) is said to be a cyclic group if there exists an element a E G such that every element
x E G is of the form an for some integer n. The element a is called a generator of G and is written as
G =(a) or <a>. It is read as G is cyclic group generated by a.
For example
(i) The multiplicative group G = { 1, -1, i, -i} is cyclic group generated by i, since i2 = -1, i3 = -i, i4 = 1
It can be seen easily that -i is another generator.
(ii) The group (Z; +)is cyclic group generated by 1, since any element is nl for some integer n.
It can be seen easily that -1 is another generator.
(iii) The group (nZ, +)is cyclic group generated by n and-n.
(iv) The group Z8 = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} under x8 is a cyclic group, generated by 1.
Other generators are 3, 5, 7.
Note
1. If G =<a> is an infinite cyclic group, then a and a-1 are the only two generators.
2. If G is a finite cyclic group of order n, then for each divisor d of n there is a unique cyclic
subgroup of order d. '

Theorem 1.10 Any cyclic group is abelian. [AU 2013)

Proof Let G be a cyclic group generated by a.

Then G = {an I n E Z}
Let x, y E G be any two elements then x =a", y =an for some integers m and n.
Now x *Y=am «a" =am+n
and y * x = an * am = an+ m = am+ n
x * y =y *a V x, y E G
Hence G is abelian.
 Groups and Rings • 1.57

Note The converse is not true. i.e., an abelian group is not cyclic.
Example: (Q, +) is an abelian group, but not cyclic.

Theorem 1.11 Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

Proof Let ( G, *) be a cyclic group generated by a.

Then G = {an I n E Z} = <a>
Let Hbe a subgroup of G.
Since His a subset of G, every element of His of the form ar for some r E Z.
Since His a group, if ar E H, then its inverse (a1-1 = a:" E H. So either r or -r is a positive integer.
Hence H contains positive integer powers of a.
Let m be the least positive integer such that am E H.
We shall prove am is a generator of H.
Let x E H be any element, then x = an for some n E Z.
For the integers n and m, by Euclidean division algorithm, we can find integers q and r such that
n = mq + r, 0 :::;;· r < m
Then

ar= (am)-q * x= a-mq * x

Now am E H => (am)q E H, by closure.
amqE H
a-mq EH, [Since His a group.]
a-mq *XE H, [by closure]
arE H, wherer<m
If r "# 0, then ar E His a contradiction to the fact that m is the least positive integer such that am E H.
Hence r=O
n=mq =>
Thus, any element of His an integral power of am.
So, His cyclic group generated by am.
i.e.,
•
Theorem 1.12 If (G, *)is a cyclic group generated by a, then prove that a-1 is also a generator.

Proof Given G=<a>

So, any element x E G is x =an for some integer n.
Now x=an=(a-1tn
Thus, xis an integral power of a-1 and so a-1 is also a generator of G.
•
1.58 • Algebra and Number Theory

Definition 1.20 Order of an element

Let ( G, *) be a group and let a E G. The order of a is the least positive integer m such that am = e.
The order of a is denoted by O(a) and we write O(a) = m.
If no such integer exists, then we say that a is of infinite order.

Note
(i) In any group the identity element e is the only element of order 1.
And it is the only element oforder 1.
(ii) If the binary operation is+, then the condition is written as ma= e.
For example,
1. In the group G = { 1, -1, t, -i} under usual multiplication, O(i) = 4, 0(-i) = 4 and 0(-1) = 2
since (i2) =-1, i4 = (-1)2 = 1 and (-1)2 = 1.
2. If R* is the set of all non-zero real numbers and (R*, •) is a group, then find the order of -
and 3.
Solution: The identity of this group is 1.
Since (-1)2 = 1, 0(-1) = 2
There is no integer for which 3n = 1
0(3) is infinite.
3. Find the order of 2, 3 in Z8 = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} under+8
Solution: We have 2 +8 2 = 4
i.e., =
2(2) = 4 4(mod 8) -;t:. 0
Similarly, =
3(2) = 6 6(mod 8) -;t:. 0
=
4(2) = 8 O(mod 8) -;t:. 0, 0 is the identity of Z8
0(2) = 8
Now 3 +8 3 = 6 => 2(3) = 6 = 6(mod 8) -;t:. 0
= =
3(3) = 9 l(mod 8) -;t:. 0, 4(3) = 12 4(mod 8) -;t:. 0
= =
5(3) = 15 7(mod 8) -;t:. 0, 6(3) = 18 2(mod 8) -;t:. 0
= =
7(3) = 21 5(mod 8) -;t:. 0, 8(3) = 24 O(mod 8)-;t;. 0
0(3) = 8
4. we know,
(Z, +) is group of infinite order, since Z contains infinite number of elements.
0 is the identity element and order of 0 is 1
What is the order of 3 in (Z, +)?
3 + 3 = 2(3) ¢ 0
3 + 3 + = 3(3) ¢ 0
i.e., there is no positive integer in Z such that n(3) = 0
3 is of infinite order.

Theorem 1.13 Let (G, *)be a finite cyclic group generated by an element a e G. If O(G) = n, then
an= e and so, G= {a, a2, a3, ... an-t, an= e}. Further O(a) =n.
That is n is the least positive integer such that an= e. [AU 2011)

Proof Given (G, *)is a finite cyclic group generated by a.

First we shall prove that am = e is not possible form < n.
Assume, it is possible i.e., am = e, m < n
 Groups and Rings • 1.59

Since G is a cyclic group generated by a, any element x E G is an integral power of a.

i.e., x = ak for some integer k.
Now for the integers m, k, by Euclidian division algorithm, we can find integers q and r such that
i.e., x = ak fork= mq + r, 0 ::;; r < m

Thus any element of G is ar for r < m. This means the number of elements of G is at most m.
i.e., O(G) = m < n, which contradicts the hypothesis O(G) = n.
Hence am = e is not possible for m < n.

Next we shall prove that the elements a, a2, a3, ••• , an are all distinct.
Suppose it is not true, then there are repetitions.
Let as= a', 0 < r < s ::;; n.

as - r = a0 = e, 0<s- r<n
This is again a contradiction by first part.
all the elements are distinct.
a, a2, a3, , an= e are all distinct.
Since O(G) = n, it follows G ={a, a2, a3, an= e} and an= e.
So, O(a) = n
•
Note
1. The theorem says that in the case of finite cyclic group order of the generating element is order
of the group.
2. In a finite group G of order n, if there is an element a of order n, then the group G is cyclic group
generated by a.

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Find the cyclic subgroups of (Z6, +6).

Solution.
Given Z6 = {[O], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]} :. O(Z6) = 6.
Since Z6 is cyclic, there exists subgroups.
Divisors of 6 are 2 and 3. So there are subgroups of order 2 and 3.
They are namely {[OJ, [3]} and {[O], [2), [4]}
Note that 0((1)) = 6, since [1] + [1) + [l]+ [1]+ [1]+ [l] = 6 = [O]

6 times
We have 0((3)) = 2, since 2[3] = [6] = [O]
and 0((2)) = 3, since 3[2] = [6] = [O]
1.60 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 2

LetG=S4.FindthecyclicsubgroupH=<a>, where a=G ~ ! ~)es 4•

Solution.
2
GivenG=S4and a=(~ 3 4)
3 4 1

a 2 =a•a= (1 2 3
2 3 4 ~)G ~)
2 3
3 4

=G
2 3
4 ~)
a 3 =a 2 •a= (1 2 3
3 4 ~)G ~)2 3
3 4

=(~
2 3
2 ~)
a 4 =a 3 •a= (1 2 3
4 1 2 :)G ~)2
3 4
3

=(1 2 3 4)=e
1 2 3 4

: . the cyclic subgroup is H = {a, a2, a3, a4 = e}

~
H= {(12 23 43 4) 2 3 4)(1
1' (13 4 1 2 ' 4
2 3
2 :JG
2 3
2 3 ;)}
1.2. 7 Cycles and Transpositions
Definition 1.21 Let S = {al' a2, ... , an} and be a permutation on S. o is called a cycle of length r if
there exist r elements al' a2, ... , a; such that a(a1) =,a2, a(a2) = a3 ••• , oi«: 1) = a; and a(ar) = a1.
This cycle is represented by the symbol (al' a2, ... , ar) or (a1 a2 .•. ar).

Note
1. In the cycle (a 1, a2, ... , ar), the image of any element is the following element, the image of the
last element is the first element and all other elements go to itself i.e., the elements not in the cycle
are fixed.
2. The cycle (a1, a2, •.. , ar) = (a2, a3, ... , ar, a1) = (a3, a4, ... , ar, a1, a2) etc.
For example, if S = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and the cycle a= (2, 3, 5) is oflength 3.

Then a = 1 2 3 4 5) is a permutation.
(1 3 5 4 2
 Groups and Rings • 1.61

Since cycles are special types of permutations, two cycles can be multiplied in the usual way,
The product of two cycles need not be a cycle.
For example,
LetS= {l, 2, 3, 4, 5}. CT1 = (1 5), CT2 = (2 3 4) be 2 cycles
then CT1CT2 = (1 5) (2 3 4)

=G
2 3
4 5)
2 3 4 , 1 1
(1 2 3
3 4 2
4
~)
2 3 4 5}
which is not a cycle.
=(~ 3 4 '2 1 .

Definition 1.22 Two cycles are said to be disjoint if they have no elements in common.
For example, (1 2 3), (4 5) are disjoint cycles.
But (1 2 3), (3 4 5) are not disjoint.

Theorem 1.14(a) Any permutation rron a finite set S ={al' a2, ••• an} can be written as a product
of disjoint cycles.

Note The decomposition of a permutation into disjoint cycles is unique except for the order of the
factors.

Definition 1.23 A cycle of length 2 is called a transposition.

Thus, the transposition (1 2) interchanges 1 and 2 and leaves all other elements fixed.

Theorem 1.14(b) Any permutation can be written as a product of transpositions.

A cycle (ap a2, ... ar) oflength r can be written as product of transpositions
(al a2), (al a3), ... , (al ar)

Definition 1.24 If a permutation CT is product of even number of transpositions, then CT is called an

leven permutation.
I If a permutation CT is a product of odd number of transpositions, then eris called an odd permutation.
Useful Results
Sincea cycle (a 1, a2, ... ar) of length r can be written as a product of r - 1 transpositions, the cycle is
even if r is odd and the cycle is odd if r is even.
In particular a transposition is an odd permutation and identity permutation is even,
since I= (a1 a2) (a2 a1).
Product of two even permutations is even.
Product of two odd permutations is even.
Product of an odd and an even permutation is an odd permutation.
Inverse of the cycle (al' a2 ... ar) is -(a,., ar-1' ... a1)
:e., (al' a2, ... , artl = (ar, ar-1• ... , a2r1)
l
.. (al a2t1 = (a2 a1) = (a1 a2)
1.62 • Algebra and Number Theory

We know the symmetric group (Sn,•) has n! elements.

Let An be the set of all even permutations,
Since product of two even permutation is an even permutation, An is closed under-
and so, (An,•) is a subgroup of(Sn, •). 1
This group (An,•) is called the alternating group on n symbols and O(~) = ~ .
.2
If O"= (ap a2, ... ar) be a cycle oflength r, then order of eris r, since o" = e.
Any permutation p can be written as product of disjoint cycles. Order of the permutation p is the
1.c.m. of orders of the cycles.

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Compute the product (1 2) (2 4) (3 6) as a permutation on {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Determine (i) it is even or odd.
(ii) its order.

Solution.
Let a= (1 2) (2 4) (3 6)

=G
2 3 4 5
3 4 5 :)C 2 3 4 5
4 3 2 5 :)C 2 3 4 5
2 6 4 5 :)
2 3 4 5
=(~ 6 2 5 :)
We shall write a as a product of disjoint cycles.
a= (1 4 2) (3 6) 1 --7 4 --7 2 --7 1 cycles
3--76--73
Order of the cycle (1 42) is 3 and the order of the cycle (3 6) is 2.
Order of O"= lcm {3, 2} = 6
Now to decide a is even or odd, we shall write a as a product of transpositions.
O" = (1 4)(1 2)(3 6)
a is a product of 3 transpositions.
a is an odd permutation.
EXAMPLE 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9)
Express 0 = in S9 as a product of disjoint cycles. Decide its order
(2 3 4 5 1 6 7 9 8
and test it is even or odd.

Solution.
 Groups and Rings • 1.63

we see 1 -+2 ~ 3 ~ 4 ~ 5 ~ 1
So, one cycle is (1 2 3 4 5).
6 and 7 are left fixed.
8 ~ 9 ~ 8. So another cycle is (8 9)

e = (I 2 3 4 5)(8 9)
Order of (1 2 3 4 5) is 5 and order of (8 9) is 2.

Order of e,= lcm(5, 2) = 10

Further e = (1 2) (1 3) (1 4) (1 5) (8 9) is a product 5 transpositions.

e is a odd permutation.
1.2.8 Cosets and Lagrange's Theorem
Cose ts

Definition 1.25 Let (H, *) be a subgroup of ( G, * ). Let a E G be any element. Then the set a H =
{a * h I h E H} is called the left coset of Hin G determined by a.
Sometimes a His written as a H. *
The set Ha = {h *G I h E H} is called the right coset of Hin G determined by a.

Note
1. Since e E H, a* e E a H ~a E a Hand e *a= a E H.a
Also e H = { e * h I h E H} = { h I h E H} = H
and He = { h * el h E H} = { h I h E H} = H
So H itself is a left coset as well as right coset.
2. In general, Ha 1:- aH
But if G is abelian, then Ha= aH. That is every left coset is a right coset.
3. If the binary operation of G is denoted by + then the left coset will be written as a + H = {a + h I
hE H}.
For example if H = 5Z then (H, +) is a subgroup of (Z, + ), then the cosets are 1 + H = {l + 5x I
x E Z}, 2 + H = { 2 + 5x I x E Z} and so on.
We shall now prove that the left cosets of Hin G form a partition of G.

Theorem 1.15 Let (H, *) be a subgroup of ( G, * ).

Then the set of all left cosets of Hin G form a
· partition of G. That is every element of G belongs to only one left coset of Hin G.
[AU 2017]

Proof Let a Hand b H be any two left cosets.

We shall prove either a H = b Hor a H n b H = </).
Suppose a H n b H 1 </), then there exists an element

xEaH nbH
XEaH and XEhH
x = a * h1 and x = b * hi, for some h1 , hi _E H
1.64 • Algebra and Number Theory

a*h1=b*hz
(a* h1) * h1-I = (b * hz) h1-I *
il*(h1 *h11)=b*(hz *h1-I)
aH = b*(hz * h[1)
=> a= b*.(hz * h[1)
If x is any element in a H, then
x=a*h
X = b * (hz * h1-I) * h
x=b*(hz*hi-l*h)EbH
XE aH =>XE bH
aHr;;;;,_bH (2)
Similarly, we can prove
b Hr;;;;,_ a H (3)
From (2) and (3), we get, aH=bH
Thus any two left cosets are either equal or disjoint.
Further U aH <;;;;,_ G , since union of subsets is a subset.
aEG
lfx is any element in G, thenx =x * e Ex H
:. xis in a left coset and hence x E U a H
aEG
Hence
XEG =>x E UaH
aEG
=>G c UaH
aEG
G = UaH
aEG
That is all the left cosets partition G.
•
Theorem 1.16 Thereis one to one correspondencebetween any two left cosets of Hin G.
[AU 2017]

Proof Let (H, *) be a subgroup of ( G, * ).

Let a H be any left cosets of Hin G. We know H itself is a left coset.
So, it is enough to prove that there is a one-one correspondence between Hand a H.
Letf: H --ta Hbe defined by f(h) =a* h \;/ h EH
The mapping is one to one.
If f(h1) = f(h2) for any hp h2 E H
then a * h1 =a * h2
[left cancellation law]
 Groups and Rings • 1.65

Now we provefis onto.

Let x E aH be any element, then x = a * h for some h E H.
For this h we have.flh) =a* h = x. So,fis onto.
Hencefis bijective function of Honto aH.
:. f set up a one to one correspondence between Hand a H •
Note
1. If His finite, then Hand a H have the same of elements.
O(H)= O(aH)
2. Theorem 1.13 and 1.14 are true for right cosets also.

Theorem 1.17 Lagrange'stheorem.

The orderof a subgroupHof a finite groupG divides the orderof the group. Thatis orderof H
divides order of G.
[AU 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2017]

Proof Let ( G, *)be a group of order n and (H, *) be a subgroup of order m.

Since G is a finite group, the number of left cosets of Hin G is finite.
Let r be the number ofleft cosets of Hin G.
Let the r cosets be a 1 H, a2 H, ... , aH.
We know that the left cosets of G form a partition of G. [by Theorem 1.13]
G a1HUa2HUa3HU ... Ua,.H
O(G) = O(a1H LJ a2H U a3H U ... U a,.H)
= O(a1H)+O(a2H)+O(a3H)+ ... +O(a,H)
But O(a;H) = O(H) [by Theorem 1.14]
O(G) = O(H)+O(H)+ ... +O(H), r times
=> O(G)=rO(H)
O(G) .
=> --=r
O(H)

Thus,
Index of H in G
O(H) divides O(G)
•
Definition1.26 Let (H, *) be a subgroup of ( G, * ). Then the number of different left cosets (or right
cosets) of Hin G is called the index of Hin G and is denoted by [ G : H] or i ( H).
G

Note
1. In the case of finite group i (H) = O( G) .
G . O(H)
2. It is quite possible in an infinite group there is a subgroup of finite index.
For example, if H = 5Z, then (H, +) is a subgroup of (Z, +). Then the different left cosets of Hin
Zare
1.66 • Algebra and Number Theory

O+H = H = {Sx] x E Z}
l+H = {1+5x Ix E Z}
2+H = {2+5x Ix E Z}
3+H = {3+5x lxE Z}
4+H = {4+5x I xEZ}
5+H = {5+5x Ix EZ}
= { 5(1 + x) I x E Z} = H
and 6+H = {6+5xlxeZ}
= {1+5(1 + x) I x E Z}
= l+H and so on.
:. the number of different left cosets of Hin G is 5.
Hence iG (H) = 5

Corollary1 The order of any element of a finite group G divides O(G).

Proof Let G be a finite group of order n.

Let a E G be an element and let O(a) = m
Then the cyclic group <a> is of order m.
By Lagrange's theorem,
O(<a>)I O(G) => m In.
:. Order ofan element divides O(G).
•
Corollary2 Any group of prime order is cyclic.

Proof Let G be a group of order P, where P is prime number.

Let a E G, a -:;:-. e.
and let H=<a>
Since a-:;:-. e, O(H)-:t.l
O(H) '?.2 ·
By Lagrange's theorem, O(H) I O(G)
O(H) IP=> O(H) = P, (since Pis a prime z 2)
=O(G)
Hence G=H=<a>.
So, G is cyclic.
any group of prime order is cyclic.
•
Note
1. If 0( G) = P, then every element other than the identity e is a generator of the group.
2. If G is a cyclic group of order P, a prime then G has no proper subgroup.
In other words, the only subgroups are { e} and G.
 Groups and Rings • 1.67

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Find the left cosets of the subgroup H ={[OJ, [3]} of the group [Z6, +6J.

Solution.
Z6 ={[OJ, [lJ, [2J, [3J, [4J, [5]}
H ={[OJ, [3]} is a subgroup of Z6
The left cosets of H are
[aJ + H = {[aJ +[OJ, [aJ + [3]} v [aJ E z6
[aJ + H = {[aJ, [a+ 31}
[OJ+ H = {[OJ, [3]} = H
[lJ + H = {[lJ, [4]}
[2J + H = {[2J, [5]}
[3J +H= {[3J, [6]} = {[3J, [OJ} =H
[4J + H = {[4J, [l]} = {[lJ, [4]} = [lJ + H
[5J + H = {[5J, [2]} = {[2J, [5]} = [2J + H
:. the distinct cosets are H, [lJ + H, [2J + H.

EXAMPLE 2
Find all the subgroup of (Z9, +9).

Solution.
We know that (Z9, +9) is a cyclic group of order 9
(Z9, +9) and Z9 ={[OJ, [lJ, [2J, [3J, [4J, [5J, [6J, [7J, [8]}
By Lagrange's theorem,
· the order of the subgroup divides the order of the group.
: . the subgroups are of order 1, 3 ~ 9 only.
Since 1, 3, 9 divides 9, the order of the group.
So, the subgroups are . H1 = {[OJ}
H2 ={[OJ, [3J, [6]} [ ·: 0([3]) = 3, 0([6]) = 3J
and

EXAMPLE 3
For the group G = (Z12' +), H ={[OJ, [4J, [8]} is a subgroup. Find the cosets of Hin G.

Solutlon.
Given ; G = (Z12, +)

We know Z12 ={[OJ, tu[2J, [3J, [4J, [5J, [6J, [7J, [8J, [9J, [lOJ, [11]}
Also given, H ={[OJ, [4J, [8]} is a subgroup.
1.68 • Algebra and Number Theory

The cosets of Hin G are the following.

We know if[a] EH, then [a]+ H = H.
[O] +H= {[O] + [4] + [8]} =H
[4] + H = {[4] + [8] + [12]} = {[O] + [4] + [8]} = H
[8] + H = {[8] + [12] + [16]} = {[O] + [4] + [8]} = H
[O] +H= [4] +H= [8] +H=H.
Now [1] + H = {[1] + [5] + [9]}
[2] + H = {[2] + [6] + [10]}

[3] +H= {[3] + [7] + [11]}

[5]+H= {[5] + [9] + [13]} = {[5] + [9] + [l]} [·: 13 = l(mod 12)]
= {[1] + [5] + [9]}

[6] + H = {[6] + [10] + [14]} = {[2] + [6] + [10]} [·: 14 = 2(mod 12)]
[7] + H = {[7] + [11] + [15]} = {[3]+ [7] + [11]} [·: 15 = 3(mod 12)]
[9] + H = {[9] + [13] + [17]} = {[1] + [5] + [9]}
[10] +H= {[10] + [14] + [18]} = {[2] + [6] + [10]} [·: 18 = 6(mod 12)]
[11] + H = {[11] + [15] + [19]} = {[3] + [7] + [11]} [·: 19 = 7(mod 12)]
[1] +H= [5] +H= [9] +H
[2] + H = [6] + H = [10] + H
[3] +H= [7] +H= [11] +H
:. H, [I]+ H, [2] + H, [3] +Hare the distinct left cosets of His G.

EXAMPLE 4
Determine all cosets of subgroup H = { 1, a2} of a group G = {l, a, a2, a3} under multiplication,
where a4 = 1. [AU 2007]

Solutlon.
Given G = {l, a, a2, a3}, a4 = 1, is a group under multiplication.
H ={I, a21. We shall find all left cosets of H.

Now i-« = {l·h I h EH} {1, a2}=H

aH = {a•hf heH} = {a• l, a- a2} = {a, a3}
a 2H {a2 •h lh EH} = {a2 -I, a2 •a2} = {a2,1} = H
a3H { a3 • l, a3 • a2 } {a3,a}
 Groups and Rings • :l.'.'69

Thus there are 2 distinct left cosets of Hin G, namely

H= {1, a2} andaH= {a, a3}

Note The index of H in G is 2. Since G is cyclic and hence abelian, H is a normal subgroup of G.
So, every left coset is also a right coset. ·

EXAMPLE 5
=
Let (H, *) be a subgroup of (G, * ). For a, ,b, c, the relation a b (mod H) if h-1 * a e H, is
an equivalence relation on G. The equivalence class of a is [a] = {x E G I x a (mod H)I. =
Prove that [a]= a H.

Proof Given: [a] ={x E GI x =a (modH)}

Let x E [a], then x =a [modH]
==> a-I *XE H
a-1 *X=hforsomehE H
==> a * (a-1 * x) =a* h
==> (a* a-1) * x =a* h
==> e*x=a*h
=> x=a*hEaH
[a]<;;;; a H (1)
Now let y E aH => y = a* h for some h E H (2)
=> a-.1 *Y= h

=> a-1*yEH
=> y = a(mod H), by definition of the relation
=> y E (a]

a H <;;;;[a]
Hence from (1) and (2) we get, [a]= a H.
•
=
Note The equivalence class of a under the equivalence relation a b (mod H) is the left coset of H
determined by a. So, this relation is called a left coset relation modulo H.

1.2.9 Normal Subgroups and Quotient Groups

1.2.9(a) Normal Subgroup
In general, H a ;;:. a H. The subgroups H of G for which H a = a H V a E G is a special class of
subgroups, called normal subgroups. They play an important role in the study of homomorphism and
quotient groups. Such a group is called normal because it helps to construct new groups. It was Galois
who recognised that· normal subgroups are distinguished ones.

Definition1.27 A subgroup (H, *) of(G, *)is called a normal subgroupofG if aH =Ha Va E G.

1.70 • Algebra and Number Theory

Note
1. all=Ha does not mean a* h = h *a element wise. It only mean a* h = h1 *a for some h, h1 EH.
2. If His a normal subgroup, then Ha = aH for every a E G, and so we may simply called them
cosets.
3. In any group (G, *),the trivial subgroups and ({e}, *)and (G, *)are normal subgroups ofG.

WORKED· EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal.

Solution.
Let ( G, *) be an abelian group and (H, *) be a subgroup of G.
Let a E G be any element.
Then aH = {a*hlhEH}
{h*a I h EH} [ ·: G is abelian]
= Ha

Since a is arbitrary, a H = Ha '\/ a E G

:. His a normal subgroup of G.

Note Since Hn = n Z is a subset of Zand (Z, +)is an abelian group, subgroup (Hn, +) is a normal
subgroup of Z.

EXAMPLE 2
Let (H, *) be a subgroup of index 2 in ( G, *).Then (H, *) is a normalsubgroup of ( G, * ).

Solution.
Let a E G be any element.
If a E H, then a H = H
For if x E a H, then x = a * h for some h E H.
Since, h E Hand His a subgroup of G, we get
a*bEH~xEH
XEaH~xEH (1)
aHk.H
Lety EH. Theny=a*(a-'*Y)E aH,sincea-1yE H
yEH~yEaH
(2)
~Hk.aH
From (1) and (2), we get a H = H.
Similarly, we have
Ha=H
aH=Ha
 Groups and Rings • 1. 71

If a g; H, then a H is a left coset different from H.

Hence
Further, since i(H) = 2, those are the only left cosets of Hin G.

HUaH=G~aH=G-H

Similarly,Hand Ha are the only right cosets of Hin G.

Ha=G-H

Hence aH=Ha

Thus, aH=H a v ae G
Hence His normal in G.

EXAMPLE 3
(N, *)is a normal subgroup of(G, *) iff an a-1 EN V n EN and Va E G.

Solution.
Let (N, *)be a normal subgroup of(G, *).
aN=NaVaEG

=>
for any n E N, an a-1 E N
Conversely, if an a-1 EN, VnE N, V aE G, then to prove a N=N a

Let x e aN ~ x = a* n for some n E N (1)

~ x=(ana-1)*aENa [·:an a-1 EN]
~ aNr;;;,Na

Now
Let y e Na es y = n * a for some n E N
then y = a*(a-1 *n*a)

= a* (a-1 * n * (a-1)-1) E aN ... (2)

ye Na ~ y eaN
Na r;;;, aN

:. from (1) and (2), we get

N a=aNVaE G
HenceN is a normal subgroup of G.

Note If N is normal, it captures products an a-I to it.

1. 72 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 4
Prove that the intersection of two normal subgroup of ( G, *) is a normal subgroup of ( G, * ).
[AU 2007, 2013, 2016]

Solution.
Let (Np*) and (N2, *)be two normal subgroups of(G, *).
n
To-prove that (N1 N2, *)is a normal subgroup of(G, *).
Since N1 and N2 are normal subgroup of G, they are basically subgroups. We know N1 n N2 is a
subgroup of G.
Now we shall prove it is a normal subgroup of G.
n
Let n E N, N2 be any element and a E G be any element.
Then n E N1 and n E N2
Since N1, N2 are normal, an a-1 E N1 and an a-1 E N2
a n a-1 E Nl n N2
Hence N1 n N2 is normal, by example 3.

EXAMPLE 5
If His a subgroup of G such that x2 E H "ii x E G, prove that His a normal subgroup of G.
[AU 2008]

Solution.
Let G be a multiplicative group.
Given His a subgroup of G such that

x2 eH "i/ XEG (1)

We have to prove His a normal subgroup.
Let h E H be any element and a E G be any element.
Then ah e G :. (ah)2 E H, by the given condition (1).
Since a-1 E G, (a-1)2 e H => «? E H, by the given condition (1)
Since h E Hand His a subgroup, we have h-1 E H
h-1 a-2 ~ H

Hence (ah)2- l a-2 EH [by closure]

=> ah(ah)h-1 a-2 E H

=> ah a (hh-1)a-2 E H [by associative axiom]

=> ah a ea-2 e H [ e is the identity]

=> ah a a-2 EH

=> aha-1 e H
Hence His a normal subgroup of G.
 Groups and Rings • 1. 73

1.2.9(b) QuotientGroupor FactorGroup

Theorem 1.18 Let (N, *)be a normal subgroup of (G, *>·The set of all left cosets of Nin G is
denoted by GIN. Then (GIN, E9)a group, where E9 is defined by a N E9 b N =(a* b)N.

proof Given GIN= {a NI a E G}

First we verify the axioms of group.
On GIN the binary operation EB is defined by
aNEBbN=(a*b)N
Since a, b E G, a* b E G, (a* b) N is a left coset of Nin G.
(a*b)NEGIN
aNEBbNEGIN
So, closure is satisfied.
Associativity: Let a N, b N, c Nbe any three element of GIN for a, b, c E G.

Now aNEB(bNEBcN) aNEB((b*C)N)

= (a*(b*C)) N
= ((a*b)*C) N [·: * is associative in G]
(aNEBbN)EBcN
Hence EB is associative in GIN.
Identity: If e is the identity of G, then e N is the identity of GIN.
For any a NE GIN,
and aNEBe N = (aH)N =a N
eNEBaN = (e*a)N = aN
aNEBeN = eNEBaN=aN

Hence e N is the identity of GIN

Inverse: For any a NE GIN, where a E G,
we have a-1N E GIN
Now a NEBa-1N = (a*a-1)N =e N

and a-1NEBaN = (a-1 *a)N =eN

a NEBa-1N = a-1NEBaN =e N

a-1 N is the inverse of a N

(GIN, EB) is a group.
•
Definition 1.28 If (N, *) is a normal subgroup of (G, *),then the group ((GIN, EB) is called the
quotient group or factor group of G by Nor quotient group modulo N.
1. 7 4 • Algebra and Number Theory

Note
1. If G is finite group and N is a normal subgroup of G, then O(G/N) = O(G).
. . O(N)
2. If(G, *)is abelian and (N, *)is a subgroup ofG, then the quotient group GIN is an abelian group.

1.2.10 Direct Product of Two Groups

Theorem 1.19 Let (G, *)and (H, Li) be two groups. Let G x H be the Cartesian product of G
andH.
rr . is the binary operation G x 8 given by (gl' h1) • (g2, h2) = (g1 * gl' h1 Li h2) for any
(gl' h1) • (g2, h2) e G x H, then (G x H, •)is a group. [AU 2004]

Proof Given (G, *), (H, 6.) are groups.

Let el' e2 be the identities of G and H.
GxH = {(g,h) I gE G, h e H}
• is the binary operation component wise multiplication.
(g1,h1)•(gz,hz) = (g, * gz,h16.hz) V'(g1,h1),(gz,hz) E GxH
Since g1 *gz E G and h16.h2 EH,
(g1 *g2,h16.hz)EGXH
==> (gz,h1)•(g2,hz) E G x H
So, closure is satisfied.
Associativity: Let x, y, z be any three elements of G x H.
x = (gl, h1),
for some gl' s» g3 E Gandhi' h2, h3 E H.

Now x •(y • z) = (g1 ,h1) • ( (gz, hz) •(g3, ~))

= (g1,h1)•(gz *g3,hz 6. ~)
= (g1 * (gz * g3),h16.(hz L\ ~))
=:((g,*gz)*g3,(h1 L\hz)L\~) [·:*and L\ are associative]
= ( (g1 ,h,) •(gz, hz))•(g3, ~)
= (x• y)•z

: . associative axiom is satisfied.

Identity: ( e 1, e2) is the identity element of G x H,
where e1 is the identity of G and e2 is the identity of H.
For, if (g, h) E G x Hbe any element, then
(g, h) • (ep e2) = (g *el' h 6. e2) = (g, h)
 Groups and Rings • 1. 75

and (el' e2) • (g, h) = (e1 * g, e2 ~ h) = (g, h)

(el' e2) is identity element of G x H.

Inverse: Let (g, h) be any element of G x H. .

SincegE G,hEHandso(g-1,h-1)E GxH.

Now (g,h)•(g-1,h1) = (g * g-1,Mh-1) = (e1,e2)

(g-1,h1)•(g,h) = (g-1 * g, h-1 ·h) = (e1 ,e2)
(g-1, h-1) is the inverse of (g, h)
;. Inverse axiom is satisfied.
Hence ( G x H, •) is a group.
This group is called the direct product of G and H.
•
Definition 1.29 Let ( G, *) and (H, ~) be two groups. The direct product of the groups G and His the
group ( G x H, • ), where • is defined by (g 1, h2) • (g2, h2) =
(g 1 * g2, h 1 ~ h2).

Corollary If(G, *)and (H,ll.) be groups with identity el' e2 respectively, Prove that Gx { e2} and
{ e1} x H are normal subgroups of ( G x H, • ).

EXERCISE 1.3

1. Let (G, *)be a group and a E G. Let H = {xla *x = X* a}. Prove that His a subgroup of G.
2. Showthat({l,4, 13, 16},x17)isasubgroupof(z;7,x17).
3. Let ( G, *) be a group and H1 and H2 are subgroups of G. Prove that H1 U H2 is a subgroup of G
if H1 c H2 or H2 c H1.
4. Find all left cosets and right cosets of H = { [O], [2]} in (Z4, +4).
5. Let (G, *) be a group and H as a subgroup and N as a normal subgroup. Prove that
(i) NH= {x E GI x =a * b \;;/a E N, b E H} is a subgroup of G. (ii) NH is a normal subgroup if
both N and Hare normal subgroups.
6. If N, Mare normal subgroups of G such that M n N ={
e}, then prove that mn nm \;;/ m E M, =
n EN.
[Hint: For any m E M, n E N, consider the element
(mn)(m-In-I)= (m n m-1) n-1 E N as N is normal and
(mn)(m-1n:-1) = minm:" n-1) E Mas Mis normal
=> (mn)(m-1n-1) E MnN= {e}
=> (mn)(m-1n-1) = e => mn =nm]
7. Let G be a group of order 18, and let Hand K be subgroup of G of orders 2 and 9 respectively.
Show that G = HK.
8. Let G be a direct product of two subgroups, each of which is a cyclic group of order 3, show that
G cannot be cyclic. .
9. Show that a group of order 2n, n is odd has a subgroup of index 2.
10. Show that any abelian group of order 2 is cyclic.
1.76 • Algebra and Number Theory

1.2.11 Group Homomorphism

A homomorphism of groups is a map which preserves the composition. In other words it is a structure
preserving map. This concept is a central idea which is common to all aspects of modem algebra.

Definition 1.30 Let (G, *) and (G', •) be two groups. A mapping f: G -? G' is called a group
homomorphism if for all a, b E G,

f(a * b) = f(a)• f(b)

Thus a homomorphism preserves the operation. A product in G goes to a product in G'.
For example
1. Consider the groups (R, +) and (R*, •), where R* is the set of all non-zero real nos.
i.e., R* = R - { 0}

Let/: R-? R* be defined by /(a)= 2"Va ER homomorphism.

Given the map f R -? R*, defined by j( a) = 2°

Let a, b E R be any two elements, than a + b E R

Now f(a+b) = 2a+b = 2° •2b = f(a)• f(b)

Thus,/ preserves the operation.

Hence f is a homomorphism.
2. Consider the groups (Jit, •),the group of positive real numbers under usual multiplication,
and (R, +),the additive group of real numbers.
Let f: n:+- -? R be defined by f (x) = log10 x is a homomorphism.
Given the map f: R+ -? R is defined by j(x) = log, oX
Let x, y be any two elements of R+.
The operation is multiplication
:. If x, y E R+, f(x• y) = log10(x• y) = log1·0 x+ log10 y = f(x)+ f(y)
f preserves the operations.
So, f is a homomorphism of!R+ into R.
1.2.11(a) Elementary Properties of Homomorphism
Theorem 1.20 If/is a homomorphism from a group (G, *)into (G', -j then prove that
=
(i) /(e) e', where e, e' are the identities of G and G' respectively.
=
(ii) J(a-1) [/(a)] +I for all a e G.
(iii) J(an) = [J(aW.
(iv) Let H be a subgroup of G. Then H ¢ (/>, since H contains at least e e G and so,J(H) ¢ (/>.
[AU 2006, 2007, 2012, 2015, 2016]
 Groups and Rings • 1. 77

proof
(i) Let a e G be any element.
Then
=> fia * e) =fia)
=> fia) *fie)= fie) [ ·: f is a homomorphism]
=> fia) •fie)= fia) • e' [by identity axiom in G']
By left cancellation law in G', we get fie)= e'
(ii) Let a e G be any element.
. Then a*a-1=a-1*a=e
f(a * a~1) = f(e) = f(a)• f(a-1)=e [by (i)]

and f(a-1 *a)= f(e) => «c:» f(a) = e'

fia-1) is the inverse ofj(a) in G'.
=> [f{a)] -1 =fia-1)
(iii) To prove flan)= [f{a)]n
Let a e G be any element
Case (i) If n = 0, then
=> flan)= fie)= e'
and flan)= [f{a)]n
Case (ii) n is a positive integer, then
an= a» a» a» a» «a (n times)
flan) =fia «a» a» a» •a)
=fia) * fia) * fia) * ... * fia), (n times)
=> flan)= [f{a)]n
Case (iii) If n is a negative integer, then n = -r, r > 0
flan)= fia-') = J[(a-1) '1 = [f(a)-1Y
= [f (a)tr = [fia)]n
ft.an)= [f{a)]n \::/a e G and n E Z
(iv) LetHbe a subgroup of G
Then H ~ </), since H contains at least e e G and so fiH) ~ </J

Let x, y e .f(H)
Then x =fia), y =fib) for some a, be H
a=b e H
fia•b) efiH)~fia)*fib) efiH)
=} x * y efiH)
So,fiH) closed under
Finally, let x e .f(H), then x =T: a) for some a e H
Now x-1 = [f{a)t1 = fia-1) [by property 2]
1. 78 • Algebra and Number Theory

Since a E H=> a-1 EH andj{a-1) E H

=> x-l E .f{H)
Bence by Theorem 1.4,.f{H)is a subgroup of G'.
This property says that the homomorphic image of a subgroup is a subgroup.
This theorem says that under a homomorphism identities correspond and inverses correspond .

1.2.11(b) Types of Homomorphisms

•
Definition 1.31 Let/: G ~ G' be a homomorphism of groups.
(i) If/is one-one, then/is called a monomorphism.
(ii) If/is onto, then/is called an epimorphism.
In this case G' is called a homomorphic image of G.
(iii) If/is one-one and onto, then/is called an isomorphism.
In this case the two groups are said to be isomorphic and we write G"' G'.
(Read as G is isomorphic to G')

Definition 1.32 Let (G, *)be a group. A homomorphism/ G ~ G is called an endomorphism.

Iff is one-one and onto, then/is called an automorphismof G.
i.e., an isomorphism of G onto G is called an automorphism.

Definition 1.33 Kernel of a group homomorphism

Let (G, *)and (G', •)be groups withe' as the identity of G'. Letf G ~ G' be a homomorphism.
The kernalof/is the set of all elements of G which are mapped onto e' and is denoted by kerf
Thus,ker/={aE GIJ{a)=e'}.

Definition 1.34 Isomorphism

Let (G, •)and (G', *) betwo groups. A homomorphism/: G ~ G' is called an isomorphism
if /is one to one and onto.
Then we say G and G' are isomorphic and it is written as G ::::: G'.
In example 2, we have seen
(R+, •) ~ (R, +)defined by j{x) = log10 x V x ER+ is a homomorphism.
We now test one to one and onto
Suppose j{x) = j(y),
then log10 x = log10y => z.= y
f is one to one
Suppose y ER be any element, if x E R+ is a preimage,
then j{x) = y

=>
: . 1 ()Y is the pre image of y and hence f is onto
Thus f is one to one and onto
f is an isomorphism
Then (R+, •) is isomorphism to (R, +)
 Groups and Rings • 1. 79

Note Isomorphic groups are like original and Xerox copy.

The next two theorems give the structure of infinite and finite cyclic - group.

Theorem 1.21 Every infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to (Z, +).

Proof Let G be an infinite cyclic group generated by a

Then G = {an In E Z}
Let f: G ~ Z be defined by f (an)=: n Van E G
If ar =a", then j( aY). =j( as)
==> r=s
So, f is well defined
or /is a function or map
Ifx,y, E G, thenx = ar,y= as for same r, s Ez

j(x • y) = j(ar •as)

=f(ar+s)=r+s
=f(a1 + f(as)
= f(x) + j(y)
fis a homomorphism
Next we prove/is one to one and onto
If j(ar) =!(as), then r = s

f is one to one
Suppose n E z, then a" E G andf(an) = n
/is onto
f is one to one onto
So, f is an isomorphism
Then (G, •)is isomorphic to (Z, +)
i.e., (G, •) :::: (Z, +)
•
Note This theorem says that any element an of cyclic group can be identified with the integer n.
In other words the integer n is labeled as a" in the other group upto isomorphism.
There is only one infinite cyclic group which is (Z, + ).

Theorem 1.22 Show that Kernel of a group homomorphism is normal subgroup of the group.
[AU 2006, 2008, 2009, 2013]

Proof Let (G, *)and (G', •)be the groups andf: G ~ G' is a group homomorphism.
Then we knowf(e) = e ',where e, e' are the identities of G and G'.
e E kerfand hence kerfis a non-empty subset of G.
1.80 • Algebra and Number Theory

First we shall prove kerfis a subgroup of G.

Let x, ye kerf, thenj(x) = e' andj{y) = e'

Now j(X* y-1) = f(x)• f(y-1) [·: f is a homomorphism]

= f(x)•[f(y)r1
=e'•(e')-1 =e' ~X*Y-I ekerf

Hence kerfis a subgroup ofG.

Next we shall prove that kerfis a normal subgroup.
Let n e kerfbe any element and a e G be any element.
f(n) = e', f(a)e G'

Now f(a * n * a-1) = f(a)• f(n)• f(a-1)

= f(a)•e ' • ( f(a) )-1

-1
= f(a)• ( f(a) ) = e'

a*n*a-1 eker f.

Hence kerfis a normal subgroup of G.

•
Theorem 1.23 Let (G, *)be a group and (N, *)be a normal subgroup of G. Then GIN is the
homomorphic image of G.

Proof To prove GIN is the homomorphic image of G, we have to prove that there exists a
homomorphism of G onto GIN.
G
Define the map/ G ~ N by </)(a)= a N V ae G.

We shall provef is a homomorphism.

Let a, b e G be any two elements, then a * b e G

</)(a * b) = (a * p)N
=aN6'bN
= <PCa)$<f>(b)

Hence f is a homomorphism.
Now we prove/is onto.
Let a Ne GIN be any element, where a E G, thenf(a) =a N. Thus every element of GIN is the:
image of an element of G.
Hence/is onto. Thus/is a homomorphism of G onto GIN.
i.e.,f(G) =GIN.
Hence GIN is the homomorphic image of G.

Note This map f: G ~ GIN given by f (a) = a N is called the natural homomorphism.
 Groups and Rings • 1.81

fheorem 1.24 Fundamentaltheorem of group homomorphism.

Let (G, *)and (G', •)be two groups.
Let f :G ~ G' be a homomorphism of groups with Kernel K. Then G/K is isomorphic to
j(G) ~ G'. [AU 2005]

proof We have to prove G!K ""j{ G)

Define the map lfl : G/K ~ f ( G)
by lfl(aK) = f(a) Va KEG I K and a E G.,

GIK
First we shall prove lfl is well defined.
* *
If a K = b K , then a x 1 = b x2 for some x1 x2 e K
'

f(a) = f(b * x) = f(b)•f(x) [·: f is a homomorphism]

= f(b)•e'
= f(b) [·: x e K ==> f(x) = e']
:. l/f is well defined
Now we shall prove l/fis a homomorphism.
Let a K, b Ke G/Kbe any two elements.

Then l/f(a K $ b K) = lfl((a * b)K) = f(a *b)

= f(a)• f(b)
= lfl(a K) • lfl(b K)

:. l/fis a homomorphism of GIK intoj{G)

Next we shall prove lfl is one-one and onto.
Suppose lfl(a K) = lfl(b K),
~ M=~
[f(a)r1• f(b) = e'
f(a-1 *b)=e'
 1.82 • Algebra and Number Theory

=>
=> b=aK
=> bK=aK [·: KK=KJ
:. IJ!is one-one.
Finally, suppose x Ef(G), then there exists an a E G such that

x = f(a) = IJl(a K)
:. IJ!is onto.
Thus lJI is an isomorphism of GIK onto f ( G).
G/Ko:f{G)
•
Note Suppose/ G ~ G' is onto, then G' =f(G).
:. the result will be GIK"" G' ·

Structure of Infinite and Finite Cyclic Groups

Theorem 1.25 Every infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to (Z, +).

Proof Let G be an infinite cyclic group generated by a.

i.e., G= {an In E Z}
· Define the mapf: Z ~ G by f(n) =an\:;/ n EZ

Clearly fis well defined.

Let a, b E Z, then a+be Z
f{a + b) =am+ n =am• an= f{a)f{b)
So,fis a homomorphism.
We shall now provefis one-one and onto.
Supposef{m) =f(n), then am= an=> am-n = e
If m - n > 0, then am - n = e => 0( a) is finite which mean 0( G) is finite, a contradiction.
Similarly, if m - n < 0 then n - m > 0, we get a contradiction.
m-n=O=>m=n
Thusf{m) = f(n) => m = n.
So,f is one-one:
Now let x E G be any element. Then x =an for some integer n.
For this n,f(n) =an= x.
Hencefis onto.
Thusfis an isomorphism of Z onto G.
Hence (Z, +)"" (G, •).
•
Note This theorem says that any element an ofa cyclic group can be identified with integer n. In other
words the integer n is labelled as an in the other group.
So, upto isomorphism there is only one infinite cyclic group, which is (Z, +).
 Groups and Rings • 1.83

Theorem 1.26 Every finite cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to (Zn,+ n>• the· residue classes
mod n group.

proof Let(G,*)beacyclicgroupoforderngeneratedbyae G. Then G ={a, a2, a3, •.. , an-I, a11 = e}.

and Zn = {[O], [1], [2], ... , [n-1]}

Define/ G ~Zn by f(ar) = [r] T;/ are G

Let a", as e G be any two elements.

Then f(ar *as)= f(ar+S) = [r+s]

=[r]+11[s]
= f(ar)+11f(as)

:.fis a homomorphism.
We shall now prove/is one-one and onto.
Supposej'(s") =!{as), then [r] = [s]
=> r - s is divisible by n.
r - s = kn for some integer k.
Now ar-s = akn = (a11 )k = ek = e => ar = as

Thus
Hencefis one-one.
Now if[r] e Z11 is any element, then 0 s; rs; n - 1 we have are G exists in G such that
f{a1 = [r]
f is onto.
Thusfis an isomorphism of G onto Zn. So, G"" Zn
•
Note
1. Thus any element ar in G can be identified with [r] in Z11• So, upto isomorphism there is only one
cyclic group of order n, which is (Zn, + 11).
2 An infinite cyclic group G =<a> has only two generators a and a-1 and a finite cyclic group
G =<a> of order n has ¢(,n) generators, since am E G is a generator if (m, n) = 1.

Theorem 1.27 Cayley's theorem or Cayley's representation theorem.

Every finite group of order n is isomorphic to a permutation group of degree n,
[AU 2004, 2011, 2013)

Proof Let a E G be any element. Corresponding to a we define a map

fa: G~ Gby fa(x)=a*x'VxeG

Thenfisone-one,for fa(x) = fa(Y) => a*X =a* y
=> x=y (by left cancellation)
1.84 • Algebra and Number Theory

Now ye G (codomain), then a-1 *ye G such that

fa(a-1 * y) = a*(a-1 * y) = (a*a-1)* y = e* y = y
la is onto.
Thus,la is a one-one and onto function from G ~ G and so, it is a permutation on G.
Since G has n elements.j', is a permutation on n symbols or permutation of degree n.
Let G' ={fa I a e G} . We shall prove G' is a group, under composition of function operation.
We verify axioms of the group.
Letla,fb e G' by any two elements,
i.e.,la,fb are functions from G ~ G
Then Ua • fb)(x) =L (fb(x))= fa(b*x)
=a*(b*x)
= (a=by=»
= fa*b(x)Vx E G

=> fa• fb = fa*b (1)

Since a, be G, a* be G and sola• b .e G' =L: fb E G'.

Hence G' is closed under composition of function operation •.
It is obvious that fe e G' is the identity element and
fa-1 is the inverse ofla E G'
So, G' is a group.
Finally we prove G = G'
Let (/) : G ~ G' be defined by (/)(a) = fa V a e G
Nowforanya,be G,(/)(a*b)=la.b(x)'ixe G
=L: fb =(/)(a)• (/)(b)
:. f is a homomorphism.
Suppose (/)(a)=(/)(b), then la= fb

=> fa(x) = fb(x) V x E G

=> a*X = b e x
~ a=b [by right cancellation law.]
:. f is one-one
Now let la e G' be any element, with a E G.
Then e (a)= la and so(/) is onto.
Thus (/)is an isomorphism of G onto G'.
G=G'
•
Note
I. The significance of Cayley's theorem is that it enables us to visualise an abstract group as a more
concrete object, a group of mappings particularly permutations.
2. Cayley's theorem is true even if the group G is not finite. The above method works well in this case
also. In this case the theorem is stated as "every group is isomorphic to a group of permutations".
 Groups and Rings • 1.85

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Let (R*, •)be the group of non-zero real numbers under usual multiplication and G = {1, -1} be
the group under usual multiplication.
. {1 ifx>O
Let/: R* ~ G be defined by /(x) = _1
if x< 0
Then prove that/is a homomorphism.

Solution.
Given the map f R* ~ G is defined by

1 if x > 0
/(x)= {
-1 ifx<O
Let x, y E R* be any two elements, then x • y E R*

(i) If x, y are positive, then xy is positive.

j{xy) = 1
and j(x) = 1, fly)= 1 :. j(x) •fly)= 1
Hence f(x • y) = j(x) •fly)
(ii) If x is positive and y is negative then xy <0
:.f(x•y)=-1 and f(x)=l,f(y)=-1

:. f(x)• f(y) = -1
Hence j{x • y) = f(x) •fly)
Similarly, if x < 0, y > 0, we getf(x • y) = f(x) •fly)
(iii) If x.< 0, y < 0, then xy > 0
=
f(x • y) 1
and j(x) = -1,fly) = -1
j(x). fly)= (-1) (-1) = 1.
fix, y) =f(x) •fly) ·
Thus f(x• y) = f(x)f(y) Vx, y ER*
Hence f is a homomorphism.

EXAMPLE 2
Let G be a group and a E G. Show that the map/: G ~ G defined by /(x) =ax a-1'ef x e G is
an isomorphism. [AU 2007]

Solution.
Let G be a multiplicative group.
Given/ G ~ G and f(x) =ax a-1 V x E G and a E G is a fixed element.
1.86 • Algebra and Number Theory

First we shall prove it is a homomorphism.

For any x,y e G, f(xy) = a(xy)a-1 [by definition]

= axeya-1 [ e is density of G]
ax(a-1a)y a-1 [aa-1 = e]
= (ax a-1)(ay a-1)
= f(x)f(y)
:. f is a homomorphism.
Now we shall prove/is one-one and onto.
Supposej{x)=fly) then a x a'" =aya-1

x=y, [by left and right, cancellation laws.]

:. fis one-one.
Ify e G (codomain) be any element, then a-1 ya e G
Letx=a-1 ya
Now f(x) = axa-1 [by definition]
= a(a..:.1y a)a-1
= (a a-1)y(a a-1)
= eye=y
Thus, for any y e G, we are able to find x e G whose image is y. :. f is onto.
Hence/is an isomorphism.

EXAMPLE 3
Show that/from the permutations group Pn onto the multiplicative group G = {1, -1} defined by
1 if a is even
f(a) =
{ -1 is a homomorphism. [AU 2003)
if a is add

Solutlon.
Here P n is used instead of Sn
Given : f: Pn ~ G defined by
l if a is even
f(a) = { -·1 if a is odd ''ii a e pn

First we shall provef is a homomorphism.

Let a, b e P n be any two elements.
(i) If a, b are even permutations, then a . b is an even permutation.
So j{a) = 1, J{b) = l, and !(ab)= 1
j(a • b) =j(a)f{b)
 Groups and Rings • 1.87

(ii) If a is odd and b even, then ab is odd permutation .

.!{a) =-1, j{b) = 1 and .!{ab)= -1
Hence f(a)f(b)=(--1)1 =-1
.!{ab)= j{a)f{b)
(iii) If a and b are odd permutation then ab is an even permutation .
.!{a)= -1, f(b) = -1 and .!{ab)= 1
j{a)f{b) = (-1)(-1) = 1.
Hence f(ab) = f(a)f(b)
Thus, f(ab) = f(a)f(b) Va, be Pn
Hence f is a homomorphism.

EXAMPLE 4
Let (G, *)and G', •)be two groups. If/: G ~ G' be an isomorphismand G is abelian, then prove
that G' is abelian.

Proof Given/:G ~ G' is an isomorphism.

So,f is one-one and onto homomorphism.
fia=b) = f(a)• f(b) V a,b E G
Let x, y be any two elements in G'.
Since/is onto, there exists elements a, be G such that./{a) = x and./{b) = y
Now x·y = f(a)• f(b)
= f(a*b) [·:f is homomorphism]
= f(b*a) [·: G is abelian, a* b = b *a]
= f(b)• f(a)
= y•x
:. Commutative axiom is satisfied in G'.
Hence G' is abelian.

EXAMPLE 5
Consider the group(R, +)and the mapping(/J: R ~ R be defined by (/J(a) = 5a V a e R. Prove
that t/J is a homomorphismand find the kerf.

Solution.
Giventhe map tf>: R ~ R is defined by t/>(~) = 5a "1 a e R
Now t/>(a + b) = 5(a + b) = 5a + 5b = t/>(a) + tf> (b)
:. f is a homomorphism.
Ker</>= {x ER I t/>(x) =0}.
Now t/>(x) = 0 ~ 5x = 0 ~ x = 0
So, the only number is 0. ·
kertf>={O}.
1.88 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 6
Let (G, •), (G', •)be groups withe, e' as identities. Let/: G ~ G' be a homomorphism. Prove
that/is one-one if and only if ker /= {e}.

Solution.
Given/: G ~ G' be a group homomorphism.
Let ker f = { e}. To provef is one-one.
Suppose ft.a)= j{b),
then f(a)•[f(b)r1 = e'
=> f(a)• f(b-1) = e'
=> f(a*b-1)=e' [·: f is a homomorphism]
=> a•b-1 e ker f = {e}
a*b-1 =e=>a=b
Thus ft.a)= j{b) =>a= b.
/is one-one.
Conversely, let/be one-one. To prove that ker/ = { e}
Let x e ker f, be any element.
Then j{x) = e' and/(e) = e' [ ., f is a homomorphism]
:. j{x) = j{e) => x = e, since/is one-one.
Thus, the only element of kernel is e.
ker/= {e}

EXAMPLE 7
(R, +)and (R•, •)are groups and/: R ~ R* define by /{a)= 2a 'Va e R is a homomorphism.
Find ker f and test/isl - 1 or not.

Solutlon.
Ker/= {x e R lftx) = 1 }, since l is the identity of R*.
Now j{x)= 1 =>2x=1 =>x=O
:. ker/ = {O} and hence/is one-one [by example 6]

EXAMPLE 8
Show that the mapping g from the algebraic system {S, +) to the system {T, x) defined by
g(a) = 3a, where Sis
the set of all rational numbers under addition+ and Tis the set of non-zero
real numbers under multiplication operation x, is a homomorphism but not an isomorphism.
[AU 2007]

Solutlon.
Given S is the set of all rational numbers.
Then (S, +) is an abdian group.
 Groups and Rings • 1.89

Tis the set of non-zero real numbers.

Then (T, x) is an abelian group.
Giveng: S ~Tis defined by g(a) = 3a V aE S.
Let a, b E S be any two elements.
Then a +b ES.
g(a + b) = 3a+b = 3a X 3b = g(a) X g(b)
Hence g is a homomorphism of groups.
Suppose g(a) = g (b), then 3a = 3b =>a= b
:. g is one-one.
Since g (a) = 3a is always positive and Tis the set of all non-zero real numbers.
So T contains negative numbers also.
But the range of g is g (S) which is a proper subset of T.
Hence g is not onto and so, g is not an isomorphism.

EXAMPLE 9
Let G be a group and if the functionfi G ~ G' is defined by j(a) = a-1 Va e G, then prove that
f is an isomorphismiff G is abelian.

Solution.
Given G is an group and the function/ G ~ G' is defined by j{a) = a-1 Va E G
Let G be abelian
To provef is an isomorphism
If a, b E G, thenj{a) = a-1 andj{b) = b-1
Now f{a•b)=(a•bt1
= b-1. a-1
=f{b)•f{a)
= j{a) • j{b) [·: G is abelian]
So,f is a homomorphism
Now to prove/is one-one and onto
Suppose j{x) = j(y)
=>
f is one to one
If a E G be any element (in the codomain), then we can find a-1 E G (domain) such that
j{a-1) = (a-ltl= a
This true for every a E G
/is onto
/is one to one and onto
Hence f is an isomorphism
Conversely: LetfG ~ G is defined by j{a) = a-1 is an isomorphism
To prove G is abelian
That is to prove a • b = b • a V a, b e G
Leta, be G.
1.90 • Algebra and Number Theory

Then j{a • b) =(a• bt1

= b-1. a-1
= j{b) • j{a)
=f{b •a) [ ·: f is homomorphism]
(a• b) = (b •a), since/is 1-1
G is an abelian

EXAMPLE 10
Prove that (U9, •)and (Z6, +)are isomorphic groups.

Solutlon.
We know U9= {l, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8} andZ6= {[O], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]} are cyclic group of some order
Since U9 is a multiplicative group generated by 2, any element ae U9 can be written as
a=2m, O~m ~ 5
Define the function/: U9-+ Z6 by /(2m) = [mJ.
Let a, be U9, then a= 2m, b = 2n, 0 ~ m, n ~ 5
j(a • b) = j(2m • 2n) = j(2m+n)
= [m +n]
= [m] + [n]
=f{a) +f{b)
:. f is a homomorphism.
Now j{a) = j{b)
j{2m) =f(2n) => [m] = [n]
m =n(mod6)
m - n is divisible by 6
Since 0 ~ m, n ~ 5, m - n is divisible by 6
=> m-n=O =>: m=n
/is one to one.
Since U9 and Z6 are finite groups with the same number of eiements one to one => onto
Hence/is one to one and onto.
:. f is an isomorphism.
EXAMPLE 11

If A = ( ~l ~) and M = {A, A2, A3, A4} then show that (M, *) is an abelian group where * i!

matrix multiplication. Further prove that (M, •)is isomorphic to the abelian group (G, •) when
G = {l, -1, i, -i} and- ordinary multiplication; [AU 201s:
 Groups and Rings • 1.91

Solution.

Given A =(O l ) and M = {A A2 A3 A4}

-1 0 ' ' '
To prove Mis an abelian group under matrix multiplication
Here matrix multiplication is denoted by »,

Now A2=A *A= ( -10 0l) * ( -10 01) = (-10

.

A3 =A2 *A= ( -10 -10 ) * ( -10 -1) (0 ~1)

0 = 1 0

A4 = A3 *A= ( 01 -1)
0 * (01 -1)
0 = (10 0)
1 :: I
We form the Cayley table, since Mis a finite set and verify the axioms.
The Cayley table is
A A2 A3 A4
*
A A2 A3 I A
A2 A3 I A A2
A3 I A A2 A2
A4 A A2 A3 I

l. Closure: The body of the table contains only all the elements of M.
:. closure axiom is satisfied.
2. Associativity: We know matrix multiplication is associative and so it is.true in M
i.e, it is inherited in M.
. ·. associative axiom is satisfied.
3. Identity: A4 =I is the identity element in M.
4. Inverse: We have A* A3 =A3 *A =A4 =I
:. A3 is the inverse of A and A is the inverse of A3
and A2 * A2 = A4 =I
:. the inverse of A2 is A2 itself. .
Since A4 * A4 .=I* I= I
The inverse of A4 is A4
: . inverse axiom is satisfied.
5. Commutativity: In the Cayley table, the elements equidistant from the main diagonal are the same
i.e,X* Y= Y*XforeveryX, YeM.
:. *is commutative.
Hence (M, *) is an abelian group:
Now to prove the second part
We have M ={A, A2, A3, A4}, where A4 =I is the identity elements in M..
Given G = { l, -1, i, -i} is a group under multiplication,
1.92 • Algebra and Number Theory

We know i2 = -1, i3 = -i, i4 = i2 • ;2 = 1

:. G{ i, ;2 = =I, ;3 = -i, ;4 = 1}, where ;4 = 1 is the identity element in G.
To prove Mis isomorphic to G,
Define f: M ~ Gbyj(Am) =i", 1 $ m $4
Let a, bEM, then a =Am, b =An, 1$m,n$4

j(a • b) = j(Am •An)

=f(Am+n)

=j(Am) • j(An)

=j(a) • j(b)

:. /is a homomorphism.
To prove one to one and onto
Suppose j(a) =j(b), where a =Am, b =An
=> j{Am) =j(An)

=> ;m= ;n => ;m-n = 1

=> m-n=O
=> m=n
Am=An => a=b
Hencef is one to one.
Since Mand G are finite groups with four elements, one to one implies onto.
Hence f is an isomorphism.
Hence (M, *)is isomorphic to (G, •)
i.e, (M, *) = (G, •).

EXERCISE 1.4
1. If(G, *)is a group and/: G ~ G is given by
j(x) = x2 V x E G is a homomorphism prove that G is abelian.
[Hint: Let a, b E G thenj(a) = a2,j(b) = b2 andj(a * b) =(a* b)2
f is a homomorphism.
.', j(a * b) = j(a) * j(b) =>(a* b)2 = a2 * b2 =(a* b) *(a* b) =(a* a) (b * b)
=>a* (b *a)* b =a* (a* b) * b "= b *a= a* b by left and right cancellations.
:. (G, *)is abelian]
2. Let G be a group and a E G. show that the map/: G ~ G defined by j(x) =ax a-1 V x E G isan
isomorphism. (AU 2007]
3. Show that the groups (Z4, +4) and ( z;,
x5) are isomorphic.
[Hint: Define g : Z4 ~ z;
by g ([OJ)= [1], g([l]) = [2], g([2]) = [4], g([3]) = [3] Prove g is i
homomorphism, one to one and onto]
4. Let (G, *)and (G', •)be two groups and let/: G ~ G' be a homomorphism. Prove that tht
homomorphic image of G, namely j( G) is a subgroup of G'.
5. Prove any infinite cyclic group in isomorphic to Z.
 Groups and Rings • 1.93

6. Prove any finite cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to Zn.

7. Prove that if G is abelian and G' is not abelian, then G and G' are not isomorphic.
8. Any non-cyclic group of order 4 is isomorphic to the klein -4 group.
8. Show that non-abelian group of order 6 is isomorphic to S3.
9. Let G be a group, g is a fixed element in G. Define/: G ~ G by j{x) = gxg-1 "i/ x E G prove that
f is an isomorphism.

1.3 RINGS AND FIELDS

We shall now consider algebraic systems with two binary operations namely rings and fields. The abstract
concept of a group had its origin from the set of mappings or permutations of a set onto itself. But rings
had its origin from the set of integers which involve two basic operations of addition and multiplication.

Definition1.35 Ring
A non-empty set R with two binary operations denoted by + and • called addition and multiplication,
is called a ring if the following axioms are satisfied.
(i) (R, +) is an abelian group, with 0 as identity.
(ii) (R, •)is a semigroup.
(iii) The operation• is distributive over+
i.e., d • (b + c) =a• b +a• c
and (b + c) •a= b •a+ c «a» a, b, c E R
The detailed axioms are the following
(R, +) is an abelian group means the following axioms

(i) a+ b E R, "i/ a, b E R - closure

(ii) a+ b = b +a, "i/ a, b E R (commutativity)
(iii) a+ (b + c) =(a+ b) + c "i/ a, b, c E R (associativity)
(iv) there is an element 0 E R such that
a+O=O+a=a"i/aeR
(v) For every a E R, there is -a is R such that
a+ (-a)= (-a)+ a= 0
(R, •) is a semi group means
(vi) a • b E R "i/ a, b f=. R
(vii) a» (b • c) =(a• b) • c "i/ a, b, c E R
(viii) a» (b + c) '=a• b +a• c
(ix) (b + c) •a= b •a+ c «a
The distributive axioms connect the two operations.
1. The additive identity 0 is called the zero element of the ring.
The additive inverse of a is denoted by -a and is called the negative of a.
2. Zero of the ring has nothing to do with number 0. ·
Examples:
1. (Z, +, •), (Q, +, •), (R, +,•)and (C, +,•)are all rings.
2. If(R, +,•)is a ring, then the singleton set {O} c R is itselfaring, called the null ring or zero ring.
· 1,94 • Algebra and Number Theory

Definition 1.36 A ring (R, +,•)is said to be commutative if a» b = b «a 'r/ a, be R.

Definition 1.37 A ring (R, +,•)is said to be a ring with identity if there exists an elements I e R
such that a • I = I • a = a 'r/ a E R.

Note
1. The multiplicative identity I. is called the unit element or identity of R.
2. In a ring (R, +,•)if the additive identity 0 and the multiplicative identity I are not equal, then R
is not the zero ring.
i.e., R :;t: {O}
IfO =I, then R = {O}

1.3.1 Elementary Properties of a Ring

Let (R, +, •) be a ring
1. Since (R,+) is a group,
(i) additive identity 0 is unique
(ii) additive inverse -a of a is unique and
=
(iii) the cancellation laws a + b a + c ~ b c =
and = =
b + a c + a ~ b c hold.
2. In a ring with identity, unit element is unique.

Proof Suppose 1 and 1' are unit elements in R.

then l • l'= 1 (treating 1' as unit element)
and l•l'=l' (treating 1 as unit element)

Theorem 1.28
I = l' So identity is unique

Let (R, +,•)be a ring. Then for a, b, c e R,

•
1. a • 0 = 0 • a= 0
2. a» (-b) =(-a)• b =-(a• b)
3. (-a) (-b) =a• b
4. a • (b - c) =a • b - a • c
In addition if R has unit element 1, then
5. (-l)•a=-a
6. (-1) • (-1) = 1

Proof If a e R, then a • 0 = a • (0 + 0)
=a•O+a•O [by distributive axiom]
[by additive identity]
O=a ·O by left cancellation.
Similarly, 0 • a = (0 + 0) • a = 0 • a + 0 • a ~ 0 • a = 0
a » 0 = 0 •a= 0. This proves 1.
 Groups and Rings • 1.95

2, Since a • 0 = 0, we have
a» (b + (-b)) = 0, forany be R
a» b +a• (-b) = 0
a•(-b)=-(a•b) [additive inverse]
Similarly Ob=O
=> (-a+a) • b=O
(-a)•b+a•b=O
(-a• b) =....:(a• b)
a» (-b) =(-a)• b =-(a• b)
This proves 2.
3. Since a» (-b) =(-a)• b Va, be R,
replacing a by-a, we get (-a)• (-'-b) =a• b
4. a• (b- c) =a» (b + (-c)) =a• b +a• (-c) =a• b- a» c
5. Let the ring R have identity I .
Since (-a)• b =-(a• b) Va, be R, replacing a by I, we get
(-I)•b=-b VbeR
(-I)•a=-a VaeR
6. Replacing a by -1 in the above relation we get
(-1). (-1)= -(-1) =: 1 [ ·. · inverse of inverse is 1]
•
1.3.2 Some Special Rings

Definition 1.38 If (R, +, •) is a commutative ring, then a "# 0 e R is said to be a zero-divisor if there
exists a non-zero b e R such that a b = 0.
Zero divisor is also known as divisor of zero.
All number rings are without zero divisors.
For example

If R = { (: : )I~' h, c,d e z} . ThenR is a ring under matrix addition+ and matrix multiplication

as operations.

If A =
,
(I O)
0 0
and B =
1
(O O1 )' then. A *- 0, B *- 0
But AB = ( ~ ~} ( ~ ~) = ( ~ ~) = 0
: . A is a left zero divisor and B is a right zero divisor.
 1.96 • Algebra and Number Theory

Definition 1.39 In a commutative ring (R, +, • ), if for any a, b E S such that a * 0, b * 0 ~ ab * 0,

then the ring is without zero-divisors.

Note In a.ring without zero-divisions a • b = 0

~ a= 0 orb=O.

Definition 1.40 Integral domain ,

A commutative ring (R, +,•)with identity and without zero-divisors is called an integral domain.

Note The definition requires the ring has more than one element.
Example: Z5 = {[O], [1], [2], [3], [4]}, under +5 and 05 is an integral domain.

+5 [O] [l] [2] [3] [4]

[O] [O] [l] [2] [3] [4]
[1] [1] [2] [3] [4] [O]
[2] [2] [3] [4] [O] [1]
[3] [3] [4] [O] [l] [2]
[4] [4] [O] [l] [2] [3]

•5 [O] [l] [2] [3] [4]

[O] [O] [O] [O] [O] [O]
[1] [O] [l] [2] [3] [4]
[2] [O] [2] [4] [1] [3]
[3] [O] [3] [l] [4] [2]

[4] [O] [4] [3] [2] [1]

We can easily verify (Z5, +5, 5) is a commutative ring with identity [1].
0

From the table for 5 we see product of non-zero elements is non-zero and so the ring is without
0

zero-divisors.
Hence it is an integral domain.

Note (Zn' +n' • n) is an integral domain if n is a prime number.

Definition 1.41 Field

A
· commutative
d fi ring (R' +' • ) wi
'th 1identity
· m · wh'ic h every non-zero el ement has mu I tip
· 1·icatrve
· mversr
·
is ca11 e a eld.
 Groups and Rings • 1.97

Example: (Q, +,•)is a field

(R, +,•)is a field and (C, +,•)is a field.
But (Z, +,•)is an integral domain and not a field.

Theorem 1.29 A commutative ring R with identity is an integral domain if the cancellation laws
hold inR.

proof Let R be an integral domain.

Let a • b = a • c, where a t- 0
a» (b-c) = 0

b-c=O~b=c [ ·: a -:t. 0 and R is without zero-divisors]

So, cancellation law holds.

Conversely, let R be a commutative ring with identity in which cancellation laws hold.
To prove R is an I.D, we have to prove that R has no zero divisors.
Suppose a • b = 0 and a -:t. 0
Then a» b = 0 [ ·: 0 =a» O]

~ b=O [by cancellation law]

Hence R is without zero divisors.
: . R is an Integral domain.
•
Theorem 1.30 Every field is an integral domain.

Proof Let (F, +,•)be a field.

Then it is a commutative ring with identity.
To prove F is an integral domain, it is enough to prove that it has no zero divisors.
Suppose a, b E F with a • b = 0, a -:t. 0
Since a is non-zero element, its multiplicative inverse a-1 exists.
a-1 •(a• b) = a-1 • 0
(a-1 •a)• b = 0
l•b=O~b=O
Thus ab = 0, a -:t. 0 ~ b = 0
:. F has no zero divisors.
Hence (F, +,•)is an integral domain.
•
Theorem 1.31 Prove that any finite integral domain is a field.

Proof Let (R, +,•)be a finite integral domain.

:. Risa commutative ring with identity and without zero divisors.
Hence to prove R is a field, it is enough to prove that every non-zero element in R has multiplicative
inverse.
1.98 • Algebra and Number Theory

Let R = {O, 1, ap a2, •.. , an}.

where 0 is the zero of the ring and 1 is the identity of the ring.
Let a E R and a :;t: 0.
Multiplying the non-zero elements of R by a, we get the set {a• 1, a ap a a2, a a3, .•• , a an}
Since R is without zero divisors, these elements are all non-zero and they are distinct.
Suppose a a; =a as, r:;t: s, then aia, - as)= 0
since a :;t: 0

Which is a contradiction to the fact that a; and as are distinct elements in R.

And all the a a[ s are distinct from a also.

Since R is finite, these (n + 1) elements are same as the (n + 1) non-zero elements of R in some
order by pigeon hole principle.
for some a; E R
Since R is commutative a ai = ai a.

a a;= ai a. = 1 => ai = a-1

:. every non-zero element in R has multiplicative inverse.
Hence any finite integral domain is a field.
•
Theorem 1.32 Zn is a field if and only if n is a prime. [AU 2017]

Proof We have Zn= {[O], [l], [2], ... , [n - 1]}

We know (Zn,+;•) is a commutative ring with identity [1].
Let n be a prime. ·
Suppose 0 < a < n, then g c d (a, n) 1 =
:. there exists integers s, t such that

sa + tn = 1 => sa - 1 = (-t)n
sa - 1 is divisible by n
=> sa = 1 (mod n)
=> [s] [a]= [1]

[s] is the multiplicative inverse of [a]

[a] is a unit in Zn.
Hence Zn is a field.
Conversely, let Zn be a field.
So, Zn is a commutative ring with identity and without zero divisions of zero.
To prove n is a prime.
If n is not a prime, then
where 1 < np n2 < n
 Groups and Rings • 1.99

So, [ni]-:!- 0 and [n2] -:!- 0.

But [niJ [n2] = [n1n2] = [n] = [O]
:. [ni], [n2] are divisors of zero which contradicts the fact Zn is a field.
Hence n is a prime.
•
Theorem 1.33 In z,,, [a] is a unit if and only if a and n are relatively prime.
i.e.,g c d (a, n) = 1
Proof Ifg c d (a, n) = 1, then there exist integers s and t such that sa + tn = 1
sa - 1 = (-t)n
sa= 1 (modn)
[s] [a]= [1]
[ar1 = [s]
Hence [a] is a unit of Zn.
Conversely, let [a] be a unit of Zn. say [ar1 = [s]
==> [a] [s] = [l]
[as]= [l]
as= 1 (modn)
as - 1 = tn for some t E Z
as+(-t)n=l

1.3.2(a) Boolean Ring

gcd(a,n)=l
•
Definition 1.42 In a ring (R, +,•)if a2 =a Va E R, then the ring is called a Boolean ring.

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Prove that a Boolean ring is always commutative.

Solution.
Given R is a Boolean ring.

We prove the ring is commutative in three stages.

(i) First we shall prove that a+ a= 0 V a E R
Let a E R be any element, then a + a E R [by closure]
and (a+ a)= (a+ a)2 =(a+ a)• (a+ a) [by given condition]
=a• (a+ a)+ a• (a+ a) [by distributive axiom]
1.100 • Algebra and Number Theory

=a•a+a•a+a•a+a•a
= (a2 + a2) + (a2 + a2)
=(a+ a)+ (a+ a) [·: a2=a]
=> (a+ a)+ 0 =(a+ a)+ (a+ a) [O is additive identity]
=> a+a=O [by left cancellation law]
(ii) Next we shall prove that a + b = 0 ==> a=b.
Leta+b=O
By first part we have a+a=O
a + b = a + a ==> b = a, by left cancellation in (R, +)
=> a=b
(iii) Finally we shall prove a • b = b • a for any a, b E R
Let a, b E R. Then a + b E R
=> a+b=(a+b)2, by given condition
=(a+b)•(a+b)
=a• (a+ b) + b •(a+ b) [by distributive axiom]
=a v a+o v b+b= a+b v b
=a2+a•b+b•a+b2
a+b e a+a=b+b= a+b
By left and right cancellation laws in the group (R, + ), we get
0 =-a • b + b • a => a • b = b • a [by part (ii)]
:. R is commutative.

EXAMPLE 2
Let R ={a, b, c, d}. Define+ and- on R by the tables here:

+ a b c d
a a b c d
b b a d c
c c d b a
d d c a b
(1)
. a b c d
a a a a a
b a a b a
c a b c d
d a a d a
(2)
Show that (R, +, •) is a ring.
Is it commutative? Does it have an identity? What is the zero of the ring?
 Groups and Rings • 1.101

Solution.
Given R = {a, b, c, d} and + and • are defined by the given tables, we shall now verify the axioms of a
ring.
1. we have to prove that (R, +) is an abelian group.
Since the body of the table (1) contain only all the elements of R, R is closed under+.
Since elements of each row and each column are different and for "ii x E R
we have x + a = a + x = x, a is the zero element.
(R, +) is a group with a as additive identity.
The additive inverse of a is a and the inverse of b is b,
The additive inverse of c is d and the inverse of dis c,
since a + a = a, b + b = a, c + d = d + c = a from the given table.
Further, the elements equidistant from the main diagonal are same and so + is commutative.
:. (R, +)is an abelian group.
2. Now we shall prove that (R, •)is a semi-group.
The body of the table (2) contains only the elements of Rand hence R is closed under, •
Associativity: For b, c, d E R, we have
b • (c • d) = b • d =a [From table (2)]
and (b • c) • d = b • d =a [From table (2)]
b • (c • d) = (b • c) • d
Similarly, we can prove for other elements in R.
:. Associative axiom is satisfied.
Hence (R, •) is a semigroup.
3. From tables (1) and (2)
a» (b + c) =a» d =a
and a • b + a • c= a + a=a
a » (b + c) =a• b =a• c
Similarly, we can verify for each triplets.
:. (R, +, •) is a ring.
In table (2), the elements equidistant from the main diagonal are same and so • is commutative.
Hence R is commutative ring.
Since a •a= a, a» b = b •a= a, a» c = c •a= a, a • d = d «a= a, etc., there is no identity element.
4. The additive identity a is the zero of the ring.

EXAMPLE 3
Show that (Z, +, x) is an integral domain where Z is the set of all integers. [AU 2010)

Solution.
We know a commutative ring with identity and without zero-divisors is called an integral domain.
If Z is the set of integers, then
(i) (Z, +)is an abelian group.
(ii) {Z, x) is a semi-ring.
(iii) a x b = b x a "ii a, b E Z
(iv) ax (b + c) =ax b +ax c "ii a, b, c E Z
Hence (Z, +, x) is a commutative ring with identity
If a -::f. 0, b -::f. 0 in Z then we know ab -::f. 0. So Z is without zero divisors.
Hence (Z, +, x) is an integral domain.
1.102 • Algebra and Number!lh,eorv

EXAMPLE 4
Show that the set of integers Z with the binary operations E9 and o defined by a E9 b = a + b - 1
and a O b = a + b - ab "ii a, b e Z is a commutative ring with identity.

Solutlon.
Given a®b=a+ b- 1
and a O b = a + b - ab V a, b e Z
To prove (Z, ®, 0) is a ring we verify the axioms.
1. We shall prove that (Z, ®)is an abelian group.
Closure: Since a, b are integers, a + b - 1 is an integer. :. a ® b e Z
So, Z is closed under ®
Associativity: a® (b ® e) =a® (b + e - 1)
=a+b+e-l-l=a+b+e-2
and (a Ee b) $ e =(a+ b- 1) ® e
=a+b-l+e-l=a+b+e-2
a® (b ® e) =(a® b) ® e Va, b, e e Z
So, ® is associative.
Identity: Let a e Zand let e e Z be the identity for ®
a®e=a=>a+e-l=a=>e=l
1 is the identity for ®
Inverse: Let a e Zand a' e Z be the inverse, then
a®a'=l=>a+a'-1=1
=> d=2-a
So, additive inverse exists for every element.
Commutativity: a ®b= a+ b- 1
=b+a-l=b®a Va, be Z
:. (Z, ®)is an abelian group.
2. Now we shall prove (Z, 0) is a semigroup with identity.
Closure: Let a, b e Z, then a + b - ab is an integer.
:. aO b E Z
So, Z is closed under O.
Associativity: For any a, b, e e Z
a O (b O e) =a 0 (b + a - be)
=a+ b + e-be-a(b + e-be)
=a+ b + e-be-ab-ae + abe
and (a Ob) O e =(a+ b- ab) 0 e
=a+ b- ab+ e - (a+ b - ab) e
= a + b + e - ab - be - ae + abe
aO(bOe)=(aOb)Oe 'rfa,b,eeZ
:. 0 is associative.
Identity: Let a e Z be any element.
We have the integer 0 e Z such that a O 0 = a + 0 - a • 0 = a
:. 0 is the identity for O.
:. (R, 0) is a semi group with identity.
 Groups and Rings • 1.103

3. We now verify the distributive axioms.

For any a, b, c E Z
aO(bEBc)=aO(b+c-l) ·
=a+b+c- l -a(b+c-l)
=a+b+c- l-ab-ac+a
=2a+b+c-ab-ac- l
Now (a 0 b) EB (a 0 c) =(a+ b-ab) EB (a+ c- ac)
= a + b - ab + a + c - ac - 1
= 2a + b + c - ab - ac - 1
Hence a 0 (b EB c) =(a 0 b) +(a 0 c) Va, b, c E Z
Similarly, we can prove (b EB c) 0 a= (b. 0 a) EB (c 0 a)
Finally, a 0 b = a + b - ab = b + a - ba = b 0 a
:. (Z, EB, 0) is a commutative ring with identity.

EXAMPLE 5
If (R, +, •) is a system satisfying all the conditions of a ring with identity with the possible
exception of a + b = b + a, prove that the axiom a + b = b + a must hold in R and that R is a ring.

Solution.
Given (R, +, •) satisfy all axioms of a ring with identity 1, except a+ b = b + a.
We shall now prove a + b = b + a is also true from other conditions.
Consider (a+ b) • (1 + 1) =a » (1+1) + b • (1+1), [distributive conditions.]
=a• l +a• l +b » 1 +b » l
=(a+a)+(b+b)
Also by distributive laws, we get
(a+ b) • (1+1) =(a+ b) 1 +(a+ b) • 1
=a•l+b•l+a•l+b•l
=(a+b)+(a+b)
(a+ a)+ (b + b) =(a+ b) +(a+ b)
a+ (a+ b) + b =a+ (b +a)+ b [·: +is associative]
~ a+b=b+~
by left and right cancellation laws in the group (R, +)
:. (R, +,•)is a ring.

EXAMPLE 6
Show that Q( .Ji) = {a+ h.Ji/ a, b E Q} is a field under usual addition and multiplication.

Sol'-tion. ·
We have to prove Q( Ji) is a commutative ring with identity and every non-zero element has
multiplicative inverse. Now verify all axioms.
1.104 • Algebra and Number Theory

1. Closure:Leta+b../2, c+d.fi.eQ(.fi.), wherea,b,c,de Q,

then (a+b.fi.) + (c+d.fi.) =(a+ c) + (b + d) .Ji. e Q.fi. (·: a+ c, b +de Q)
: . Q( .Ji.) is closed under +.
2. Associativity: Since + is associative in the real number set and Q( .Ji.) is a subset of R and so +
is associative in Q( .Ji.) also.
3. Identity: 0 + 0../2 e Q( .Ji.) is the identity for +
Since (a+b.fi.)+(O+O.fi.) = a+b.fi. for any a+b.fi. e Q(.fi.)
4. Inverse: For any element a+ b../2 e Q( .fi.J
-a - b../2 e Q( .Ji.) exists such that
(a +b../2)+(-a-b.fi.) =a-a +(b-b)../2
= o+o.fi.
:. Inverse of a+ b.fi. =-a - b../2
Hence Inverse axiom is· satisfied under +
Also (a+ b../2) + (c + d.fi.) = (c + d../2) +(a+ b../2) for all a+ b../2,c + d.fi. e Q../2
+ is commutative in Q( .Ji.)
Hence (Q( .Ji.,+) is an abelian group.

2. Next we prove (Q../2, •) is a semi-group with identity.

Let x,ye Q(J2.), then x=a+b.fi., y=c+d.J2
And x• y =(a+ b.fi.)(c + d../2)
= (ac+ 2bd)+(ad +bc).fi.

: . QJ2. is closed under.

Further • is associative in the set of real numbers and Q( .Ji.) is a subset and so it is true in
Q(J2.) also.
Further 1 + o.fi. E Q( .Ji.) and (a+ b.fi.) • (1 + oJi) = a+ b../2
,', 1 + o.fi. is the identity element. I

Hence (Q( .Ji.),•) is a semi-ring with identity.

Now x•y=(a+bJ2)•(c+dJ2)
= ac +ad .Ji.+ bc.J2 + 2bd
and y • x = (c+ d../2) •(a+ b../2)
= ca+cbJ2 +daJ2 +2db
= ac+adJ2 +bcJ2 +2bd
x•y=y•x
: . • is commutative in Q( J2)
 Groups and Rings • 1.105

3. Let x,y,ze Q(Ji), then x=a+J2,y=c+dJ2,z=e+ JJ2

x • (y + z) = (a+ bJ2) • ( c + d J2 + e + f J2)

= (a+bh)•(c+e+(d +!)Ji)
x•(y+ z) = a(c+e)+ 2b(d + f)+(b(c+e)+a(d+ /))Ji (1)

and x • y + x • z =(a+ b J2) • (c + d J2) +(a+ b J2) • (e + JJ2)

=ac +adJ2 +heh +2bd+ae+aJJ2 +heh +2bf

y •x+x • z= a(c + e) + 2b(d+ !) + [a(d+ !) + b (c +e)]J2 (2)
From (1) and (2), x•(y+ z) = x• y + x•z.
Since • is commutative (y + z) • x = y ~ x + z • x.
Now we shall prove that multiplicative identity exists and multiplicative inverse exists for each
element.
Since Q( J2) is a subset of R, the identity for multiplication is 1 = 1 +o.J2.

Let a+ bJ2 -:f. 0, then atleast one of a and b is not given

1 a-bJ2
Now
a+bJ2- (a+bJ2)(a-bJ2)

a
= =---
a2 -2b2 a2 -2b2 a2 -2b2
Since atleast one of a and b is -:;:. 0, a2 - 2b2 -:;:. 0 and a and b are rationals.
a2 - 2b2 is rational.

a2 b2
Hence , are rational numbers.
a2 -2b 2
a 2 -2b 2

1
a+bJ2 E Q(J2)

1 1
Also (a+ bJ2) J2 = 1 ~ J2 is the inverse ofa + b J2 .
(a+b 2) a+b 2

Thus, Q( J2) is a commutative ring with identity in which every non-zero element has
multiplicative inverse.

Q( J2) is a field.
 1.106 • Algebra and Number Theory

Propertiesof Congruences
=
If a= b (mod n) and c d (mod n), then
=
(i) a + c b + d (mod n)
(ii) a - c = b- d (mod n)
=
(iii) ac bd (mod n)

EXAMPLE 7
Find [25]-1 in the ring Z72• [AU 2017)

Solution.
Since 25 and72 are relatively prime, gcd (25, 72) = 1
Euclidean algorithm leads to

72 = 2(25) + 22, 0 < 22 < 25

25 = 1(22) + 3, 0 < 3 < 22

22=7(3)+1, 0<1<3
As 1 is the last non-zero remainder,
We have 1=22- 7(3)
= 22 - 7(25 - 22)
= 6 - 7(25) + 8(72 - 2(25))
= 8(72) - 23(25)
I + 23(25) = 8(72)

1 + 23(25) is divisible by 72.

1 = (-23) (25) mod (72)
[l] = [-23] [25]
[25]-1 = [-23]
[25J-1 = [49] in thering Z72. [ ·: -23 = 49(mod72)]
. => [l] = [49][25]
[25J-1 = [49]

EXAMPLE 8
Find
(i) (17)-1 in the ringZ1009
(ii) [lOOJ-1 in the ring Z1009
(iii) (777)-1 in the ringZ1009• [AU 2018]
 Groups and Rings • 1.107

Solutlon.
(i) To find [l 7t1 in the ring Z1009
Since 17 and 1009 are relatively prime, the gcd ( 17, 1009) = 1, the Euclidean algorithm leads to
1009=59(17)+6, 0<6< 17 59 2
=> 17=2(6)+5, 0<5<6 11) 1009 6nT
85 12
=> 6=1(5)+1, 0 < 1, < 5
159 5
As 1 is the last non-zero remainder, we have 153
1=6-1(5)=6~1[17-2(6)] 6
=3(6)-17
= 3[1009- 59(17)- 17]
= 3(1009)- 178(17)
Hence 1 = (-178) (17) mod (1009) [ ·: 1 - (-178)(17) is divisible by 1009)]
[1] = [-178] [17]
=> [17]-1 = [-178]
But -178 = 831(mod1009)
[-178]= [831]
[17t1 = [831] in the ring Z1009.
(ii) To find [100t1 in the ring Z1009•
Since 100 and 1009 are relatively prime, the gcd (100, 1009) = 1, the Euclidean algorithm leads
to
1009 = 10(100) + 9, 0<9<100 10
100=11(9)+1, 0<1<9 100) 1009
100
1 = 100 - 11 (9)
9
= 100-11[1009-10(100)]
= 111(100)-11(1009)
=> 1- 111(100) = -11 (1009)
=> 1 - 111(100) is divisible by 1009
=> 1 = 111(100) (mod 1009)
=> [1] = [111] [100] in the ring Z 1009.

[100]-1 = [11 l] in the ring Z1009.

1.108 • Algebra and Number Theory

(iii) To find [777]-1 in the ring Z1009

Since 777 and 1009 are relatively prime to each other, the gcd (777, 1009) = 1, the Euclidean
algorithm leads to
1009 = 1 (777) + 232, 0 < 232 < 777
777 = 3(232) + 81, 0<81<232
232 = 2(81) + 70, 0<70<81
81=1(70)+11, 0 < 11<70
70 = 6(11) + 4, 0<4< 11
11=2(4) + 3, 0<3<4
4 = 1(3) + 1, 0<1<3
1=4- 1(3)
=4-(11-2(4))
=3(4)-11
= 3(70- 6(11))- 11
= 3(70)- 19(11)
= 3 (70) - 19(81 - 1(70))
= 22(70)- 19(81)
= 22[232 - 2(81)] -19(81)
= 22(232)- 63(81)
= 22(232) - 63[777 - 3(232)]
= 211(232)- 63(777)
= 211[1009- urrn: 63(777)]
= 211 (1009)- 274 (777)

=> 1+274(777) = 211(1009)

=> 1+274(777) is divisible by 1009
1 = (-274) (777) (mod 1009)
[1] = [-274][777] in the ring Z1009.
[777]-l = [-274)
=> [777]-I = [735] in the ring z 1009 [ ·: -274 = 735(mod 1009)]
 Groups and Rings • 1.109

EXAMPLE 9
Prove that the set Z4 = {O, 1, 2, 3} is a commutative ring with respect to the binary operation
+4, X4° [AU 2015)

Solution.
=
We know Z4 {O, 1, 2, 3}. Here 0, 1, 2, 3 is used instead ofclass[O], [l], [2], [3]
We shall verify the axiom of a ring forming Cayley operation table.

+4 0 1 2 3 •4 0 1 2 3

0 0 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 2 3 0 1 0 1 2 3

2 2 3 0 1 2 0 2 1 2

3 3 0 1 2 3 0 3 2 1

(1) (2)
1. Closure: The body of the table (1) contains only element of Z4 and hence Z4. is closed under +4.
2. Associative: Associative axiom is inherited from Z.
3. Identity: 0 is the identity element.
4. Inverse: Inverse of 0, 1, 2, 3 are respectively 0, 3, 2, 1.
So, Inverse axiom is satisfied.
Since the element equidistant from the main diagonal of (1) are the same
a+4b=b+4a~a,be Z4
:. (Z4, +4) is an abelian group.
The body of the table (2) contains only elements of Z4
:. Z4 is closed under •4
Further • 4 is associative as it is inherited.
and a •4 b = b •4 a~ a, b
since elements equivalent from main diagonal of (2) are the same.
Further, x•4(y+4z)=(x•4y)+4(x•4z) ~x,y,ze Z4
because the property is inherited from number system.
By commutativity of •4, (y +4 z) •4 x = (y •4 x) +4 (z •4 x) ~ x, y, z e Z4
Hence, (Z4, +4, •4) is a commutative ring.
EXAMPLE 10
Define the binary operations E9 and 0 in Z by x E9 y =x +y - 7 and x 0 y = x + y - 3xy, for
~x,y e Z. Explain why (Z, ED 0) is not a ring?

Solution.
In Z, for every x, ye Z, =
x E9 y x + y - 7 and x 0 y = x + y- 3xy.
First to prove (Z, E9 0) is an abelian group.
1.110 • Algebra and Number Theory

1. Closure: For any x, y E Z,

x ® y = x + y- 7 is an integer in Zand x O y = x + y - 3xy is a integer in Z.
:. x EB y E Z, and x O y E Z •
:. Z is closed under® and O.
2. Associativity: For any x, y, z E Z,

x ®(y ® z) = x ®(y + z - 7)
=x+y+z-7-7
=x+y+z-14
and (x + y) ® z = (x + y- 7) EB z

=x+y-7+z-7
=x+y+z-14
x EB(y EB z) = (x EB y) EB Z V x,y,zE Z
:. associative axiom is verified.
3. Identity: If e is the identity, then for any x E z
x EB e =x => x+e-7=7 => e=7
4. Inverse: If x E z be any element and x' is its inverse, then x EB x' = 7 => x + x' - 7 = 7 => x' = 14 - x E z
Inverse exists for every element in Z.
5. Commutativity:
xEBy=y®x Vx,y,zE Z
:. (Z, EB) is an abelian group
To prove(Z, ® O) is not a ring.
6. xO(yOz)=xO(y+z-3yz)
=x + (y +z~ 3yz)- 3x(y + z- 3yz)
=x + y + z- 3yz-3.xy- 3x(y + z- 3yz)
=x+ y+z-xy-3yz-3xz+ 9xyz
and (x O y) Oz= (x + y - 3.xy) Oz
=x + y- 3.xy +z-3(x + y-3xy)z
=x + y +z-3.xy-3yz-3xz+ 9xyz
x 0 (y Oz)= (x Oy) Oz for V x,y,zE Z.
We now check distributive law.
We have x O (y EB z) = x O (y + z - 7)
=x + y + z- 7 - 3x(y + z- 7)
=x +y + z - 7 - 3.xy - 3xz + 2 lx
= 2x + y + z - 3xy - 3xz - 7
 Groups and Rings • 1.111

and (x Oy) Et> (x Oz)= (x + y-3xy) Et> (x +z-3xz)

=x+ y-3yz+x·+z- 3xz- 7

= 2x + y + z - 3.xy - 3xz - 7
:. x 0 (y Et> z) + (x 0 y) Et> (x 0 z)
: . distributive law is not satisfied in Z.
:. (Z, Et>, O) is not a ring

EXAMPLE 11
Let k, m be fixed integers. Find all values of k, m for which (Z, Ea, 0) is a ring under the binary
operationsx Eay=x+ y-k andx Oy=x+ y-nuy '<:/ x,y e Z.

Solution.
Given (Z, Et>, O) is a ring under the binary operation.
Given x Et> y = x + y - k and x O y = x + y - mxy '<:/ x, y e Z.
:. the distributive law is true in (Z, Et>, O).
That is, if x, y, z e Z, then x 0 (y Et> z) = (x 0 y) Et> (x 0 z)
x O (y + z - k) = (x + y- mxy) Et> (x + z - mxz)
x + y +z-k-mx(y +z-k) =x + y-mxy +x+z-mxz-k
x + y+z-k-mxy-mxz+ kmx = 2x+ y+z-mxy-mxz-k
kmx=x~km= 1.
Since k and m are integers, k = 1, m = l or k = -1, m = -1.
:. If k= 1, m = 1, then (Z, Et>, O) is a ring
and if k=-1, m = -1, then (Z, Et>, O) is a ring.

EXAMPLE 12
Let (Q, Ea, O) be a field where Ea and Oare defined by a Ea b =a+ b - k

and a O b = a+ b + ab for fixed numbers k and m '¢ 0 in Q.

m
. Determine k and m in each of the following:
(i) The Zero of the field is 3
(ii) The additive inverse of 6 is -9
(iii) The Multiplicative inverse of 2 is .!. .
8
Solution.
Given (Q, Et>, O) is a field with respect to the binary operation
aEE>b=a+b-k
1.112 • Algebra and Number Theory

ab
and a Ob= a+b+-, m:;t:O
m
(i) Given 3 is the zero of the field.

aEE>3=a Vae Q [·: a+O==a]

=> a+3-k=a => k=3

and a03=3 Vae Q [·:a·O=O]
3a
=> a+3+-=0
m

=> 1+-=0
3
m
=>m==-3

k= 3, m=-3
(ii) Given additive inverse of 6 is -9
Let b be the zero of the field.
Then aEE>b=a

=> a + b - k == a => b = k.
So, k is the zero of the field (Q, Et>, O)

6 Et> (-9)= k
6-a-k== k=> 2k=-3 => k ==-'i
2
Further aOk=k

=> a+k+ ka == k
m

=> a(l+~)=o
k 3
=> 1 + - == 0 => m + k = 0 => m == +k == -
m 2
3 3
k=-- m==-
2' 2

(iii) Given multiplicative inverse of2 is 81

Let e be the identity of the field.
aOe=a ae Q

=> ae
a+e+-;;==a => e ( I+;a) ==0 =>e=O
 Groups and Rings • 1.113

So, the multiplicative identity is 0

20.!.=o
8
1
2·-
2+.!.+-8 =0
8 m
17 1 2
=> -=.,.-- => m=--
8 4m 17

Using proof of (ii), we get, k is the zero of the field

k
and 1+-=0 =>m+k=O
m
2
k=-m=-
17
2
k= }:_ m=--
17' 17

1.3.3 Subring
Definition 1.43 Let (R, +,•)be ring. A non-empty subset S of R is said to be a subring of R if S itself
is a ring with respect to the same operations + and • of R.

Note In other words Sis a subgroup of R if (i), (S, +) is a subgroup of (R, +) and (ii) Sis closed
under+·
i.e., for a, b e S, a - b e Sand a • b e S
Thus to verity a subset of a ring is subring it is enough to verify the above conditions.

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Prove that in the ring of integers (Z, +,•),the subset of even integers 2Z is a subring.

Solution.
Leta, b e2Z, then a = 2x, and b = 2y
a-b = 2x-2y= 2(x-y) e2Z
and a • b = 2x • 2y = 2(2xy) e 2Z

Hence (2Z, +,•)is a subring of Z

EXAMPLE 2
In the ring (Z6, +6, x6), show that
(i) S ={[OJ, [2J, [41} and (ii) T ={[OJ, [3J are subrings.
1.114 • Algebra arid Number Theory

Solution.
(i) Given S = {[O], [2], [4]} is a non-empty subset of Z6
We shall prove that [a] - [b]ES V[a]
Now [2] - [O] = [2] ES
[4]- [O] = [4] ES
[0]-[2] = [-2] = [4] ES
[0]- [4] = [--4] = [2] ES
:. (S, +)is an abelian group.
Further Sis closed under x6.
So (S, +6, x6), is a subring of(Z6, +6, x6)
(ii) Given T= {[O], [3]} is a subgroup of(Z6, +6, x6)

Now [3] - [0] = [3] E T

and [0] - [3] = [3] ET
(T, +6) is an abelian subgroup of (Z6, +6)
Tis closed under x6 and associativity is inherited from (Z6, +6, x6) and distributive conditions are
also inherited.
Hence (T, +6, x6) is a subring of (Z6, +6, x6)
EXAMPLE 3
For any integer m, prove that the set S = { mx Ix E z} is a sub ring of (Z, +, •).
Solution.
Given S= {m.xjxE z}
If x = 0, then m 0 = 0 E S
Sis non-empty.
Let a, b E S be any two elements.
Then a = mx, b = my
a-b=m(x-y)E S [ ·: x - y is an integer]
Now a» b = mx • my=m(mxy) ES.
(S, +,•)is an subring of(Z, +, •)

1.3.4 Ring Homomorphism

Definition 1.44 Let (R, +, •) and (S, ffi, 0) be rings. A mapping f R ~ S is called a ring
homomorphism ifj(a + b)= j(a) EB j(b) andj(a • b) =j(a) 0 j(b) Va, b E R.
Note that the ring homomorphism preserves both the operations.
Definition 1.45 Isomorphism
Letf: (R, +, •) ~ (S, ffi, 0) be a ring homomorphism. Iff is one-to-one and onto, thenf is called a
ring isomorphism.
We then say that R and S are isomorphic rings.
 Groups and Rings • 1.115 ·

1.3.5 Properties of Ring Homomorphism

If/: (R, +, •) ~ (S, $, 0) is a ring homomorphism, then
(i) j(O) = O', where 0, O' are the zero elements if R and S respectively.
(ii)j(-a) =-f(a) "i/ a ER
(iii)j(na) = nj(a) "i/ a E R, n E zr
(iv) j(an) = [f(aW "i/ a E R, n E zr
(v) If A is a subring of R, thenj(A) is a subring of S.

Proof
(i) To prove .l{O) O'=
Where 0 and O' are the identity elements of R and S respectively

We have j(O) =j(O + 0) =j(O) + j(O)

=> O' El7 j(O) =j(O) El7 j(O)

=> = j(O)
O' (by right cancellation law)

j(O) = O'

(ii) To prove .l{-a) = -j{a) 'r:f a e R.

We have j(O) = O'
=> j(a +(-a))= O' for any a E R.
=> j(a) El7 j(-a) = O'
j(-a) is the additive inverse ofj(a)
=> j(-a) = -f(a) "i/ a E R.
(iii) To prove.l{na) = nj{a)
Let a e R and n e Z"
We have j(na) =j(a +a+ ... +a), n times
= j(a) $ j(a) $ + ... $ j(a) n times ( ·: f is homomorphism)
= nj(a)
=> j(na) = nj(a)
(iv) To prove.l{an) = [l{a)]n
We have j(an) = j(a.a.a ... a), (n times)
= j(a) Of(a) 8 ... Of(a), n times

= [f(aW
f(an) = [f(aW
(v) To prove if A is subring of R, then.l{A) is a subring of R.
Given A is subring of R and so, A =F- </>

j{A) =t:- </>

1.116 • Algebra and Number Theory

If x, ye fiA), then x = fia), y =fib) for some a, be A

Then x ffi y = fia) ffi fib)= fia + b)
=> x EB ye A [ ·: a + b e A as A is a subring]

and x 0 y = fia) 0fib) = fia • b) e A, since a » be A

So,.f(A) is closed under Et> and 0
Also, if x e ft.A), then x = fi a) for some a e A
So, fi-a) = -fia) [by property ii]
Since a e A,-a e A
fi-a) E j(A) => -x E fiA)

Hence fiA) is a subring of S

•
Theorem 1.34 If/: (R, +, •) ~ (S, ED, 0) is a ring homomorphism of R onto S, where ISi > 1, then
(i) If 1 is unity of R, thenj{l) is a unity of S.
(ii) If a is a unit of R,j{a) is a unit of S andj{a-1) = [f{a)r1•
(iii) If R is commutative, then S is commutative.

Proof
(i) If I is the unity of R, then to provej[l ) is the unity of S.
Let ft. a) be any element of S.
Then a e R, since/is onto.
Alsofil) e S
fil) 0fia) = fil •a)= fia)
and fia) 0fil) = fia • 1) = fia)
fil) is the identity of S.
(ii) If a is a unity of R, then there is an element a-1 e R such that
a • a-1 = a-1 • a= 1
fia • a-1) = fil) => fia) 0fia-1) =fil)
and fia-1 •a)= fil) => fia-1) 0fia) = fil)
fia) 0fia-1) = fia-1) 0fia) = fil)
:. the multiplicative inverse offia) isfia-1) and sofia) is a unit of S
and
(iii) If R is commutative, then we have to prove Sis commutative.
Let x, y e S, then we can find a, b e R such that fi a) = x, fib) = y, since f is onto
x 0 y = fia) 0fib)
=fia•b) [ ·: f is a homomorphism]
 Groups and Rings • 1.-t17

=f(b•a) [ ·: R is a homomorphism]
=f(b) Of(a)
=> xOy=yOx
S is commutative.
•
WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Consider the rings (Z, +, • ), (2Z, +, • ). Test the map I: z ~ 2Z given by flx) = 2x ';/ x e z is a ring
homomorphism or not.

Solution.
Given the two rings (Z, +, ·)and (2Z, +, ·)
The map f: Z ~ 2Z is defined by
j(x) = 2x ';/ X E Z
For any x,y e Z,
we have j(x+y) = 2(x+ y)= 2x + 2y
=f(x) + j(y)
and j(x,y) = 2(x,y) = 2xy
But j(x) • j(y) = 2x • 2y = 4xy
j(x, y) "# f(x) • j(y)
Hence f is not homomorphism of rings

EXAMPLE 2
LetR= {a+ b.J2Ja,b e z} and (R,+,•) bearing,Let/:R-Rbe defined by f {a+ b.J2) = a-h.J2.
Prove that f is a ring homomorphism and it is onto.

Solution.
Given R = {a+ Ji ja, be Z} and (R, +, ·)is a ring.
The map f: R ~ R be defined by
f(a + b.Ji) = a-b.Ji '\/a +b.Ji e R
Letx= a +b.Ji ,y= c +d.Ji, thenx + y= (a+ c) + (b + d) Ji
j(x + y) =f(a + c + (b + d) Ji)
=a+c-(b+d) Ji [by definition]
= (a-b.Ji) +(c -u Ji , 7f(x) + j(y)
and xy =(a+ b Ji )(c + d Ji)
1.118 • , Algebra and Number Theory

= ae + 2bd+ (ad+ be)Ji

fix, ):') = fiac, + 2bd +(ad +bci .J2)
= ae + 2bd-(ad +be) .J2

Now j(x) •j(y) = j(a + b.J2) •f(e + d.J2)

=(a - b .J2) • (e - d .J2)
= ae+ 2bd-(ad+ be).fi.
j(x • y) = j(x) • j(y)
Hence/is a ring homomorphism.v
Let y = a +b .J2 e R (condition) be any element, where a, b e Z.
For this a, b, we have a - b .J2 = x in R such that
j(x)=j(a-bh)=a+b.J2 =ye R.
/is onto.

EXAMPLE 3
Prove that the only idempotent elements of an integral domain are 0 and 1.

Solution.
Let (R, +, •) be an integral domain.
Let a e R be an idempotent element.
Then
a(a-1) = 0
Since R has no zero divisors.
a(a-1)=0 a= 0 ora-1=0
Hence a=Oanda= 1
Hence 0 and 1 are the only independent elements of R.

EXAMPLE 4
Let F be a finite field with n elements. Prove that an = a for all a E F.

Solution.
Letae F
Ifa=O, then an= a= 0
Leta:;tO
Since F is a field, F - { 0} is a group under multiplication.
O(F - { 0}) = n - 1 and 1 is the identity element.
Hence an-I = 1 => an =a [by theorem
 Groups and Rings • 1.119

EXAMPLE 5
Let (C, +, •) be a commutative ring with identity 1, Prove that f: C ~ C be defined by f (z) == z
is an isomorphism.

Solution.
Given (C, +,•)is a commutative ring
The map/: C ~ C is defined by f(z) = z Vz e C

and j(zl Z2) = Zt Z2 = Zt •Z2 = j(zl). j(z2)

f is a ring homomorphism.
Further, j(z1) =j(z2)

=> =>
/is one-to-one.
-
For any z e C (Co domain), we have z e C such that f (z) = z = z
/is onto.
Hence f is an isomorphism of C onto C.

EXAMPLE 6
Test whether f: (Z, +, •) ~ (2Z, +, •) defined by f{x) = 2x 'V x e z is a ring homomorphism.

Solution.
Given (Z, +, •) and (2z, +, •) are rings.
Given the map f: Z ~ 2Z defined by

j(x) = 2x 'r;/ XE Z
Test whether/is a ring homomorphism
Let x, y e z, Then j(x + y) = 2(x + y)

=2x+2y

== j(x) + j(y)
and j(xy) = 2(x • y) = 2x • 2y = 4.xy
j(x) "# j(x) • j(y)

So, f preserves addition, but not multiplication.

Hence f is not a ring homomorphism.
1.120 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 7
Let R be a ring with identity. Prove that the set of all units of R is a group under
rnultiplication.

Solution.
Let (R, +,•)is a ring with identity 1.
Let Ube the set of all units of R.
Clearly 1 e U and so U is non-empty
Let a, be U, then a-1, b-1 exists in R.
Now (ab) (b-1 a-1) = a(b b-1)a-1
ta» b) (b-1 • a-1) =a• 1 • a-1=a•a-1=1
and (b-1 • a-1) •(a• b) = b-1(a-1 •a) b = b-1 • 1 • b = b-1 b = 1
ta» b) (b-1 • a-1) = (b-1 • a-1) (a• b) = 1
a • b has multiplicative inverse
a cb e U.

IfaeU, a-1 exists inR and (a-1)-1 =a e U

Hence a e U => a-1 e U
Thus (U, •)is a group.

EXAMPLE 8
What arethe units in the ring (Z, +, •).

Solution.
1, -1 are the only units in the ring (Z, +,•),since l• 1=1, (-1) • (-1) = 1

If a is any non zero-integer, its inverse is ..!_ Ii!! Z.

a
EXAMPLE 9
In the ring (Q, +,•),what are the units?

Solution. 1 ·
If a'# 0e Q, then the inverse - exists in Q, such that
a
1 1
a•-=-•a=l
a a
So, every non-zero element of Q is a unit.
 Groups and Rings • 1.121

EXAMPLE 10
Give an example of a commutative ring with identity which is not a field.

Solution.
We know that (Z, +,•)is a commutativering with identity l.
If 2 E Z, then r1 = .! (l z
2
:. So, (Z, +,•)is not a field.

EXERCISE.1.5
1. Define a ring and give an example of aring with zero-divisors. [AU 2005, 2008]
2. Define an integral domain. Give an example of a finite integral domain which is also a field.
[AU 2004)·
3. Show that the set S = {a+ b.J5 b E \a, Q}
is a field under usual addition and multiplication.

4. Let M2 = {(: -: Ji a.b e R} and M2 is a ring under matrix addition EB and matrix

multiplication *·
C = {a+ib\ a.b e R} is a ring under usual addition + and multiplication. Show that M2 is

~::;::~~~t:o :~ M2 be defined by f(a + ib) = (a -b.) 'ti a, b E R check it is a ring homomor-

. d b a
phism 1 - 1 an onto]
5. Define an integral domain. Give an example of a finite integral domain which is also a field.
[Hint: (Z7, +7, •7) is an integral domain and a field] [AU 2004)
\a,
6. If F = {a+ b.J2 b E Z}, then Funder usual addition and multiplication is an integral domain,
but not a field.
7. Define a ring and given an example with zero directions. [AU 2005)

PART A QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Define a group and give an example.
Ans. Refer group Definition 1. 7 Page 1.4.
Example: G '."' { 1, -1} is a group under usual multiplication.
2. Give an example of a non-abelian finite group.
Ans. The symmetric group on 3 symbols S3 is an non-abelian group.
3. State the minimum order of a non-abelian group.
Ans. S3 is the smallest non-abelian group.
So, the minimum order= 6.
4. In an abelian group (G, *),prove that (a* b)2 = a2 * b2 'ti a, be G.
Ans. Let a, b E G be any two elements.
1.122 • Algebra and Number Theory

(a* b)2 =(a* b) *(a* b)

=a* (b *a)* b
=a *(a* b) * b [ ·: G is abelian]

=(a* a) * (b * b)
=a2*b2
5. Give an example of a cyclic group.
Ans. The fourth roots of unity { l, -1, i, -i} under usual multiplication is a cyclic group generated
by i.
6. Let G = {1,-1, i, -i} is a group under usual multiplication and H = {1,-1} is a subset of G.
Is Ha subgroup of G?, Is Ha normal subgroup?
Ans. Given G = { l, -1, i, -i} is group under.
H = { 1, -1} is a finite subset ofG.
Since His closed under multiplication, His a subgroup of G.

• 1 -1
1 1 -1
-1 -1 1

Since O(G) = ~ = 2, His of index 2 in G.

O(H) 2
Hence His a normal subgroup of G.
Aliter: lH = H, (-l)H = H, iH= {i, -i}, · -iH = {~i, i}
HI= H, H(-1) =H, Hi= {i, -i}, H(-i) = {-i, i}
Ha = aH 'V a e G.
His normal in G.
7. In a group G if a2 = e 'Va (:#e), then prove that G is abelian.
Ans. Refer Worked examples 12, Page 1.22.
8. Find the orders of the elements, i and -1 of the multiplicative group {l, -1, i,-i}.
Ans. Given group is { 1, -1, i, -i }
We know ;2 =-1

O(i) =4
(-1)2 = 1
0(-1) = 2
 Groups and Rings • 1.123

9. In the group (Z12, +12) find the order [6].

Ans. Given group is (Z12, +12)
2[6] = [12] = [O],
So, 0([6]) = 2
10. Prove that every subgroup of an abelian group is normal. [AU 2013)
Ans. Let ( G, *) be an abelian group and H be a group of G.
Let a e G be any element, then
a* H= {a*hlhe H}
= {h*alhe H}, since G is abelian
'ilae G
:. His normal in G.
11. Test whether the subset {[OJ, [2]} is a normalsubgroup of (Z4, +4).
Ans. Let H = { [O], [2]}
Since the finite subset His closed under+4, His a subgroup of G = Z4•

+4 [O] [2]
[O] [O] (2]
[2] [2] 0

Further O(G) = i = 2 . His of index 2 in G.

O(H) 2
So, His a normal subgroup.
12. Prove that any group of prime order is cyclic.
Ans. Let (G, *}be group of prime order P.
Let a '* e be an element of G.
Since G is finite, the cyclic subgroup H generated by a is finite.
By Lagrange's theorem, O(H)IO(G) => O(H)IP.
Since P is a prime O(H) = 1 or P
Since a '* e, O(H) '* 1
:. O(H) = P, then H = G and hence G is cyclic.
13. Find all rights cosets of {[0],[2]} is the group (Z4, +4).
Ans. Let H = { [O], [2]}, Z4 = {[OJ, [1 ], [2],[3]}
1.124 • Algebra and Number Theory

Since [O], [2] E H, H + [O] = H, H + [2] = H

H + [l] = {[l], [3]}, H + [3)= {[3], [l]}.

14. Show that the inverse of an element in a group (G, *)is unique. [AU 2009]

Ans. Refer Theorem 1.1, Page 1.4.

15. Find a subgroup of order two of the group (Z8, +8). [AU 2008]

Ans. Z8 = {[O], [1], [2], [3), [4], [5], [6], [7]}

Since Z8 is a cyclic group, there is a unique subgroup of order 2.

The subgroup oforder 2 is {[O], [4]}.

16. State Lagrange's theorem for finite groups.

Ans. Refer Lagrange's Theorem 1.7, Page 1.66.

17. If His a sub group of G, among the right cosets of Hin G, then prove that there is only one
subgroup viz. H. [AU 2006]

Ans. Given His subgroup of(G, •)

Let a E G be any element (a 'f:. e) and so Ha is a right coset of Hin G.

Clearly Ha is a subset of G.

Ifx,y E Ha, thenx = h1a, y = h2a for some h1, h2 E H

xy = h1a • h2a (£.Ha.

Ha is not closed under multiplication.

So, the subset Ha is not a subgroup if a 'f:. e.

Ifa = e, then the right cosetis He= {hej h e H}

={hjhEH}
So, His the only right coset, which is a subgroup ofG.

18. Find all nontrivial subgroups of (Z6, +6).

Ans. (Z6, +6) is a cyclic group. The non-trivial subgroup are of orders 2 and 3,
which are divisors of (Z6) = 6

where Z6 = {[O], [l], [2], [3], [4], [5]}

The subgroupa are H1 = {[O], [3]}, H2 = {[O], [2], [4]}

19. Show thatthe permutation/= G ~ ~ : : ~ : :) is even andg= (:

2 3 4)·. JS
3 1 2
odd. [AU 2007]
 Groups and Rings • 1.125

Ans. To decide even or odd, we have to write the permutations as product of transpositions
!= (1 2 5 6)(3 7 4 8)
= (12) (15) (16) (37) (34) (38)
f is a product of 6 transpositions, which is even.
=> /is even
s= (1 4 2 3) = (14) (12) (13)

g is a product of 3 transpositions, which is odd.

=> gis odd.

20. Iffis a homomorphism of a group G into a group G, then prove that a group homomorphism
preserves identities. [AU 2004)
Ans. Refer Page 1.80, Theorem 1.18.

21. If pl= (1 2 3 4 5
3 2 5 1 4 :), P2 =
(1 2 3 4 5
4 2 3 5 1 :) compute P1 • P2 and verify

(P p tl -1 -1 [AU 2010]
1°2 =p2•P1·

Ans. =
P1 G 2 3 4
5 6)
2 5 1 4 6 ,
(1
p2 = 4
2 3 4 5 6)
2 3. 5 1 6

2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
P1 • P2 = (~
2 5 4 !) . (: 2 3 5 !)
2 3 4 5
=G 2 1 4 5 !)
2 3 4 5
1r =(:1 2 5 3 !)
2 3 4 5
=G
P2-l
2 3 4 !)
(P1 • P2) -1 = c3
2 3 4
2 4 5
5
:)
-I
P2 °P1
-I
= (15 2 3 4 5
2 3 4 !) . (: 2 3 4 5
2 5 3 !)
2 3 4 5
=G 2 4 5 !)
(P
1• 2
p ti =r«-1 0 P1 -1
1.126 • Algebra arid Number Theory

22. Show that H = {[O], (1), [8]} is a subgroup of (Z12, +12). Also find the left cosets of Hin
(Z12, +12). [AU 2009)
Ans. Since His finite it is enough to verify closure

+12 [OJ [4J [8J

[OJ [OJ [4J [8]
[4] [4J [8J [OJ
[8J [8J [OJ [4J
:. His a subgroup.
Since [O], [4J, [8] e H, [OJ +H=H, [4] + [H] =H, [8] +H=H

[l] + H = {[lJ, [5J, [9]}; [2J + H = {[2], [6], [10]}

[3] + H = {[3J, [7], [ll]}; [5] + H = {[5], [9], [l]}
[6] +H = {[6], [10], [12]}; [7] + H = {[7], [1 u, [3]}

[9J +H= {[9J, [l], [5]}; [10] +H= {[10], [2], [6]}

[I l] + H ={[I I], [3], [7]}

23. Find all the subgroups of (Zw +12).

Ans. Since Z12 is cyclic of order I2, there is a unique subgroup corresponding to each divisor
of 12.
So, there are 5 subgroups of orders 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
H1 ={[OJ}, H2 ={[OJ, [6]}, H3 ={[OJ, [4], [8]}

H4 ={[OJ, [3], [6J, [9]}, H5 ={[OJ, [2J, [4J, [6], [8J, [10]}

1 2 3 4 5 6)
24. If a= ( e S6• ·
4 1 6 2 5 3
Find (i) a36 (ii) a97

Ans. Given er= (: ~ ~

42 55 6)3
(j= (142)(3,6)
O(cr) = 6::::} cr6 =I

cr36=/=G ~ .: ~)andcr96=(cr6)t6=(J)l6=/

cr97= a96 •a= I• a= a

 Groups and Rings • 1.127

25. Let (R; +,•)and (R', E9, 0) be rings with zero 0 and O' respectively. Let/: R .....+ R' be a
=
homomorphism. Prove that (i).l{O) O' and (ii).l{-a) 'Ir/ a e R.
Ans. a + 0 = Va E R,
j(a + 0) = j(a) => j(a) EB j(O) = j(a) E9 O'
=> j(O) = O' by left cancellation in (R', EB)
j(a +(-a))= j(O)
=> j(a) EB j(-a) = O' => j(-a) = -j(a)
26. If Z10 = {O, 1, 2, ••. , 9} of integers mod 10, then (Z10, +10, x10) is a ring.
Find (i) -3, -8, 3-1, 4-1

Ans. By definition a + a' = 0, then a' is inverse of a for + we write a' =-a
-3 = 7 (mod IO), since 7 + 103 = 0 (mod IO) or 7 +10 3 = 0 in Z10
-8 = 2 (mod IO), since 2 + 108 = 0 (mod 10)

By definition ax = 1 in Z10 means a' is the inverse of a for x and we write a;= a-1
10a'

3-t = 7 (mod IO), since 3 °107 = 1 (mod IO) [·: 3 • 7 = 21=1(mod10)]

4-I has no multiplicative inverse. [·: 4 •a'::# I for any a E Z10]

Note that only numbers relatively prime to 10 will have multiplicative inverse.
i.e., 1, 3, 7, 9 will have multiplicative inverse.
27. Define a commutative ring.

Ans. A non empty set R with two binary operations + and • is called a commutative ring if
(i) (R, +)is an abelian group
(ii) (R, •) is a semigroup
(iii) a • b = b • a '<;/ a, b E R
(iv) a» (b + c) =a» b +a• c '<;/a, b, c ER
28. State any two properties of a group.
Ans. In a group ( G, * ), (i) identity element is unique and (ii) inverse of any element is unique.
29. Define homomorphism and isomorphism between two algebraic systems.
Ans. Let (A,*) and (B, d) be two algebraic systems.
A mapping/ A ~ B is called a homomorphism if
j(a * b) =j(a) dj(b) Va, be. A

If the homomorphism/is 1-1 and onto, then/is called an isomorphism.

1.128 • Algebra and Number Theory

30. When is a group (G, *)called abelian?

Ans. The group (G, *)is called abelian if
a * b = b * a V a, b E G.
31. Give an example ofa ring which is not a field.
Ans. The set oflntegers Z = { 0, ± 1, ±2, ... } is a ring under usual addition and usual multiplication.
But it is not a field, because 2 E Z has no multiplicative inverse.
32. Find the left cosets of {[O], [3]} in the (Z6, +6).
Ans. Z6 = {[O], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]}
LetH= {[O], [3]}
Since (H, +6) is a sub group and left coset, a+ H = H V a E H, where + is +6.
:. the left cosets of H,
[1] + H = {[1] + [O], [1] + [3],} = {[l], [4]}
[2] + H = {[2] + [O], [2] + [3],} = {[2], [5]}
[4] +H= {[4] + [O], [4] + [3],} = {[4], [1]}
[5] + H = {[5] + [O], [5] + [3],} = {[5], [2]}

33. Is Z* = Z - {O} is a subgroup of Q* = Q- {O} under multiplication?

Ans. We know (Q*, • ) is a group
:. Z*CQ*

But if 2 E Z*, to inverse for · is .!.2 ~ z *

:. Z* is not a subgroup of Q*.
=
34. In the direct product of groups (Z2, +), (Z3, +), G Z2 x Z3, find the inverse of (1, 2) under
multiplication.
Ans. Let (a, b) E G, then inverse of(a, b) is (2-a, 3 - b)
:. Inverse of(l, 2) is (2 - 1, 3 -2) = (1, 1).

35. If a=G 2 3 4 5
1 4 6 2 :) and fi=(~ 2
2 6 1
3 4 5
3
:). then find p-1a-1•

Ans. Given
a=G 2 3 4 5
4 6 2 ~)
P=G
2
2
3 4
6
5
3 ~)
 Groups and Rings
• 1.129

a-I = (12 2 3 4 5
5 1 3 6 !)
and p-1 =( ~
2
2 5
3 4 5
1 6 ~)
p-la-1 =U
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
2 5 6 ~) G 5 3 6 !)
=(~
2 3 4 5
5 6 2 4 ~)
36. If a= (12 2 3 4
1 3 4
5)5 , find a. 2

.
Ans; Given a = (12 2 3 4 5)
1 3 4 5

a = a•a=G
2

4
2
3 4 5)(1
3 4 5 2
2 3 4
3 4 ~J
=(1 2 3
1 2 3 4 ~)=e
37. G = {-1, 1} is a group under multiplication -True or false.
Ans. Given G= {-1, l}
(-1) . 1 = -1, (-1 )(-1) = 1

G is closed under.
G = {-1, 1} is a group under multiplication.
38. Prove that G = {-1, l} is not a group under+ •.
Ans. Given G = {-1, 1 }.
:. G is not a group.

39. Show that G=[;la;neZ,n~o].

Ans. Given G=[;la; ne z, n~O]

Letx,y e G.
a
x=-
z:'
1.130 • Algebra and Number Theory

:. Closure axiom is satisfied.

Associative axiom is satisfied, since it depends on t of Z.

0 = _Q_ is the identity element.

2n
a a
Inverse of - is· -
2n 2n
:. G is a group.

40. Is (3) a generator of the Cyclic group (Z4, +).

Ans. Given the cyclic group (Z4', +)
We know if [a] is a generator inZn, its inverse [n - a] is also a generator.
We have [1] is generator and [3] = [4 - 1] is the inverse of [1] and so [3] is also a generator of
(Z4, +).
41. Verify (Z; ,.) is cyclic.
Ans. We know z; = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is a group under.
22 = 4, 23 = 8 = 1 (mod 7)
0(2) = 3 ~ 0 (Z;)
2 is not a generator
32 = 9 = 2 (mod 7), 32 = 27 = 6 (mod 7),
34 = 81 = 4 (mod 7), 35 = 243 = 5 (mod 7),
36 = 15 (mod 7) = 1 (mod 7),
0(3) = 6 = O(z;)
:. z; is cyclic group generated by 3
z; =<3>
Since 3 • 5 = 15 = l(mod 7), we find 5 is the inverse of 3.
5 is another generator
z; =<5>
42. IfG=S4,

and H ={ G ~ ! :). G ~ ~ :). G ~ ~ ~) .( ~ ~ ~ ~)} is a subgroup of G.

How many left cosets of Hin Gare there?

 Groups and Rings • 1.131

Ans. Given G = S4
O(H)=4.
24
Since His a subgroup of G, the number of cosets of Hin G is equal to O( G) = =6
O(H) 4 .
:. there are 6 left cosets are there.
43. Let Hand Kare subgroups of G, where e is the identity of G. If IHI = 10 and I.Kl = 21, prove
thatH ("\ K = {e}.
Ans. Given Hand Kare subgroups of G and IHI = 10 and IKI = 21 .
. i.e., O(H) = 10 and O(K) = 21.
Since Hand Kare subgroup of G,
H n K is subgroup of G contained in Hand K.
: . by Lagrange's theorem,
O(H n K)i O(H) and O(H n K)I O(K)
Since O(H) = 0 and O(K) = 21 are relatively prime, we find O(H n K) = 1.
:. HnK= {e}.
44. Determine U14'
Ans. U14 is the set of positive integers less than 14 and relatively prime to 14.
:. U14 = {1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 13}
45. Find the order of 2 in (Z8, +).
Ans. In Z8; the identity for + is
Now 2 + 2 = 2(2) = 4, 3(2) = 6, 4(2) = 8 = O(mod 8)
0(2) =4
46. Find the order of -1and3 in (R* •).
Ans. We know R* =R- {O}
Identity for • is 1
Since (-1)2 =-I, 0(-1) = 2
There is no positive integer such that 3n = 1
0(3) = co,

47. In the group (Z12, +), H = {O, 4, 8} is a subgroup. Find the left cosets of Hin Z12•
Ans. Given H = {0, 4, 8}
Since O; 4, 8 e H, 0 + H = H, H + H = H, 8 + H = H.
1.132 • Algebra and Number Theory

1+H={1+0, 1 + 4, 1+8}= { 1, 5, 9}
2+H={2+0,2+4,2+8}={2,6, 10}
3 + H = {3 + 0, 3 + 4, 3 + 8} = {3, 7 ,11}
5 +H= {5 +O, 5 +4, 5 + 8} = {5, 9, 13}, etc.
:. the different left cosets are 1 + H, 2 + H, 3 + H, 5 + H.
48. Find all x in (z;, •) such that x = x-1•

Ans. We know z; = {1, 2, 3, 4} and in (z; ,•). 1 is the identity element.

Ifx-:F-0,x=x-1 =}x2=e
O(x)= 2.
We have 1=1-1 ::::} l, mod(5).
0(4)=2.
i.e., 4~1=4
:. the elements are I and 4
49. Find all x in (z;1, •) such that x = x-1•
Ans. We know z; 1 ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
1 is the identity element of z;1 T1 = 1

and
O(x) =2
and 102= 100= 1(mod11)
~ 10· 10= 100= l tmod l l)
10-1=10
:. 1 and 10 are the elements.
50. How many rigid motions (in two or three dimensions) are three for a regular pentagon?
Describe then geometrically.
Ans. Regular pentagon has 5 vertices and 5 sides. There are 10 transformations. 5 rotations about
0 and 5 reflections about the line joining the vertex to the mid-point of the opposite side.
51. Does the set {5n: n e Z} from a group under addition? Justify your answer. [AU 2013]

Ans. We Know (Z, +) is a group.

H= {5n: n e Z} is a subset of Z.
If a, b e H, then a = 5r, b = 5s, r, s e z.
Then a-b =Sr- 5s = 5 (r-s) e H.
:. His a subgroup of Zand hence His a group under addition.
 Groups and Rings • 1~133

5z. Example z; = {1, 2, 3, 4} is a cyclic group under multiplication module 5. [AU 2013)
Ans. We know that (z; ,•) is a group with identity 1 and z; ={1, 2, 3, 4}
Now 22 = 4, 23 = 8 = 3 (mod 5)
24= 16= 1 (mods)
0(2) = 4 = O(z;)
Hence z; is a cyclic group generated by 2.'
53. Does the set {O, 1, 2, 3} form a field with respect to addition module 4 and multiplication
module 4? Why?
Ans. Let Z4 = {l, 2,3, 4}
We know (Z4, +, •) is a field if n is a prime.
Since 4 is not a prime, (Z4, +, • ) is not a field.
54. Why is the set of integers not a group under subtraction? [AU2017]
Ans. Consider 2, 3, 4 E Z.
Then 2 -(3 - 4) *- (2 - 3)- 4
So, associative axiom is not satisfied for subtraction.
:. Z is not a group.
55. Give any two properties of cyclic group. [AU 2017]
Ans. Let G = <a> be a cyclic group generate by a.
Two properties are
(i) G is. abelian.
(ii) If a is a generator, then a-1 is a generator.
56. Define a group homomorphism with an example. [AU 2017]
Ans. Let (G, •), (G', *)be two groups.
A map/: G ~ G' is called a homomorphism if.f{a • b) =f{a) * j{b) Va, be G.
Example Let/: (Z, +) ~ (2Z, +)be defined by .f{x) = 2x V x E Z.
If a, b E Z, then.f{a + b) = 2(a + b) = 2a + 2b =.f{a) + .f{b)
:. f is a homomorphism.
57. Find the elements of U20•
Ans. The elements of U20 are positive integers less than 20 and relatively prime to 20.
:. U20 = {l, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 19}
1.134 • Algebra and Number Theory

58. Find all the subgroups of (Z12, +).

Ans. Since (Z12, +)is cyclic group of order 12, there will be unique subgroup corresponding to
the divisions of 12, namely 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12.

The subgroups are {O}, {O, 6}, {O, 4, 8}

{O, 3, 6, 9}, {O, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and Z12.

59. Given example of a ring with 8 elements.
Ans. If Z8 = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, then (Z2, +,•)is a ring with 8 elements.

60. Does there exist a finite field with 15 elements.

Ans. No.
The number of elements in a field must be pn, where, p is a prime and n is a positive integer.

61. Does there exist a finite field with 16 elements.

Ans. Yes, since 16 = 24,where 2 is a prime.

62. Show that for [a]':/: 0 in Z7, [a]6 = [l].

Ans. Z7 = {[O], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6]}

[1]6 = [1]

26 = 64 = l(mod 7) [ :. [2]6 = [1]]

36 = 729 = l(mod 7) [:. [3]6 = [1]]

46 = 4096 = l(mod 7) [:. [4]6 = [1]]

56 = 15625 = l(mod 7) [ :. [5]6 = [1]]

66 = 46656 = 1 (mod 7) [ :. [6]6 = [1]]

[a]6 = [1] V'[a] '# 0 in Z7.

63. Let n e z- with gcd (n, 7) = 1.
Prove that _7_.
n6-1
Ans. Given n E Z" and gcd (n, 7) = 1
:. for the integers n, 7, we have

n = r (mod 7), 1 :::;; r:::;; 6

n = r = 1 (mod 7)
6 6

n6 - 1 = 0 (mod 7)

71 n6 -1
Finite Fields ,
and Polynomials 2 .
.

2.0 INTRODUCTION
You have studied in school polynomials with integer coefficients, rational coefficients and real
coefficients. A polynomial is an expression of the form a0 + a1x + ar2 ... + a,,x", where n is a
non-negative integer and a0, a1, a2, ... an are integers (rationals or real numbers).
We know how to add two polynomials, subtract one polynomial from another and multiply two
polynomials.
We shall now define polynomial with coefficients from a ring and this collection of all polynomials
with respect to addition and multiplication is a ring.

2.1 POLYNOMIALS
Definition 2.1 Let (R, +,·)be a ring. An expression of the form

a0+a1x+a:r2+ ... +anxn,

where n is a non-negative integer and a0, al' a2, ... , .an E R, is called a polynomial over R in the
indeterminate x and it is denoted by f(x).

Thus,

a; is called the coefficient of'x" and arxr is a term of the polynomialj(x).

Definition 2.2 Letj(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + ... +an x" over a ring R.

If an :t: 0, where 0 is the zero element of R, then an is called the leading coefficient ofj(x) and we
say j(x) is of degree n.
We write degj(x) = n and a0 is called the constant term ofj(x).
The set of all polynomials in x over R is denoted by R[x].

Definition 2.3 Equal polynomials

Let

and

be two polynomials in R[x].

Then j(x) = g(x) if m = n, ai = b; Vi= 0, 1, 2, ... , n.

Definition 2.4 Zero polynomial

A polynomial in R[x] with all coefficients zero is called the zero polynomial and is denoted by 0.
Zero polynomial has no degree.
That is, degree is not defined for zero polynomial.
2.2 • Algebra and Number Theory

Definition2.5 Constant polynomial

A polynomial of the form.f(x) = a0, where a0 is a constant is called a constant polynomial.
Degree of non-zero constant polynomial is zero.

Definition2.6 Monie polynomial

A polynomial in which the leading coefficient is 1 (identity of R) is called a monic polynomial.
For example,

is a monic polynomial of degree 3.

Definition2. 7 Addition and multiplication of polynomials in R[x]

Let

and
be two polynomials in R[x].
Then ftx) + g(x) = C0 + C1x+ C2x2 + ... + C8x8

where
And the product
ft.x) · g(x) = (a0 + a1x + a2 x2 + +an x") · (b0 + b1x + b2 x2 + ... + bm xm)

= C0 + C1x+ C2x2 + + Crxr+ ... + Ckxk

where Co= ao ho,

cl = ao bl+ al ho

C2 = ao b2 +al b1 + a2 ho

Note Though the definition of multiplication appear to be complicated,· it is the familiar process of
using distributive property and collecting like terms.
For example, consider ftx) = 2 + 3x + 2x2 + x3

and g(x) = 1 + x + 2x2, in Z[x]

Then ft.x) + g(x) = (2 + 1) + (3 + 1) x + (2 + 2) x2+ (1+0) x3
=3 + 4x + 4x2 + x3
 Finite Fields and Polynomials • '2.3

j{x) · g(x) = (2 + 3x+ 2x2 +x3) • (1+x+2x2)

= 2 . 1 + (3 . 1 + 2 . 1 )x + (2 . 1 + 2 . 2 + 3 . 1 )x2
+ (1 + 2 · 1 + 3 · 2)x3 + (1 + 2 · 2)x4 + 1 . 2xs
= 2 + 5x + 9x2 + 9x3 + 5x4 + 2.xs
nieorem2.1 Let R be a ring, Then (R[x], +,·)is a ring.

Proof Given R is a ring.

Let j{x) aridg(x) E R[x]
Let
and
where ai, bi E R
By definition,

where

Since C;E R.

j{x) + g(x) E R[x]

and j{x) · g(x) = C0 + C1x + C2 x2 + ... + Crxr + ... + Ckxk

where

j{x) · g(x) E R[x].

Since addition + and multiplication · are associative in R, addition and multiplication of polynomials
are associative in R[x].
The zero polynomial 0 in R[x] is the identity for + in R[x]. Since
j{x) + 0 = f{x) \;/ j{x) E R[x]

If f{x) = a0 + a1x + a2 x2 + +an x" in R[x],

then -j{x) = a0- a1x- a2x2 - ..:. an xn E R[x]

j{x) + (-f{x)) =0
-f{x) is the additive inverse ofj{x).

Further j{x) +g(x) = g(x) + j{x) V j{x), g(x) E R[x],

since
(R [x], +)is an abelian group.
2.4 • Algebra and Number Theory

Let j(x), g(x), h(x) e R [x]

and let j(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + +an xn

g(x) =b0+ b1x+ b2x2 + + bmxm

h(x) = C0 + C1x + C2x2 + + CPxP
Then the coefficient of xi in the expansion of (j(x) g(x)) h(x) is the sum of the products of the
(ar b8) c1, where r, s, tare non-negative integers such that r + s + t = i.
Again the coeffieient of z' in the expansion ofj(x) (g(x) h(x)) is sum of the products ofth€
ar (bs ct), where r, s, tare non-negative integers such that r + s + t = i.
Since multiplication is associative in R.
a; (bs cl)= (a; bs) ct,
:. Coefficient of'x' in (j(x) g(x)) h(x) is equal to
The coefficient of'x' inj(x) (g(x) h(x))
:. Multiplication of polynomials is associative.
i.e., (j(x) g(x)) h(x) =j(x) (g(x) h(x))
Now j(x) [g(x)+ h(x)] = j(x) g(x) + j(x) h(x)),
since the coefficient of'x' in the L.H.S is a; (bs +ct) and the coefficient of'x' in the R.H.S is
a; bs + a; ct= ar (bs +ct);
Hence (R[x], +·)is a ring under polynomial addition and multiplication.

Note
1. This ring R[x] is called the ring of polynomials over R or the ring of polynomials with coef
inR.
2. If R is commutative, then R[x] is also commutative.
For, if j(x) = a0 + a1x + a2 x2 + +an xn
and g(x) = b0 + b1x + b2x2 + + bm xm.
Then coefficient of xr inj(x) g(x) is
= ao hr+ al br-1 + a2 br-2 + ". + a; ho
=brao+br-1 al+ ... +boar [·: R is comrm

=hoar+b1 br-1 h2+ar_2+ ... +brao

=Coefficient of'x" ing(x)j(x)
j(x) g(x) = g(x) · j(x) '1 allj(x), g(x) e R [x]
:. R[x] is commutative.
3. If Risa ring with identity 1, then R[x] is a ring with identity 1,
since 1 = 1 +Ox+ Ox2 + ... + Ox1 e R [x]
 Finite Fields and Polynomials • 2.5

And fix)· 1 = (a0 + a1x + a2x + +an xn) · (1 +Ox+ Ox2 + ... + Oxt)
= a0 + a1x + a2x + +an x"
=fix)
Thus 1 is the identity in R[x].

111eorem 2.2 Prove that R[x] is an integral domain iff R is an integral domain.
PJOOf Let R be an integral domain.
Then R is a commutative ring with identity and without zero divisors.
Hence R[x] is commutative ring with identity 1, since fix)· 1 =fix).
We have to prove R[x] is without zero divisors.
i.e., to prove fix) :t: 0, g(x) :t: 0 ~ fix) g(x) :t: 0

Let fix)= a0 + a1x + a2x2 + +an xn, an :t: 0

and g(x) = b0 + b1x + b2x3 + + blli xm, bm :t: 0

Then fix)· g(x) = c0 + c1x+ CzX2 + + cn+mxm+n,

where er= a0 b, + a1 b; + ... +ar b0 and cm+n =an· bm

Since R is without zero divisors
an ¢ 0, bm ¢ 0 ~ an bm ¢ 0 ~ en+ m ¢ 0
fix) g(x) :t: 0
Hence R[x] is an integral domain.
Conversely, let R[x] be an integral domain.
We have to prove that R is an integral domain.
We know Risa subring of R[x].
Therefore, R, is an integral domain.

Corollary 1 If F is a field, then F[x] is an integral domain.

•
Proof If F is a field, then F is an integral domain.
:. FTx] is an integral domain by Theorem 2.2.
Note that If Fis a Field, the F[x] is not a field.

Proof We know if Fis a filed, then F[x] is an integral domain by Corollary l.

•
Let fix) =x e F[x].
Suppose it has the multiplicative inverse
g(x) = a0 + a1x + ... +an xn,
then xg(x)=l
2.6 · • Algebra and Number Theory

=> x (a0 + a1x + ... +an x") = l +Ox+ Ox2 + .

=> acf +al x2 + ... +an x n + 1 = 1 +Ox+ Ox2 + + oxn +I
By definition of equality of polynomials, we find 1 = 0 (equating constant terms).
Which is a contradiction [ ·: in a field 1 ::f. O]
:. j(x) = x has no multiplicative inverse.
Hence, F[x] is not a field. •

Theorem2.3 If R is an integraldomain, then

deg (f{x) · g(x)) = degj{x) + deg g(x)

Proof Let R be an integral domain.

Then R is a commutative ring with identity and without zero divisions.
i.e., a ::f. 0, b ::f. 0 => ab ::f. 0.

Let
degj(x) = n
and g(x) = b0 + b1x + bzX2 + ... + bm x", bm ::f. 0
degg(x)= m

Since R is an integral domain, an· bm ::f. 0.

Now

where

deg (f{x) g(x)) = n + m

= degj(x) +deg g(x)
•
Note
1. If Risa ring andf(x) and g(x) are non-zero polynomials then either

j(x) · g(x) = 0 or degj(x) g(x) ~ degj(x) + deg g(x).

In the product,
j{x) g(x) = c0 + c1 X + Cz x2 + ... + csr
If c; = 0 V i, thenj(x) g(x) = 0
otherwise j(x) g(x) ::f. 0.
If an bm = 0, then degj(x) g(x) < degj(x) +deg g(x).
If an bm ::f. 0, then degj(x) g(x) = degj(x) +deg g(x).
degj(x) g(x) ~ degj(x) +deg g(x)
 Finite Fields and Polynomials • 2. 7

2. fl.x) + g(x) =0
or deg (j{x) + g(x)) s max { degfl.x), deg g(x)}
peflnltlon 2.8 Root of a polynomial
Let R be a ring with identity 1 and let
fl.x) = a0 + a1x + a.f' + ... +an x" e R[x]
with degfl.x) ~ 1.
An element a e R is called a root offl.x) if
fl.a)=a0 +a1a + a2a2 + ... +an an= 0
i.e., iffl.a)= 0, then a is root offl.x).

Note If R = (Z6, +,),where Z6 = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} by writing [a] as a.

A polynomial over Z6 can be written differently.
fl.x) = 2x3 + 5x2 + 3x- 2 over Z6 is a polynomial.
Since [4] = [-2], this polynomialfl.x) can also be written as 2x3 + 5x2 + 3x + 4.
What is its degree?
Since [2] ;t:. [OJ or 2 ';/= 0 (mod 6), the leading coefficient offl.x) is non zero.
degfl.x) = 3

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
What is the degree of the polynomialj{x) = 6x3 + 5x2 + 3x - 2 over Z6?

Solutlon.
Given j{x) = 6x3 + Sx2 + 3x - 2.
Since the coefficients are from Z6 = {O, 1, 2, 4,5, 6}
6 = 0 (mod 6) is [6J =[OJ, [4J = [-2J
: . the polynomial is Ox3 + Sx2 + 3x + 4 = Sx2 + 3x + 4.
So, the leading c_oefficient is 5 ;t:. 0 in Z6•
Hence the degfl.x) = 2.

EXAMPLE 2
Let j{x) = 4x2 + 3 and g(x) = 2x + 5 be two polynomials over Z8• Find the deg.f{x) · g(x).

Solutlon.
Given fl.x) = 4x2 + 3, g(x) = 2x + 5 are polynomials over Z8.
i.e., fl.x), g(x) e Z8 [x].
2.8 • Algebra and Number Theory

The degfix) = 2 and deg g(x) = 1,

since 4 :;t: 0, 2 :;t: 0 in Z8.
Now, fix)· g(x) = (4x2 + 3) (2x + 5)

= 8x3 + 20 x2 + 6x + 15
Normally we expect degree of the product = sum of the degrees.
Since the coefficients belong to Z8, we find 8 = 0 (mod 8)
i.e., [8] = [O] and 20 = 4 (mod8), and 15 = 7 (mod8)
fix) g(x) = 4x2 + 6x + 7 over Z8
degfix) g(x) = 2 < 3 = degfix)+ deg g(x)
EXAMPLE 3
Find the roots of the polynomial x2 - 2 over the real numbersR.

Solution.
Given polynomial is x2 - 2 over R.
To find the roots of x2 - 2, we solve
x2 - 2 = 0 => x2 = 2 => x =±Ji.
:. the roots are Ji, -Ji in R.
*Ifwe consider the polynomial x2 - 2 over Q, then the roots Ji, -Ji do not belong to Q.
So, the polynomial x2- 2 e Q[x] had no roots in Q.

EXAMPLE 4
Find all the roots of.l{x) = x2 + 4x in Z12[x]. [AU2017)

Solution.
Given fix) =x2+ 4x over Z12
and Z12 = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}
We verify and find the roots.

Now fiO) = 0 + 0 = 0

:. 0 is a root offix)
.f(1)=1+4=5;t:O
1 is not a root
.f(2) = 22 + 4 · 2 = 4 + 8 =12 = 0 (mod 12)
2 is a root ofj(x)
.f(3) = 32 + 4 · 3 = 9 + 12 = 21=9 (mod 12) -:t. 0
 Finite Fields and Polynomials • 2.9

3 is not a root ofj(x)

.1(4) = 42 + 4 · 4 = 16 + 16 = 32 = 8 (mod 12) :;e O

4 is not a root ofj(x)

.1(5) = 52 + 4 · 5 = 25 + 20 = 45 = 9 (mod 12) :;e 0

5 is not a root ofj(x)

.1(6) = 62 + 4 · 6 = 36 + 24 = 60 = 0 (mod 12)

6 is a root ofj(x)

.1(7) = 72 + 4 · 7 = 49 + 28 = 77 = 5 (mod 12) :;e 0

7 is not a root ofj(x)

.1(8) = 82 + 4 · 8 = 64 + 32 = 96 = 0 (mod 12)

8 is a root ofj(x)

.1(9) = 92 + 4 · 9 :::! 81+36 = 117 = 9 (mod 12) :;e 0

9 is not a root ofj(x)

.1(10) = 102 + 4 · 10=100 + 40 = 140 = 8 (mod 12) :;e 0

10 is not a root ofj(x)

.1(11) = 112 + 4 · 11=121+44 = 165 = 9 (mod 12) :;e 0

11 is not a root ofj(x)

x = 0, 2, 6, 8 are the roots ofj(x) over Z12

Note In your earlier classes you have seen that a polynomial of degree 2 had at most two roots, which
is not true here for a polynomial over a ring.

EXAMPLE 5
Determine all the roots of.f{x) = x3 + 5x2 + 2x + 6 in Z7 [x],
Solutlon.
Given j(x) = x3 + 5x2 + 2x + 6 over Z7
and Z7 = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
We verify and find the roots.
Now .1(0) = 6 = -1 (mod 7) :;e 0
:. 0 is not a root

j(l) = 1+5 + 2 + 6 = 14 = O(mod 7)

~.10 • Algebra and Number Theory

1 is a root ofj(x)
./(2) = 23 + 5 · 22 + 2 · 2 + 6 = 8 + 20 + 4 + 6 = 38 = 3(mod 7):;: 0
2 is not a root
./(3) = 38 + 5 · 32 + 2 · 3 + 6 = 27 + 45 + 6 + 6 = 84 = O(mod7)
3 is a root ofj(x)
./(4) = 43 + 5 . 42 + 2 · 4 + 6 = 64 + 80 + 8 + 6 =128 = 2(mod 7):;: 0
4 is not a root
./(5) = 53 + 5 · 52 + 2 · 5 + 6 = 125 + 125 + 10 + 6 = 266 = O(mod7)
. 5 is a root ofj(x)
./(6) = 63 + 5 · 62 + 2 · 6 + 6 = 216 + 180 + 12 + 6 = 434 = O(mod7)
6 is a root ofj(x)
the roots ofj(x) are 1, 3, 5, 6 in Z7.

EXAMPLE 6
Determine all the roots ofj(x) = x2 + 3x + 2 e Z6 [x].

Solution.
Given fix) =x2 + 3x +2 in Z6 [x]
and Z6 = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
We verify and find the roots.
Now ./(0)=2:;t:O
:. 0 is not a root
./(1) = 12+3·1+2 = 1+3 + 2 = 6 = O(mod6)
1 is a root ofj(x)
=
./(2) = 22 + 3 · 2 + 2 = 4 + 6 + 2 = 12 O(mod 6)
2 is a root ofj(x)
./(3) = 32 + 3 · 3 + 2 = 9 + 9 + 2 = 20 = 2(mod 6):;: 0
3 is not a root.
./(4) = 42 + 3 .4 + 2 = 16 + 12 + 2 = 30 = O(mod6)
4 is a root ofj(x)
./(5) = 52 + 3 · 5 + 2 = 25 + 15 + 2 = 42 = O(mod6)
5 is a root ofj(x)
the roots ofj(x) are 1, 2, 4, 5 in Z6.
 Finite Fields and Polynomials • 2.11

!EXAMPLE 7
'petermine all the polynomials of degree 2 in Z2 [x].

solutlon.
We have to find all the polynomials of degree 2 over Z2 = {O, 1}
Let the general polynomial of degree 2 is.f(x) = a0 + a1x + azX2, a2-:;; 0
The possible coefficients are from Z2, where a2 -:;; 0, so a2 = 1
j(x) = a0 + a1x + x2

:. If a0=0, a1 =0, then f(x) =x2

If a0=0, a1 = l, then j(x)=x+x2
If a0= 1, a1 =0, then j(x) = 1 +x2
If a0= 1, a1=1, then f(x)= 1 +x+x2
Therefore there are four possible polynomials of degree 2, x2, x + x2, 1 + x2, 1 + x +x2 in Z2[x].

Definition 2.9 Divisor of a polynomial

Let F be a field and.f(x)-:;; 0 and g(x) be polynomials in F[x]. fl..x) is called a factor or a divisor of
g(x) if there exists h(x) E F[x] such that
g(x) =.f(x) h(x)
a
We also say that.f(x) divides g(x) or g(x) is multiple of.f(x).
We have division algorithm for an integer a and positive integer n,
a = nq + r, 0~r<n
We are familiar with division of polynomials with real coefficients.
For example, divide g(x) = x3 - 3x2 + 4x + 5 by j(x) = x - 2

The division is shown here

x- 2) x 3 - 3x2 + 4x + 5
x3-2x2
-x2+4x
-x2+ 2x
2x +5
2x-4
9
Here quotient q(x) = x2 - x + 2 and the remainder r(x) = 9
x3 - 3x2 + 4x + 5 = (x - 2) (x2 - x + 2) + 9
g(x) = q(x)f(x) + r(x).
This division can be extended to polynomials over finite fields.
2.12 • Algebra and Number Theory

Theorem 2.4 Division algorithm

Let.l{x) '¢ 0 and g(x) be polynomials in F[x). Then there exists unique polynomials q(x) and r(x
belonging to F[x) such that
g(x) = q(x) j{x) + r(x)

where r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < deg.l{x).

Proof Given j{x) *0 and g(x) E F[x]

Consider the set S = { g (x) - t ( x) f ( x) I t ( x) E F[ x]}

IfO E S, then for some t(x) E F[x],
we have g(x) - t(x)j{x) =0
g(x) = t(x)f{x)

Then q(x) = t(x) and r(x) = 0,

:. we have g(x) = q(x)j{x) + r(x)
If 0 ~ S , then non-zero elements exists in S and among these elements in S,
we can find an element r(x) in S with least degree [by well ordering principle].
Since r(x) -:/:. 0, the result follows if
deg r(x) < degj{x)
Ifnot, let deg r(x) ~ degj{x)
Let r(x) = a0 + a1x + azX2 + +an .x'I, an-:/:. 0
and j{x) = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + + bm x", bm-:/:. 0
n~m
Define
2 n
= a0 +a1x+a2x + ... +an x

-an bm-1X n-m (b0 +"Ix+

t; ·b2X
· 2 + ... + bm x m )
 Finite Fields and Polynomials • 2.13

deg h(x) < n =deg r(x)

Since r(x) E S, r(x) = g(x)- q(x)j(x)

h(x) = g(x)-q(x)f(x)-anb;;/xn-m f(x)

= g(x)-(q(x) + aA-;;Ixn-m]f(x)
= g(x)- p(x)f(x),

where

h(x) E Sand deg h(x) <deg r(x).

Which is contradiction to the fact that deg r(x) is minimum.

deg r(x) < degj(x) = n

Thus, we have the existence part
g(x) = q(x)j(x) + r(x) (1)
where r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < degj(x)
We now prove the uniqueness.
Suppose we also have (2)

Where or deg r1 (x) < degj(x)

Then q(x)j(x) + r(x) = q1(x)f(x) + r1 (x)

=> (q(x)- q1(x)]j(x) = r1 (x)-r(x) (3)

If q(x)- q1 (x)::;:. 0, then
deg [q(x)- q1 (x)]j(x) <:: degj(x)

=> deg [r1 (x)- r(x)] <:: degj(x),

which is a contradiction
q(x)- q1(x) = 0 => q(x) = qi(x)

Then (3) => r1(x)- r(x) = 0 => r1(x) = r(x)

Hence in the equation (1) q(x) and r(x) are unique.

•
Note The polynomials q(x) and r(x) in the division algorithm are called the quotientand remainder
in the division of g(x) by j(x),
When we consider polynomials over a filed F, we can find q(x) and r(x) by usual long division
method, which you are used to do in school.
2.14 • Algebra and Number Theory

WORKED EXAMPLES. ·

EXAMPLE 1
=
Consider j{x) 3x4 + x3 + 2x2 + 1 and g(x) = x2 + 4x + 2 in Z5 [x]. Find q(x) and r(x) whenj{x) is
divided by g(x).

Solution.
Given j(x) = 3x4 + x3 + 2x2 + 1 and g(x) = x2 + 4x + 2.
Since Z5 is a field, to find q(x) and r(x) whenj{x) is divided by g(x),
we perform long division, keeping in mind the addition and multiplication are performed modulo 5.
Z5 = {O, 1, 2, 3; 4} is a field.
The division is shown here [·: 12 = 2 (mod 5)
3x2+4x
6 = 1(mod5)
x2 + 4x + 2) 3x4 + x3 + 2x2 + 1 ·
-1=4(mod5)
3x4+ 2x3 +x2
16= 1 (mod5)
4x3+x2 +1 8 = 3 (mod 5)
4x3 + x2 + 3x -3 = 2(mod 5)]
2x + 1

Therefore the quotient q(x) = 3x2 + 4x

And the remainder r(x) = 2x+ 1

3x4+x3+2x2+ 1=(x2+4x+2)(3x2+4x)+2x+1

EXAMPLE 2
If j{x) =2x4 + 5x2 + 2, g(x) = 6x2 + 4, then determine q(x) and r(x) in Z7[x], when j{x) is
divided by g(x). [AU 2017)

Solution.
Given j(x) = 2x4 + 5x2 + 2 and g(x)=6x2+4

Since Z7 = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is field, to find q(x) and r(x) in Z7[x], whenj(x) is divided by g(x).
We use long division method keeping in mind addition and multiplication are done under modulo 7

The division is shown here 5x2+ 1 [·: 30 = 2(mod 7)

20= 6(mod 7)
6x2 + 4) 2x4 + 5x2 + 2
-1=6(mod 7)
2x4+ 6x2
-2 = 5(mod 7)]
6x2 +2
6x2 +4
5
q(x)= 5x2 + 1 and r(x) = 5
2x4 + 5x2 + 2 = (5x2 + 1) (6x2 + 4) + 5
 Finite Fields and Polynomials • 2.15

EXAMPLE 3
= =
Jff{x) 3x2 + 4x + 2, and g(x) 6x4 + 4x3 + 5x2 + Jx + 1, are polynomials in Z7[x] find q(x) and
r(x), when g(x) is divided by j{x).

Solutlon.
Given j(x) = 3.x2 + 4x + 2 and g(x) = 6x4 + 4x3 + 5x2 + 3x + 1
Since Z7 = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is a field, to find q(x) and r(x) in Z7 [x].
We perform long division method when g(x) is divided by j(x), keeping in mind addition and
multiplication under modulo 7.
The division is shown here [:. 8== l(mod 7)
2x2+x + 6
-3== 4(mod 7)
3x2 + 4x + 2) 6x4 + 4x3 + 5x2 + 3x + 1
18== 4(mod 7)
6x4+x3 +4x2
24== 3(mod 7)
3x3+x2 + 3x 12== 5(mod 7)
3x3 +4x2 + 2x -2== 5(mod 7)
4x2+x + 1 -4 == 3(mod 7)]
4x2+ 3x + 5
5x +3
q(x)= 2x2 +x+ 6 andr(x) = 5x+ 3
6x4 + 4x3 + 5x2 + 3x + 1 = (2x2 + x + 6) (3x2 + 4x + 2) + 5x + 3

EXAMPLE 4
Ifj(x) = x5 + 3x4 + x3 + x2 + 2x + 2 e Z5[x] is divided by x - 1, find the quotient and remainder.

Solution.
Given j(x) = x5 + 3x4 + x3 + x3 + 2x + 2 and g(x) = x - 1
Since Z5 = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4} is a field, to find q(x) and r(x) in Z5 [x], we perform long division method,
whenj{x) is divided by g(x), keeping in mind addition and multiplication under modulo 5.

The division is shown here x4+4x3 +x + 3

x- 1) x + 3x4 + x3 + x2 + 2x + 2
5
x5-x4
4x4 +x3
4x4-4x3
x2+2x
x2-x
3x+2
3x-3
0 [:. 5 = O(mod 5)]
q(x) = x4 + 4x3 + x + 3 and r(x) = 0
2.16 • Algebra and Number Theory

(x - 1) is a factor ofj{x)

j{x) = (x4 + 4x3 + x + 3)(x - I)

EXAMPLE 5
j(x) = x3 + 5.x2 + 2x + 6 e Z7[x],then write j(x) as a product of first degree polynomials.

Solutlon.
We know Z7= {O, I, 2, 3,4, 5, 6}
Given j{x) = x3 + 5x2 + 2x + 6
Now j{O) = 6 =-l(mod 7) :f:. 0
j{l) =I+ 5 + 2 + 6 = 14 = 0 (mod 7)
., l is a root ofj{x) and so, (x - l) is a factor ofj{x)

j{2) = 23 + 5 x 22 + 2 x 2 + 6
= 8+ 20 + 4 + 6 = 38 = 3(mod 7):;:. 0

j{3) = 33 + 5 x 32 + 2 x 3 + 6
= 27 + 45 + 6 + 6 = 84 = O(mod 7)
., 3 is a root ofj{x) and so, (x - 3) is a factor ofj{x)

j{4) = 43 + 5 x 42 + 2 x 4 + 6
= 64 + 80 + 8 + 6 = 128 = 2(mod 7):;:. 0

j{5) = 53 + 5 x 52 + 2 x 5 + 6 = 266 = O(mod 7)

., 5 is a root ofj{x) and so, (x - 5) is a factor ofj{x)

j{6) = 63 + 5 x 62 + 2 x 6 + 6

=216+ 180+ 12+6=414= l(mod 7):t:.O

j{x) = (x - 1) (x - 3)(x - 5) in Z7 [x]

EXAMPLE 6
Ifj(x) = (2x3 + 1) (5x3 + Sx + 3) (4~ - 3) e Z7 [x],then write j{x) as a product of a unit and three
monic polynomials.

Solution.
Given j{x) = (2x3+ 1) (5x3 + 5x + 3) (4x- I) in Z7 [x]
We have Z7 = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
To writej{x) as product of three monic polynomials, we have to take out 2 from first factor, 5 from
second factor and 4 from third factor.
i.e., 2 from 2x2 +I, 5 from 5x3 + 5x + 2 and 4 from 4x - 3
Now 1=8 (mod 7) .
 Finite Fields and Polynomials • 2.17

3=10 (mod 7)
-3 =4 (mod 7)
j{x) = (2x2 + 8) (5x3 + 5x + 10) (4x + 4)
= 2 (x2 + 4) 5(x3 + x + 2) 4(x + 1)
= 40 (x2 + 4) (x3 + x + 2) (x + 1)
=5(x2+4)(x3+x+2)(x+ 1) [·: 40 = 5(mod 7)]

Note Instead of - 3 = 4(mod 7).in the 3rd factor.

We may write 3 =24 (mod 7)
Then we get j{x) = 2 (x2 + 4) 5(x3 + x + 2) 4(x - 6)
= 40 (x2 + 4) (x3 + x + 2) (x - 6)
= 5 (x2 + 4) (x3 + x + 2) (x - 6)
As corollaries of the division algorithm, we get the remainder theorem and factor theorem.

Corollary 1 The remainder theorem

Let F be a field, a e F andj{x) e F[x].
Thenj{a) is the remainder whenj{x) is divided by (x- a).

Proof Given j{x) e F[x] and a e F and so, (x - a) e F[x].

By division algorithm,
j{x) = q(x) (x - a ) + r(x)
where r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) <deg (x - a)= 1

deg r(x) =0
=> 'r(x) = r (a constant), an element is F.
j{x) = q(x) (x-a) +r
Putx=a.
j{a)=q(a)·O+r=r. ~ r=f{a)

j{x) = q(x)(x - a)+ j{a)

So, the remainder isj{a).

Corollary 2 Factor theorem

•
Let F be a field, a e F andj{x) e F[x].
Then a is a root ofj{x) if and only if (x - a) is a factor ofj{x).

Proof Given j{x) e F[x] and a e F.

(x-a) e F[x].
. 2.18 • Algebra and Number Theory

If (x - a) is a factor ofj{x), thenj{x) = (x - a) q(x) for some q(x) e F[x].

f{a) =(a - a) q(a) = 0 · q(a) = 0
Hence, a is a root ofj{x).
Conversely, let a e Fbe a root ofj{x).
j{a) = 0 (1)
:. by remainder theorem, cor. 1, there exists q(x) e F[x] such that
f{x) = (x- a) q(x) + f{a)
=> j{x) = (x- a) q(x) [using (l)]
(x - a) is a factor off{x).
•
WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
What is the remainder whenj{x) =x5 + 2x3 +x2 + 2.x+ 3 e Z5[x] is divided by (x-1)? [AU 2018]

Solutlon.
Given j{x) = xs + 2x3 + x2 + 2x + 3.
Whenj{x) is divided by (x- 1), the remainder isj{l).
f{l)= 1 +2+ l +2+3
= 9 =4 (mod 5)
the remainder is4 inZs·

EXAMPLE 2
What is the remainder whenj{x) = 2x3 + x2 + 2x + 3 e Z5[x] is divided by (x- 2)? [AU 2018]

Solutlon.
Given j{x) = 2x3 + x2 + 2x + 3 and Zs= {O; 1, 2, 3, 4}.
Whenj{x) is divided by (x-2), the remainder is.1(2).
!{2) = 2 . 23 + 22 +2 . 2 + 3
= 16 + 4 + 4 + 3 = 27 = 2 (mod 4)
the remainder is 2 in Zs.

EXAMPLE 3
Find the remainder whenj{x) = x100 + x90 + x80 + x50 + 1 is divided by g(x) = x - 1 is Z2[x].
[AU 2018)

Solutlon.
Given j{x) = xlOO + x90 + xSO + xso + 1 and g(x)=x-l
 Finite Fields and Polynomials • 2.19

fhe remainder when.f{x) is divided by g(x) is.f{l) .

.f{l) = 1+1 + 1 + 1+1 + 1=6 = 0 (mod 2)
.f{l) = 0
Since the remainder is 0, (x - 1) is a factor ofj{x).

nteorem 2.5 If.l{x) e F[x] is of degree n ~ 1, then.l{x) has at most n roots if F. [AU 2017]

Proof Given.f{x) E F[x] is of degree n where n~ 1. We prove the theorem by induction on n.

Ifn = 1, then.f{x) =ax+ b, a, b E F, a :;t= 0.
b .
Clearly -- or-a-1b E F andj{-a-1b) = a(-a-1b) + b = -b + b = 0 ..
a
:. j{x) has (at least) one root in F.
If c1, c2 in Fare two roots ofj{x), then
.f{c1) = 0 ==> ac1 +b=0
and ac2 + b = 0
ac1 + b e ac; + b ==> ac1 = ac2
Since Fis a field, it is an integral domain and so cancellation laws hold.

:. there is exactly one root of F for

j{x) =ax+ b, a :;t= 0
Now assume that the theorem is true for all polynomials of degree k (~ 1) in F[x].
i.e., any polynomial of degree k ~ 1 has at most k roots in F.
Consider a polynomial j{x) of degree k + 1.
lfj(x) has no roots in F, then the theorem is true.
Otherwise, let r E F be a root ofj{x).
j{r) = 0
:. by factor theorem.f{x) = (x - r) g(x), where g(x) is of degree k.
Hence by induction hypothesis, g(x) has at the most k roots in F.
And r E Fis a root ofj{x).
Hence f{x) has at most k + 1 roots.
Hence by first principle of induction, the theorem is true for all n ~ 1.
•
WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Test the Theorem 2.5 for x2 + 2 e R[x], where R is the field of real numbers.

Solution.
Let f{x) = x2 + 2 over R.
Now ==> x2=-2 => x=± i.J2
2.20 • Algebra and Number Theory

But i.J2. and- i.J2.e R.

So, x2 + 2 has no root in R.
Since n = 2, the Theorem 2.5 says.f{x) has atmost 2 roots in R.
No roots means, 0 number of roots in R which satisfies the theorem.

EXAMPLE 2
Ifj{x) =x2 + 3x + 2 e Z6 [x], then find the roots ofj{x). Why Theorem 2.5 is not satisfied?

Solutlon.
Given fix)= x2 + 3x + 2 over Z6 = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
and Z6 is not a field, since 6 is not a prime.
We have the roots ofj{x) are 1, 2, 4, 5.
So the four roots belong to Z6 which is more than 2 roots.
Since Z6 is not a field, this is not a contradiction to Theorem 2.5.

EXERCISE 2.1
1. Determine R ={Kn Jn e
z, K is a fixed integer} is a ring under ordinary addition and
multiplication.
2. S={l, 2} andR =P(S). Determine+ and· onR by A +B=AiiB = {x: xeA or xeB, but not both}
and A · B =A n B. Prove that (R, +, ·)is a ring.
[Hint: Form cayley tables for+ and· and verify the axioms]
3. Prove that any field is an integral domain.
4. Let R = M2(Z) be the ~ing of 2 x 2 matrices over Z. Show that S = {[ x x+ x :x,yez y]
ts }.
x+y
a subring.
5. Determine R ={a+ b./2.Ja, be Z} is a ring under ordinary addition and multiplication. Is it is a
field?

6. Show that G ~] is a unit in the ring M (Q) of 2 x 2 matrices over Q.

2

7. If R = P(S) is the power set of a nonempty set S, Define· additions- and multiplication as
A + B =A u B. A · B =A n B "!:/A, B e, R. Is (R, u; n) a ring?
8. Let R ={a+ ibJa, be Z}. with usual addition and multiplication on R, is (R, +, ·) an integral
domain? ·
9. Give an example of a ring with eight elements. If a and b an integers, the complex number a + ib
is called a Gaussian integer

ANSWERS TO EXERCISE 2.1

1. It is a subring of (Z, +, ·)and hence Risa ring.
2. Ring.
5. Ring, not a field.
7· No. The null set </>is identify for+ (ie., for u) there is no additive inverse for A any element.
8. Yes. 9. (Z8, +, -).
 Finite Fields and Polynomials • 2.21

2.2 IRREDUCIBLE POLYNOMIALS

Definition 2.10 Let F be a field and.f{x) e F[x] is of degree 2: 2. We call.f{x) is reducible over F
jfthere exist g(x), h(x) e F[x] such that .f{x) = g(x) h(x),
where deg g(x) and deg h(x) are greater than or equal to 1.
i.e., deg g(x) 2: 1 and deg h(x) ;;:: 1.
lfj{x) is not reducible, then we call it irreducible (or prime) over F.
In other words, j{x) is irreducible over F if one of g(x) or h(x) is of degree 0 (or a nonzero constant).

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Test whether the polynomial.l{x) = 2x2 + 4 is irreducible over Z, Q, R and C.

Solution.
Given j{x) = 2x2 + 4 = 2 (x2 + 2)
Since 2 is constant polynomial in Z[x]. Whose degree is 0 andx2 + 2 e Z[x].
Now 2x2+4=0
x2=-2 x = ±i.J2
the roots do not belong to Z, Q and R .
.f{x) = 2x2 + 4 is irreducible over Z, Q and R.
But i.J2, and i.J2 belong to C.
the roots belong to C.
Hence j{x) = 2x2+ 4 is reducible over C.

EXAMPLE 2
Is.l{x) = x2 + 1 in Z[x) is irreducible over Z.

Solution.
Given j{x) = x2 + 1 in Z[x]

Now x=±i
:. the roots i, -i do not belong to Z.
:. j{x) = x2 + 1 is irreducible over Z.

EXAMPLE 3
Letj{x) =x3 +x2+x+1 e Z2[x] is it reducible or irreducible? If reducible find the other factor.

Solution.
Given j(x) =x3 +x2+x+1 e Z2[x] and Z2 = {O, l}
.f{O) = 1 :;: 0 :. 0 is not a root in Z2
2.22 • Algebra and Number Theory

fi)) = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1=4 = o (mod 2)

:. 1 is a root in Z2
Hence (x - 1) is a factor ofj{x) in Z2[x].
:. j(x) is reducible
[ ·: 2 = O(mod 2)]
x - 1) x3 + x2 + x + 1
x3-x2
x+l
x-l
0

f(x) = (x - l)(x2 + 1).

EXAMPLE 4
Is j(x) = x3 + x + 1 e Z2 [x] is irreducible?
Solution.
Given j{x)=x3+x+lEZ2[x] and Z2={0,l}
Now j(O) = 1 -:;:. 0
j(l) = 1 + 1, + 1=3 = 1 (mod 2)-:;:. 0
0 and 1 are not roots off{x).
Hence.f{x) is irreducible over Z2.

EXAMPLE 5
Test the polynomialx2 +x + 4 in Z11[x] is irreducible over Z11•

Solution.
Let f(x)=x2+x+4 inZ11[x] and Zll = {O, 1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8,.9, 10} isa field, since 11 is a prime.
j(x) = x2 + x + 4 is a polynomial of degree 2 in Z11 [x].
We search for an element a E Zll such thatj(a) = 0
We have j(O) = 4-:;:. O(mod 11) ·

.f{l) = 1+1+4 = 6 = - 5(mod 11)-:;:. 0

j(2)=22+2+4= 10=-l(mod 11)-:;:.0

j(3) = 32 + 3 +4 = 16 = 5(mod 11)-:;:. 0

j(4) = 42 + 4 + 4 = 24 = 2(mod 11)-:;:. 0

j(5) = 52 + 5 + 4 = 34 = l(mod 11)-:;:. 0

j(6) = 62 + 6 + 4 = 46 = 2(mod 11)-:;:. 0
 Finite Fields and Polynomials • 2.23

!(7) = 72 + 7 + 4 = 60 = 5(mod 11) ¢:. 0

!(8) = 82 + 8 + 4 = 76 = lO(mod 11) ¢:. 0

!(9) = 92 + 9 + 4 = 94 = 6(mod 11) ¢:. 0
and !(10) == 102 + 10 + 4 == 114 = 4(mod 11) ¢:. 0
:. there is no root in Z11.
Hence j(x) is irreducible over Z 11.

EXAMPLE 6
Find two non-zero polynomials.ftx) and g(x) in Z12[x] such thatj{x)g(x) = 0.
Solution.
We know Z12 == {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}
Consider j(x) = 3x2 e Z12[x]
and g(x) = 4x + 8 e Zn[x]
We know j(x) and g(x) are non zero polynomials.
But j(x)·g(x)=3x2(4x+8)

= 12x3 + 24x2 t-. 12 = 0 (mod 12)

=Ox3+0x2=0 24 = 0 (mod 12)]

j(x) · g(x) is a zero polynomial in Zn[x].

EXAMPLE 7
Find two non-zero polynomials j{x), g(x) in Z7[x] such that j{x) g(x) :;i!: 0.

Solution.
We know Z7 = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Let j(x) = (2x2 + 4x + 1)
and g(x) = 6x3

be two non-zero polynomials in Z7[x].

Now j(x)g(x) = (2x2 + 4x + 1)6x3

= 12x3 + 24x4 + 6x3
= 5x3 + 3x4 + 6x3
¢0 [·: 12 = 5(mod 7)
j(x)g(x) ¢:. 0
=
24 3(mod 7)]
2.24 • Algebra and Number Theory

Theorem2.6 Reducibility test

Let F be a field andfl..x) e F[x].
Then (i) If.l{x) is of degree 1, thenfl..x) is irreducible.
(ii) If.l{x) is of degree 2 or 3, thenfl..x) is reducible ifffl..x) has a root in F.

Proof
(i) Let.f{x) =ax+ b, a-::/:. 0 in F[x].
Suppose.f{x) is reducible, then there existg(x), h(x) E F[x] such that

j{x) = g(x) h(x)

where 1 :5 deg g(x) < deg.f{x) and 1 :5 deg h(x) < deg.f{x)
ax+ b = g(x) h(x)

deg(ax + b) =deg g(x) +deg h(x)

1 = deg g(x) +deg h(x)

This is impossible, since deg g(x) +deg h(x) <::: 2

j{x) is irreducible over F.
(ii) Let.f{x) e F[x] be of degree 2 or 3.
Suppose.f{x) is reducible over F, then.f{x) = g(x) h(x) for some g(x), h(x) e F[x],
where 1 :5 deg g(x) < degj{x) and 1 :5 deg h(x) < degj{x)
Since deg.f{x) =deg g(x) +deg h(x) and deg.f{x) = 2 or 3,
we have deg g(x) +deg h(x) = 2 or 3
:. at least one of g(x) and h(x) has degree 1.
Let deg g(x) = 1 => g(x) =ax+ b, a-:;:. 0.
Now --:a-1b e F and g(-a-1 b) = a(-a-1b) + b

=-(a · a-1)b + b

=-b+b=o (·: a· a-1=1)

:. -a-1b is a root of g(x).
Hence -a+b is a root ofj{x) in F.
So,j{x) has a root in F.
Conversely, letj{x) have a root a e F.
Then (x - a) is a factor ofj{x); [by factor theorem]

j{x) = (x - a) g(x), g(x) e F[x].

Hence.f{x) is reducible over F.

•
 Finite Fields and Polynomials • 2.25

peflnition 2.11 Greatest common divisor (g. c, d)

Let F be a field andfix), g(x) E F[x]. A greatest common divisor (g.c.d) offix) and g(x) is a non-zero
polynomial d(x) such that (i) d(x)dividesfix) andg(x) and (ii) if c(x) is a divisor offix) and g(x), then
c(x) divides d(x).

Theorem 2. 7 Let F be a field and fl.x), g(x) be polynomials in F[x] with atleast one of them non-
zero polynomial. Then their g.c.d d(x) can be expressed as d(x) = a(x) fl.x) + b(x) g(x) for some
a(x), b(x) e F[x].

Proof Let S = { s(x)f(x) +t(x)g(x) I s(x),t(x) E F[x]}

The S =F- (/>, since fix) E S.

Let d(x) be a polynomial ofleast degree in S.
Then d(x) = a(x)fix) + b(x) g(x) (1)
for some a(x), b(x) E F[x].
First we prove that d(x) is a g.c.d offix) and g(x).
Now consider fix), d(x).
By division algorithm, there exist q(x) and r(x) such that
fix)= q(x) d(x) + r(x) (2)
where either r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) <deg d(x)
r(x) = f(x)-q(x) d(x)
= f(x)-q(x)[a(x) f(x)+b(x) g(x)]
= ( 1- q(x) a(x) ]f(x)- q(x) b(x) g(x)
= (1-q(x) a(x)]f(x)+[[-q(x) b(x))g(x)]
This is of the form s(x)fix) + t(x) g(x)
r(x) ES.
Ifr(x)=F- 0, then deg r(x) <deg d(x)
which contradicts the choice of d(x)
r(x) = 0 => f(x) = q(x)d(x) [using (2)]
d(x) divides fix)
Similarly, we can prove that d(x) divides g(x).
Suppose c(x) divides fix) and g(x), then c(x) divides a(x)fix) and b(x) g(x).
Hence c(x) divides a(x)j{x) + b(x) g(x)
c(x) divides d(x) [using (l)]
d(x) is the gcd offix) and g(x)
•
Note Suppose d(x) is monic then if will be unique.
Suppose
2.26 • Algebra and Number Theory

Then an
-1d( l= -I -1
x .-an ao+an a1x+an
-1 2 -1
anx + ... +an an_1x
n-1 -I
+an anx
n

=ho +qx+b2x2 + ... +bn-Ixn-1 +xn

is a monic polynomial
and a;1d(x) is also a g.c.d ofj{x) andg(x).
Suppose d1(x) and di(x) be two monic polynomials, which are the g.c.d's ofj{x) and g(x).
Then d1(x) divides di(x) [treading d2(x) as g.c.d]
and di(x) divides d1(x) [Treating d1(x) as g.c.d]
:. d1(x) = u d2(x) for some u '#- 0 in F.
Since both d 1 (x) and d2(x) are monic polynomials by using equality of polynomials and by equating
the leading coefficients, we get
u=l

Hence the g.c.d is unique, when it monic.

•
Definition 2.12 If the g.c.d ofj{x) andg(x) E F(x) is 1, thenj{x) and g(x) are called relatively prime.
If j{x) and g(x) are relatively prime in F[x], then there exist polynomials a(x) and b(x) in F[x]
such that
a(x)j{x) + b(x) g(x) = 1
As in the case of integers, a practical way of finding g.c.d of two polynomials is by applying Euclidean
algorithm successively, which is given below.

Theorem2.8 'Let F be a field andj{x), g(x) e F[x], where g(x) :¢ 0 and deg g(x) ~ degj{x).
Applying the division algorithm, we write
j{x) = q1(x) g(x) + r1(x), deg r1(x) <deg g(.x)

g(.x) = qi(x) r1(x) + r2(x), deg ri(x) <deg r1(x)

r1(x) = qix) r2(x) +r3(x), deg rix) <deg r2(x)

r1(x) = qix) r3(x) + rix), deg r4(x) <deg rix)

r2 (x) = q4 (x )r3 (x) + r4 (x ), deg r4 (x) <deg r3 (x)

rn_2(x) = qn(x)rn-l (x)+ rn(x), degrn(x) < degrn-l (x)

rn_1(x) = qn+1(x)rn(x)+rn+I(x), rn+I(x) = 0

Then rn(x) is the last non-zero remainder.
It can be seen that rn(x) is the g.c.d ofj{x) andg(x).
 Finite. Fields and Polynomials •
2•27

WORKED EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE 1
Find the g.c.d of x4 + x3 + 2x2 + x + 1 andx3 - 1 over Q.

Solution.
Let j(x) = x4 +x3 +2x2 +x+I
g(x)=x3 ..c.1
and deg g(x) < degj(x)
Dividej(x) by g(x) by division algorithmsuccessively,
lx _ .L
x+l 2 2
x3 - 1) x 4 + x3 + 2x2 + x + 1 2x2 + 2x + 2) x3 - 1
x4-x x3+x2 +x
-x2-x-1
-x2-x- 1
2x2+2x + 2 0
f(x) = (x+ l)(x3 -1)+ 2(x2+x+1), deg(2x2 +2x+2) < deg(x3 -1)

x3 -1=(~-~)<2x2+2x+ 2)+0

=(x-l)(x2+x+1)
: . The last nonzero remainder is x2 + x + .l , which is the gcd.

2.3 CHARACTERISTIC OF A RING

Definition 2.13 Characteristic of a ring R is the least positive integer n such that na = 0 "\/ a E R and
we write char (R) = n. If no such positive integer exists, then R is said to have characteristic 0.
For example,
1. The ring (Z3, +·)has characteristic 3.
InZ3 = {O, 1, 2}, 1+1+1=3(1)=0(mod 3)
:. Characteristics is 3 2 + 2 + 2 = 3(2) = O(mod 3)
3(a) = 0 'Va E Z3
i.e., char(Z3) = 3
More generally, characteristic of the ring (Zn,+,-) is n
2. (Z, +, ·)and (Q, +, ·)are rings. ·
For any a E Z (or Q), there is no positive integer n such that na = 0 'V a e Z (or Q).
:. char(Z) = 0 and char(Q) = 0.
3. Z3[x] is an infinite ring, but it has characteristic 3.
2.28 • Algebra and Number Theory

Theorem 2.9 The characteristic of a field (F,.+,·)is either O or a prime number.

Proof Let (F, +,·)be a field.

If char(F) = 0, then there is nothing to prove.
If char(F) "# 0, then let char(F) = n.
To prove n is a prime.
Suppose n is not a prime, then n = pq, where 1 < p < n, 1 < q < n.
i.e., p and q are proper factors of n.
Since char(F) = n, we have na = 0 ";/ a E F.
Take a = 1, then n · 1 = 0 (1 is identity of F)
(pq). 1=0 ~ (p. l)(q. 1) = 0

·: (pq)·l = l+ l+ l+· .. + 1 = (1+l+· .. +1)(1+1 +· .. + l)l

[ ~ '-----r----''-----r----'
pq terms p terms q terms

Since Fis a field, Fis an integral domain and so, it has no divisor of zero.
either p · 1 = 0 or q · 1 = 0
Since p and q are less than n, it contradicts the definition of characteristic of F.
:. n is a prime number.
•
Note
1. The characteristic of a ring need not be a prime. For example char(Z6) = 6, which is not a prime.
2. The characteristic of a finite field is a prime number P.
3. The fields (Q, +, ·), (R, +, ·)are of characteristic zero.

Theorem 2.10 The number of elements of a finite field is p", where pis a prime number and n is
a positive integer. [AU 2013, 2018]

Proof We know for a prime p, ZP is a field havingp elements and char(ZP)= p, since pa= 0 ";/a E ZP
n n I
Considerthepolynomial f(x)=xP -x inZP[x].Nowthederivative f'(x)=pnxp- -1
Since char(ZP)= p, char (ZP[x]) ~ p and so, p g(x),= 0 ";/ g(x) E ZP[x]
n I n I
Hence p xP - = 0 ~ pn · xP - = 0

f'(x) = -1, a constant polynomial.

Henceflx) and f'(x) have no common root.
Henceflx) has no multiple roots.
i.e., the roots offlx) are all distinct.
If K is the smallest extension field containing all the roots offix)
i.e., K is the splitting field offlx).
Thenflx) has p" distinct roots in K.
In K, let F be the set of all elements satisfying fix).
 Finite Fields and Polynomials • 2.29

i.e., F= {a e K I aP" = a} CK
Hence F has only pn elements.
We now prove Fis a field.
Leta, b E F. Then aP" =a and bp" =b
(ab )P" = aP" ·bp" [·: a-b = b-a \f a-b e K]
=ab vs a-b e F

(a+b)P" = aP" + pnC1 ap"-l ·b+ pnC2 aP"-2 ·b2

+ ... + P "cra p" -r . br· + ... + bp"

[using binomial expansion]
Since · char(K)=p [as zp =s;K]'
p ap"-r -b" = 0, r = 1, 2, 3, ...
(a+ b)P" = aP" + bp"
=a+b ~ a+beF

Similarly, (a - b )P" = a - b ~ a-beF

:. Fis a subfield ofK.
Hence Fis a field having p" elements.
Aliter
•
Proof Let F be a finite field with 1 as identity and 0 as zero element.
The char(F) = p, a prime number (by Theorem 2.9).
Then pa= 0 \fa e F.
Consider the set of elements in F.
S0={1,2· l,3· 1, ... ,p· l=O}
The elements of S0 all distinct, since Fis without divisions of zero
For, ifr · 1 = s · l, 1 :s; r, s <p, then (s - r) 1=0
For any xe F,
(s - r)x = (s - r)(lx)

= ((s - r)l) x, where s-r <p.

~ (s - r)x = 0 x = 0

Which contradicts the char(F) = p

.<
S0 hasp distinct elements of P
If F = S0, then I F I= p1 and the result follows.
Otherwise, S0 is strictly contained in F.
2.30 • Algebra and Number Theory

Therefore there exists an element a e F - S0.

Let S1 = {ma+ n · 11 0 < m, n :::; p} be subset of F

and I S1 I:::; p2 (Since m = 1, 2, ... ,p and n = 1, 2, ... ,p)

If I S1 I< p2, then there will be repetitions of elements in S1•
Let m1a+ n1 ·1=m2a+n2·1
(m1 -m2)a = (n1 -n2)·1

With 0 < m1, m2, n1, n2 :::; p and at least one if ( m1 ~ m2) and n2 - n1 is "/:. 0

If m1-m2=0, then (m1-m2)a=0

( n2 - ni) 1 = 0 with I n2 - n1 I < p

(n2-ni)x=(n2-n1)1x

=((n2-ni)l)x=0x=0

Which is a contradiction to char(F) = p

Ifn2-n1=0,then(n2-n1)1)=0 => (m1-m2)a=0 withlm1-m2l<p.
Since a-:;:. 0, a-1 exists in F.
( m1 - m2) a· a -I = 0 a -r = 0 => ( m1 - m2) · 1 = 0

For any x e F, as above (m1 -m2)x =.0.

Which is a contradiction.
Hence neither m1 - m2 nor n2 - n1 is 0

Choose k e z", such that 0 < k < p

k(m1 -m2) = l(mod p)
Then a= k(m1 -m2)a = k(n1-n2)·1

and a e S0, which is again a contradiction.

Hence I S1 I= p2 and if F =Si' the theorem is proved.
Ifnot, S1 is strictly contained in F and so there exists be F-S1•
Proceed with b as a above.
Then S2 ={I b+ma+nl I 0 < l,m,n < p} will have orderp3.
Since Fis finite, this process after finite number of steps, has to come to an end.

F = sr-1 for some r E z+

and

Hence the number of elements of a finite field is pr, r E Z".

•
 Finite Fields and Polynomials •
2;31

2.4 CONGRUENCE RELATION IN F[x]

Definition 2.14 Let s(x) E F[x] and s(x) ::;:. 0 and f{x), g(x) E F[x]. We say that fix) is
=
congruentto g(x) modulo s(x) and write j{x) g(x) (mod s(x)) if s(x) dividesj{x) - g(x).
i.e., j{x)- g(x) = q(x) s(x) , for some q(x) E F[x]
We can prove that this relation of congruence of polynomial is an equivalence relation on F[x].
The equivalence class off{x) is denoted by [f{x)]
[f(x)] = {t(x) E F[i] I f(x) = t(x)(mods(x))}
We define addition and multiplication of congruence classes as in Zn.

[f(x)]+[g(x)] = [f(x)+ g(x)]

and [f(x)]·[g(x)] = [f(x)· g(x)]

Since deg[f(x)+ g(x)] ~ max{degf(x);degg(x)}.

We can find the equivalence class for [t(x) + g(x)].
Where as degf(x)g(x) ~ degs(x) and so [t(x) g(x)] = [r(x)], where r(x) is the remainder when
f{x) · g(x) is divided by s(x).
For example,
Let s(x) = x2+x+1 E Z2[x]

Then [O] = {t(x)(x2 +x+l) I t(x) E Z2[x]}

[1] = {t(x)(x2+x+l)+11 t(x) E Z2[x]}

[x] = {t(x)(x2+x+1)+ x I t(x) E Z2[x]}

[x + 1] = {t(x)(x2+x+1) + x + 11 t(x) E Z2[x]}

Supposef{x) E Z2[x], then by division algorithm

f{x) = q(x) s(x) + r(x)
where r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) <deg s(x)
f(x)-r(x) = q(x)s(x)
=> f(x) = r(x)(mods(x))
f(x) E [r(x)] => [f(x)] = [r(x)]
So, to determine all the equivalence classes, it is enough we consider the possibilities of r(x).
Here r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < 2 => deg r(x) = 0 or 1
r(x)=ax+b; a,bEZ2={0,1}
So, only two choices each for a and b.
2.32 • Algebra and Number Theory

Hence there are four possibilities for r(x).

They are
1. Take a=O, b=I), then r(x)= 0
2. Take a=O, b= 1, then r(x) = 1
3. Take a= 1, b=I), then r(x) = x'
4. Take a= 1, b= 1, then r(x) = x + 1
:. the only equivalence classes are [O], [1], [x], [x + 1] in Z2 [x].
Hence the set of equivalence classes is {[O], [1], [x], [x + 1]}.

Definition2.15 Ideal of a ring

Let (R, +, ·)be a ring. A non-empty subset I of a ring is called an ideal of R,
if (i) for all a, b E I, we have a - b E I
and (ii) for all r E R and a E /, we have ar, ra E /.

Note An ideal is always a subring, but a subring is not an ideal. Ideal is something more than 1
subring.
1. In any ring R, { 0} and R are ideals of R. The ideal { 0} is called the trivial ideal.
2. For any positive integer n, the subset n Z = {O, ±n, ±2n, ... ,} in the ring (Z, +,·)is an ideal of Z.
For example:
(Z, +, ·)is a subring of (Q, +, ·),but it is not an ideal,

because ifwe take 2 E Zand ! E Q, then !.2 = 3_ ~ Z.

3 3 3
Definition2.16 Factor ring
Let /be an ideal of the ringR. Then the set {r+ 11 r ER} is a ring under addition and multiplicatior
defined as

(a+/)+ (b +I) = a+ b +I

and (a+ /)·(b+ /)=ab+! Va,b ER.

This ring is called factor ring or quotient ring and is denoted by R/I.

Definition2.17 Principal ideal

An ideal generated by single element a is called a principal ideal and is denoted by <a>.
Thus < a> = {ra Ir ER}
Then quotient ring is Rlca».
Now we state a theorem without proof for polynomials.

Theorem2.11 Let F = ZP,p is a prime andf{x) be an irreducible polynomial of degree n over ZP

then F[x] is a field havingpn element, <f{x) >is the ideal generated by j{x).
</(x)>
 Finite Fields and Polynomials • 2.33

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Construct a field consisting of four elements.
[Hint: Using the irreducible binary polynomial x1- + x + 1] [AU 2013]

Solutlon.
Consider Z2= {O, 1}

and j{x)=x2+x+ 1 E Z2[xJ

.f{O) = 1:;e0

.f{l) = 1+1+1 = 3 :;e l(mod 2) :;e 0

:. j{x) is irreducible over Z2.

Z2[xJ Z2[xJ
:. f( ) = 2 is a field having 22 = 4 elements.
< x > <x +x+l>

To find the four elements

This field consists of the different equivalence classes ofmod(x2 + x + 1) in Z2[xJ.
Consider.f{x) E Z2[xJ andx2+x+ 1 E Z2[xJ.
By division algorithm,
f(x) = q(x)(x2+x+1)+ r(x)
where either r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) <deg (x2 + x + 2) = 2

deg r(x) = 0or1

Hence r(x) =ax+ b, where a, b E Z2

Since j{x) - r(x) = q(x)(x2 + x + 1)
j{x) = r(x) mod (x 2 + x + 1)

[t{x)J = [r(x)J
So, to find the equivalence classes mod(x2 + x + 1 ), it is enough to find the possible values of
r(x) =ax+ b.
If a=O, b=I), r(x)=O
If a=O, b=l, r(x)=l
If a= 1, b=O, r(x)=x
If a=O, b=l, r(x)=x+l
:. the equivalence classes are [OJ, [lJ, [xJ, [x + lJ

Z2[xJ
:. the 4 elements of the field are [OJ, [lJ, [xJ, [x + lJ
2
<x +x+l>

;2 [ x J = {[ 0]' [ 1]' [ -l. [ x + 1]}

<x +x+l>
2.34 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 2
In the above example 1, find [xi-1•

Solutlon.
Z2[x]
In the above example 1, we have proved is a field having the four elements
< x2 +x+l>
[OJ, [lJ, [xJ, [x + lJ, where [OJ is the zero element. [xJ z
The non-zero elements [lJ, [x], [x + l ] form a group under multiplication, because --2-=-2--
is a field. < x +x+l >
We write [aJ as a.
[xJ = 1, [xJ = x and [x + 1) = x + 1 [·: -1 = l(mod2)]
x·x=x2 = (x + 1) mod (x2 +x+ 1)
x(x + I) = x2 + x = 1 mod (x2 + x + 1)
(x+ l)·(x+ l)=x2+2.x+ 1
=x2+x+ I +x=xmod(x2+x+ 1)

I x x+1
I 1 x x+l
x x x+l 1
x+l x+l 1 x
Since I is the identity
We find x(x + 1) = 1
:. inverse of xis x + 1 :. [xt1 = [x + I]
EXAMPLE 3
Z3[x]
In Z3[x], s(x) = x- + x + 2. Show that s(x) rs Irreduefble
__ 2 • • •
over Z3 and construct the field ---
< s(x) >
What is the order of this field?

Solutlon.
Given s(x)=x2+x+2inZ3[x] and Z3={0,l;2}
Now s(0)=2:F.0
s(l)= 1+1 +2=4= l(mod3):F.0
s(2) = 22 + 2 + 2 = 8 = 2(mod 3) ¢ 0
s(x) has no.root in Z3.
Hence s(x) is irreducible in Z3[x].

---Z3[x] . tieId
1sa
< s(x) >
Since deg s(x) = 2, this field has 32 == 9 elements.
This field consists of9 different equivalence classes (mod s(x)).
 , Finite Fields and Polynomials •
2.35

Letfi:x) E Z3[x].
Then fix)= q(x)(x2 + x + 1) + r(x)
where r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) <deg (x2 + x + 1) = 2 :. deg r(x) is 0 or 1.
r(x) =ax+ b, a, b E Z3
and [f(x)] = [r(x)]
:. the different equivalence classes mod(x2 + x + 1) correspond to the different values of r(x).
Each of a and b can take 3 values from Z3 and so, there are 3 · 3 = 9 values for r(x).
They are
1. If a= 0, b = 0, then r(x) = 0
2. If a=O, b= 1, then r(x)= 1
3. If a= 0, b = 2, then r(x) = 2
4. If a= 1, b=O, then r(x)=x
5.lf a=l, b=l, thenr(x)=x+l
6. If a= 1, b=2, then r(x)=x+2
7. If a= 2, b = 0, then r(x) = 2x
8. If a= 2, b = 1, then r(x) = 2x + 1
9. If a=2, b=2, then r(x)=2x+2
:. the nine equivalence classes are [O], [l], [2], [x], [x + 1], [x + 2], [2x], [2x + l], [2x + 2]
Z3[x]
= {[O], [1], [2], [x], [x+ 1], [x+ 2], [2x], [2x+ l], [2x+ 2]}
2
<x +x+2>
the order of the field is 9.
i.e., the number elements is 9.

EXAMPLE 4
Z3[X]
In the find field 2
with 9 elements (Refer worked example 3 above), find
<x +x+2>
(i) [x+2)[2x+2]+[x+l]
(ii) [2x + 1)2[x + 2]
(iii) [2x + 1i-1

Solution.
. Z3[xl
G rven is a finite field with 9 elements.
< x2 +x+2>
(i) To find [x + 2][2x + 2] + [x + l]
Now [x + 2][2x +2] = [2x2 +6x+4]

= [ 2x2 +Ox+4 J [·: 6 = O(mod3)]

= [2x2 +4]
= [x]
 2.36 • Algebra and Number Theory

For, 2
x2+x+2)~-2x_2_+_4~~~-
2x2+ 2x +4
-2x =x :. -2 = l(mod 3)
[x + 2][2x + 2) + [x + 1] = [x] + [x + 1]
= [2x + 1]

(ii) To find [2x + 1)2 [x + 2] = [4x2 + 4x + l][x + 2]

= [x2 +x+ l][x + 2] [ ·: 4 = l(mod 3)]
For, 1
x2 + x + 2) x2 + x + 1
x2+x + 2
-1 =2(mod3)
[x2+x+ 1]=[2].
We get
[2x + 1]2[x + 2] = [2][x + 2]
= [2x + 4]
=[2x+l]
' (iii) Now consider =
[2x + 1][2x] [4x2 + 4x]
= [x2 +x]
= [-2] = [1]
Since 4 = l(mod 3), x2+ x = -2(mod x2 + x + 2), and-2 = l(mod 3)
[2x + 1][2x] = [1] ~ [2x + 11-1 = [2x]

EXERCISE 2.2

1. Determine whether the following polynomials are 'irreducible over the given fields
2 ' '
(a) x + x + 1 over Z3, Zs, Z7
(b) x4 + x3 + 1 over Z2
(c) x3 + 3x2-x + 1 over Zs [AU 20131
2. Findthe remainderwhen.f(x) = 3xs- 8x4 +x3 ~x2 + 4x-7 is divided by g(x) =x + 9 in Z11[x).
3. Let.f(x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 e Z2[x]. Is itreducible in Z2[x]?
[Hint: 0, 1 are not roots ofj(x). So first degree factors suppose it has 2nd degree factors then (x2 -I
ax + b)(x2 +ex+ d). Which leads to contradiction. So.f(x) is irreducible in Z2[x]].
4. Let.f(x) =x3 + 6 e Z7 [x], write.f(x) as a product of irreducible polynomial Z7.
5. Show that x2 + x + 4 is irreducible over Z11.
6. Use Euclidean algorithm for polynomial to find gcd ofj(x) = x4 + 2x2 + 2x + 2, g(x) = 2x3 + 2x2 -I
x+ 1 in Z3[x].
7. How many monic polynomial in Z8[x] have degree 5?
8. Show that s(x) = x2 + 1 is reducible in Z2[x]. write the factors.
 Finite Fields and Polynomials • 2.37

ANSWERS TO EXERCISE 2.2

1. (a) x2 + x + 1 is reducible over Z3

is irreducible'over Zs
is reducible over Z7.
(b) x4 + x3 + 1 is irreducible over Z2.
(c) x3+3x2-x+1 is irreducible over Z5.
z. =
Remainder isfi-9) =fi2) 6 (mod 11).
3. Irreducible over Z2.
'4. fix)= (x + 3) (x + 5) (x + 6) over Z7.
5. Use direct calculation to show it has no roots in Z11•
6. gcd is x2 + 2x + 1.
7. Any monic polynomial of degree 5 is a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 +a4x4 + x5,
where a2 e Z8 = {O, l, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} each a2 can be chosen in 8 ways.
:. No of polynomials= gs.
8. x2 + 1=(x+1) (x + 1) (mod 2).

PART A QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Let F be a field. Can F[x] be a field? Why? [AU 2013]
Ans. No
We know F[x] is an integral domain.
Let fix)= x e F[x], thenfix):;: 0 and it has no multiplicative inverse.
Suppose g(x) = a0 + a1x + ... + arfn is the inverse then
x g(x) = 1 ~ x(ao + alx + ... anxn) = 1 +Ox+ Ox2 + ... + oxn +I

:. 1 = 0, which is a contradiction.
Sofix) = x has no inverse.
:. F(x) is not a field.

2. If ftx) = 7x4 + 4x3 + 3x2 + x + 4 and g(x) = 3x3 + 5x2 + 6x + 1 belong to z,[x], then find
Jtx) + g(x) and deg (J{x) + g(x)).
Ans. Given j{x) = 7x4 + 4x3 + 3x2 + x + 4 and g(x) = 3x3 + 5x2 + 6x + 1
Since 7 = O(mod 7),
fix)= Ox4 + 4x3 + 3x2 + x + 4
= 4x3 + 3x2 + x + 4
fix)+ g(x) = 7x3 + 8x2 + 7x + 5 [·: 8 = l(mod7)]
= Ox3 + lx2 + Ox + 5
=x2+ 5
deg (j{x) + g(x)) = 2
2.38 • Algebra and Number Theory

3. How many polynomials are there of degree 2 in Z11[x]? ·

Ans. We know Z11 = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, ... , 10}
Any polynomial of degree 2 in Z11[x] is of the form a0 + a1x + ar2
where a2 i:- 0, a0, a1, a2 E Z11
The number of polynomials correspond to the number of choices of a0, a 1' a2 in Z11.
a0 and a1 can be chosen in 11 ways each and a2 in 10 ways.
:. the number of polynomial of degree 2 is 112 (10) = 1210.
4. Find the number of polynomials of degree n in Z12[x].
Ans. Any polynomial of degree n in Zu(x] is of the form
ao + a1x+ azX2 + ... + an-lxn-1 + anxn E Z12[x]
where
and Z12 = {O, 1, 2, 3, ... , 11 }.
Each of a0, al' a2, ... , an~ 1 can be chosen in 11 ways and an in 11 ways.
:. the number of polynomials= 12n · 11.
5. Find the polynomials j(x), g(x) e Zu[x] such that deg.f(x) = 5, deg g(x) = 2 and deg.f(x) g(x) = 3.
Ans. Let j(_x) = 4x5 + 2x and g(x) = 3x2 in Zu(x].
Then deg.f(x) = 5 and deg g(x) = 2
Now j(x) g(x) = (4x4+ 2x) 3x2
= 12x7 + 6x3
= Ox7 + 6x3
=6x3 [ ·: 12 = O(mod 12)]
deg.f(x) g(x) = 3
6. lf.f(x) = x2 + 3x+ 1 and g(x) = x4 + 2x3 + x + 4 belong to Z5[x], then find the quotient and
remainder when g(x) is divided by j{x).
Ans. Given j(x) = x2 + 3x + 1 and g(x) = x4 + 2x3 + x + 4
Since Z5 = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4} is a finite field, we divider g(x) by j(x) by long division method keeping
in mind addition and multiplication are performed under modulo 5.
x2+4x + 2 [·: -1 =4(mod5)
x2 + 3x + 1)
x4 + 2x3 + x + 4 -3 =2(mod 5)
12 =2(mod 5)
· x4+ 3x3 +x2
-8 =2(mod 5)
4x3+4x2 +x -4 = l(mod 5)]
4x3 + 12x2 -t 4x
2x2+ 2x +4
2x2+ 6x + 2
x+2
:. the quotient is q(x) = x2 + 4x + 2 and the remainder is r(x) = x + 2.
 Finite Fields and Polynomials • 2.39

7. Ifj{x) = x2 + 4x e Zu[x], then find two different linear polynomials g(x) and h(x) in z12[x],
such thatftx) =g(x) h(x).
Ans. Given j{x) = x2 + 4x e Zdx]
Letg(x) =x-2 andh(x)=x-6 e Zdx]
Then g(x) h(x) = (x - 2)(x - 6)
=x2-8x+ 12
But -8 = 4 (mod 12) and 12 = O(mod 12)
g(x) h(x) = x2 + 4x
j{x) = g(x) h(x)
8. Find the remainderwhenftx) =3x5-8x4 +x3-x2 +4x-7 is divided by g(x) =x+ 9 inZ11[x].
Ans. Given j{x) = 3x5- 8x4 +x3-x2 + 4x-7 e Z11[x]
Andg(x) =x + 9 =x-2 [·: 9 =-2 (mod 11)]
Whenj{x) is divided by x - 2, the remainder is
/(2) = 3·25 -8·24 +23 -22 +4·2-7
= 96-128+8-4+8-7 = -27 = 6(modll)
:. the remainder is 6 e Zu.
9. Test whether 2x + 1 e Z4[x] is a unit.
Ans. Consider (2x + 1 )(2x + 1) = 4x2 + 4x + 1
=Ox2+0x+ 1=1 [·: 4=0mod4]
:. 2x + 1 is unit in Z4[x] and its inverse is 2x + 1.
10. How many monic polynomials in Z7[x] have degree 5?
Ans. We have Z7 = {O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Any monic polynomial of degree 5 over Z7 is a0 + a1x + a.;c2 + a3x3 + a4x4 + x5,
where a0, al' a2, a3, a4 e Z7.
Each coefficient can be chosen in 7 ways. So, all the five coefficients can be chosen in 75 ways.
The number of monic polynomial is 75.
11. What is the g.e.d of.l(x) = x4 + x3 + 1 and g(x) = x2 + x + 1 in Z2[x].
Ans. We know Z2 = {O, l}
Given f{x)=x4+x3+ l and ·g(x)=x2+x+ 1
Now j{O) = 0 + 0 + 1 = 1 :;t: 0
f{2) = 24 + 23 + 1=16 + 8 + 1 = 25 = 1 (mod 2) :;t: 0
2.40 • Algebra and Number Theory

: . j(x) had no root in Z2

:. j(x) is irreducible over Z2.

g(O) = 0 + 0 + 1 :;t 0
g(l) = 1 + 1+1 = 3 = l(mod 2)
:. g(x) had no root in Z2.

:. g(x) is irreducible over Z2.

Hence j(x) and g(.x) of irreducible over Z2.

:. the g.c.d is (f(x), g(x)) = 1.

Divisibility Theory and
Canonical Decompositions 3
3.0 INTRODUCTION
The counting numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, ... , n, ... are considered to be man's first mathematical creation.
These numbers are also known as the natural numbers or positive integers. The theory of numbers
is that branch of mathematics, which deals with the properties of natural numbers. Once upon a
time number theory was considered as the purest of pure mathematics because it had no practical
applications. But today modern technology has brought a new dimension to the power of number
theory with many areas of applications such as art, coding theory, cryptography computer science etc.
In this chapter we study the basic concepts of elementary numbers theory such as divisibility,
greatest common divisor, prime and composite numbers, division algorithm, fundamental theorem of
arithmetic, least common multiple and related results.
Usual Notations
l. The set of natural numbers
N= {I, 2, 3, 4, ... }
where N is the first letter of the word Natural.
2. The set of integers
z = { ... , -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ... }
where Z is the first letter of the word 'Zahlen', means number in German.
Now we state some important properties of natural numbers which will be used in proofs of
results.

3.1 THE PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

1. First Principle of Induction:
Let p(n) be a proposition corresponding to positive integers n satisfying the following conditions:
(i) p(n0) is true for some integer n0.
(ii) If p(k) is true for an arbitrary integer k > n0, then p(k + l) is also true. Then p(n) is true for all
integers n ;;::: "c-
2. Second Principle of Induction or Strong Principle of Induction:
Let p(n) be a proposition corresponding to positive integers n satisfying the following conditions:
(i) p(n0) is true for some integer n0.
(ii) If the proposition is true for all integers upto k (> n0).
i.e., if p(n0 + 1 ), p(n0 + 2), . . , p(k) are true, then p(k + 1) is true.
Thenp(n) is true for all integers n :<:: n0•

Note
1. In both the principles condition (i) is called the basis for induction. n0 may be I or 2 or 3, ...
The verification of the truth of p(n0) is the basis step. The assumption in condition (ii) is called
the induction hypothesis. Verification ofp(k + 1) is true is the inductive step or induction step.
3.2 • Algebra and Number Theory

2. The two principles differ only in the induction hypothesis. Theoretically, both the principles are
equivalent. But in practice the second principle is.stronger in the sense that there are propositions
for which only the second principle is applicable. All those propositions for which first principle
is applicable, we can apply the second principle also.
3. Sometimes, if the propositionp(n) is true for n = 0, we take n0 = 0.
In computer service, we use the set of whole numbers W = { 0, 1, 2, 3, ... } rather than N.

3.1.1 The Well-ordering Principle

Every non empty set of positive integers has a least number.

Note
I. The well ordering principle can be extended to the set of non negative integers and also to the set
of integers :<:: k for some integer k.
2. The well-ordering principle is logically equivalent to the principle of induction.

3.1.2 Pigeon Hole Principle

If m pigeons are assigned to n pigeon holes, where m > n, then at least two pigeons must occupy the
same pigeon hole.
The pigeon hole principle is also known as Dirichlet box principle because the German
mathematician Dirichlet used it in number theory.

3.2 DIVISIBILITY THEORY AND DIVISION ALGORITHM

Definition3.1 Divisibility
Let ab E Z. we say b divides a and write b I a if a= be for some integer c.
We also say that b is a factor of a orb is a divisor of a or a is a multiple of b.
If b does not divide a, we write b / a.
Divisibility gives a relation between two integers with the following properties.

Theorem3.1 If a, b, c e Z, then
(i) a I a Va* 0 e Z (reflectivity)
(ii) a I band b I c ~a I c Va, b -::t; O, c * 0 E Z (transitively)
(iii) alb ~ albc,Va-::1;0,beZ
(iv) a I band a I c ~a I xb +ye 'V x,y' e Z, a* 0 e Z (linearity)

Proof
(i) If a -::t; 0, a I a (·:a= a· 1)
(ii) a I b ~ b = q1 a and b I c ~ c = q2 b
where a -ct= 0, b -ct= 0 in Z, q1, q2 are some integers
:. c = qz.(q,a) = (qzq1)a ~ a I c.
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions •
3.3

(iii) a I b ==> b = q1a

be= (q1a)c = q1 (ac) = q1 (ca)= (q1c)a
==> albc VbeZ.
(iv) a I b ==> b = q1a and a I c ==> c = q2a
for some integers q1 and q2 e Z

xb+ ye= x(q1a)+ y(q2a)

= (xq1)a+(yq2)a
= (xq1 + yq2)a; xq1 + yq2 is an integer
==> alxb+yc
Note xb +ye is called a linear combination of b and c.
•
If x = 1, y = 1, a I b + c and if x = 1, y = -1, a I b - c.
Next we shall see the division algorithm as an application of well-ordering principle.

Theor~m 3.2 The division algorithm.

Let a be any integer and b be a positive integer.
Then there exist unique integers q and r such that a = q b + r, where 0 S r < b.

Proof First we prove existence and then uniqueness.

Existence is usually proved by suitable construction.
Consider the set S = {a - nb I n E Z, a - nb ;;;:: 0}
Clearly S s;;; W.
Given a is any integer. Then a< 0 or a;;;:: 0.
If a ;;;:: 0, then a = a - 0 · b E S and so a E S.
Hence S is non-empty.
Now leta<O.
Since b is a positive integer, b ~ 1.
Multiplying by a, we get ab S a

==> -ab ;;::-a [as a< 0, in equality will reverse]

==> a=ab e a=a+t)
a - ab E S ==> S is non empty
So, we find Sis non-empty if a ;;;:: 0 or a < 0.
Since Sis a set of non-negative integers (by its construction), by well-ordering principle S contains·
a least integer r.
As r E S, we can find an integer q such that

r =a - q b, where r ~ 0.

We shall now prove r < b.

We prove by contradiction.
3.4 • Algebra and Number Theory

Suppose r ~ b, then r - b ~ 0 and hence r - b E S.

Since r ~ 0 and b > 0, r - b < r.
Now r - b E Sand r - b < r, which contradicts the choice of r (as the least number in S)
r<b
Thus there exist integers q and r such that
a=q b+r, OSr<b (1)
We now prove the uniqueness.
Suppose we also have
Then qb+r=q1 b+r1
(q-q1)b=r1-r
blr1 -r

If r 1 - r :;t: 0, then b 11i - r, which is a contradiction (·: lrJ-rl<b)

Hence (·: b>O)

:. the expression a = qb + r, 0 $ r < b is unique, which is the division algorithm.

•
Note In the expression a = qb + r, 0 $ r < b.
q is called the quotient and r is called the remainder.
If r = 0, then a = q b => b I a.
i.e., if r = 0, then b is a factor of a.
Though the theorem is called division algorithm, it does not give an algorithm
(i.e., a sequence of steps that leads to the answer) to find q and r.
We find q and r by using the usual long division method.

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Find q and r when
(i) 207 is divided by 15
(ii) -23 is divided by 5.
13
Solutlon. 15~
(i) We have 207 = 13(15) + 12, 0 < 12 < 15 15
57
q= 13andr=12.
45
(ii) We have -23 == -5(5) + 2, 0<2<5
12
q=-5 andr=2.
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.5

EXAMPLE 2
[,et b be an integer ~ 2. Suppose b + 1 integers are randomly selected prove that the difference
~ftwo of them is divisible by b. (AU 2013]

solution.
Givenb is an integer ~ 2.
We know, when an integer a is divided by b, we have the division algorithm a = q b + r, O $.;; r < b.
Given b + 1 integers are selected randomly.
When they are divided by b, we get b + 1 remainders (pigeons).
But there are only b possible remainders (pigeon holes).
So, by pigeon hole principle two of the remainders must be equal and equal tor.
Let x and y be the numbers among the b + 1 numbers with remainder r when x and y are
dividedby b.
Then x = q1 b +randy= q2 b + r

x-y = ql b- qz b = is, -qz)b

blx-y

Hence the result.

We now recall some simple functions which are frequently used in our discussion.

Definition 3.2 For any real number x,

1. Absolute value or modulus function

lxl = {x ~f x~ 0
-x if x < 0
2. Greatest integer function
[x] =the greatest lnteger s x.
In computer science the greatest integer function is called floor function and is denoted
by LxJ.
3. The ceiling function fx l is the least integer z x.
J
For example, L -3.4 =the greatest integer $.;-3.4 is -4

f-3.41 =the least integer z -3.4 is -3

f 3.41 =the least integer z 3.4 is 4

L 3 .4J = the greatest integer s 3 .4 is 3
Theorem 3.3 Let a and b be any positive integers. Then the number of positive integers :s;; a
and divisible by b is
3.6 • Algebra and Number Theory

For example, the number of positive integers s 2076 and divisible by 19 is

l 2~;6J=L109.26J=109.

Corollary In the set of integers {1, 2, 3, ... , n} the numberof integers divisible by a primepis

Instead of floor function notation, we will be using greatest integer function notation.
If Pp Pz are distinct primes, the numbers of integers divisible by p1 Pz is

3.2.1 Inclusion- ExclusionPrinciple

If Sis a set, the number of elements in Sis denoted by jSj.
A,
If B, Care finite sets, then
1. IAvBI =IAl+IBl-IAnBI
=S1 -S2,
where S1 = sum taken one at a time
=IAl+IBI
S2 =IAnBI
2. iAuBuCi = S1 -S2 +S3,
where S1 = sum taken one at a time
=IAl+IBl+lcl
S2 = sum taken two at a time
= IAnBl+IAnCl+IBnCI
S3 =IAnBnCI

3. IAvBuCvDI = S1 -S2 +S3 -S4,

where S1 = IAI + IBI + ICI + IDI [one at a time, 4c1 = 4 terms]
S2 =IAnBl+IAnCl+IAnDl+IBnCl+IBnDl+ICnDI
[taken two at a time, 4c2 = 6 terms]
S3 =IAnBnCl+IAnCnDl+IAnBnDl+IBnCnDI
[taken three at a time, 4c3 = 4 terms]
S4 =IAnBnCnDI
This can be extended formore number of sets.
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical De ..
compos1t1ons • 3. 7

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Find the number of positive integers in the range 1976 through 3776 that are divisible by 13.
[AU 2017]

Solution.
The number of positive integers s 1976 that are
1976 3776
1~~6]
divisible by 13 is = [ = [152] = 152

The number of positive integers s; 3776 that are divisible by 13 is

3~~6]
=[ = [290.46] = 290

:. The number of positive integers from 1976 to 3776 that divisible by 13 is

=290-152+1
= 139
[·: 1976 is included in the list ofnumbers divisible by 13]
Aliter: Among the positive integers form 1976 to 3776 that are divisible by 13, the first number is
1976.
When 3776 is divided by 13, the remainder is 6.
i.e., 3776 = 290 (13) + 6
3770 = 290 (13)
So, the last number divisible by 13 is 3770.
:. The list of numbers is 1976, 1989, 2002, ... , 3770.
This is an A.P. with a= 1976 and C.D d = 13, I= 3770.
If n is the number of terms, then
I-a
n=--+1
d
= 3770-1976 +1
13
=138+1
=139

EXAMPLE 2
Find the number of positive integers a 2076 and divisible by neither 4 nor 5. [AU 2013, 2018)

Solution.
First we find the number of positive integers s 2076 that are divisible by 4 or 5.
3.8 • Algebra and Number Theory

Let A, B be the set of integers s 2076 that are divisible by 4 or 5 respectively.

By inclusion - exclusion principle, we know
IAvBl=S1 -S2

Where S1 =IAl+IBI
S2 = IA11BI
Now

IAI = [2~6] = [519] = 519

IBI = [20576]= [415.2) = 415

S1 =IAl+IBl=519+415=934

and S2 = IA11 Bl= [2076]

4x5
= [103.8] = 103

IAvBI = 934-103 = 831

: . the set of integers divisible by neither 4 nor 5 is

A' 11B' = (AvB)'

IA' 11 B'I = l(Av s)'I
= the total number of integers -\A v B\
= 2076- 831=1245

EXAMPLE 3
Find the positive integers ~ 3000 and divisible by 3, 5 or 7. [AU 2018)

Solutlon.
Let A, B, C be the set of numbers s 3000 that are divisible by 3, 5, 7 respectively.
Required IAv B v Cl
By inclusion and exclusion principle, we get
IAvBvCl=S1 -S2 +S3

Now IAI = [ 303°0] = [1000) = 1000

IBI = [305°0] = [600] = 600

IC! = [
°
307 0]
= [ 428.57] = 428
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.9

s1 = IAI + IBI +!cl= 1000 + 600 + 428 = 2028

jAn Bj = [3000] = [200] = 200 .

3x5

jAnCj = [3000] = [142.85] = 142

3x7

jBnCj = [3000] = [85.71] = 85

5x7
S2 =jAnBj+jAnCj+jBnCI = 200+142+85 = 427
3000 ]
ind S3 =IAnBnCI= [ =[28.57]=28
3x5x7
!AuBuCj = S1 -S2 +S3
= 2028-427+28=1629
EXAMPLE 4
Findthe numberof integers from i to 250 that are divisible by any of the integers 2, 3, 5, 7.
[AU 2013]

Solutlon.
Let A, B, C, D be the set of integers divisible by 2, 3, 5, 7 respectively.
Required jAuBuCuDj
By inclusion-exclusion principle, we know
!AuBuCuDj = S1 -S2 +S3 -S4

where S1 = IAi\+IA2l+IA3j+IA4j
S2 =IAnBj+jAnCl+IAnDj+jBnCj+jBnDj+jCnDj
S3 =IAnBnCj+jAnBnDj+jAnCnDj+jBnCnDI
S4 =jAnBnCnDj.

Now jAj = [2~0] = [125) = 125

2~0]
IBI = [ = [83.3) = 83

jcj = [
!J
2 0
= [ 50] = 50

IDI = [2~0] = [35.7] = 35

S1 =IAl+IBl+ICl+IDI
=125+83+50+35=293
3.10 • Algebra and Number Theory .

Now

IAnBI= [ -250] =[41.6]=41

2x3

250]· = [25] = 25
IAnCI = [ -·
2x5

IAnDI= [ -250] =[17.8]=17

2x7

250] = [16.6] = 16
IBnCI = [ -.
3x5
250J=[11.9]=11
IBnDI = [
3x7

IC ni:>I = [:~~ J = [7.14] = 7

S2 =41+25+17+16+11+7=117

Now IAnBnCI = [2 :~~ J = (8.3] =8

5

IAnBnDI = [2:~~7 J = (5.95] = 5

250
IAnCnDI = [ J = [3.57] = 3
2x5x7
250
IBnCnDI=[ ]=(2.38]=2
3x5.x7

S3 =8+5+3+2=18

and S4 =IAnBnCnDI= 250 ] =1

, [ 2x3x5x7
IAuBuCuDI = 293-117'+18-1=193

EXAMPLE 5
Find the numberof positive integers in the range1976 through3776 that are not divisible by 17.

Solutlon.
First we shall find the number of integers that are divisible by 17.
The numbers of integers :;;; 1976 that are divisible by 17 is

1976]
= [ 17 =[116.2]=116
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3;11

fhe numbers of integers : : ; 3 776 that are divisible by 1 7 is

3~~6]
=[ = [222.1] = 222

:. the number of integers from 1976 to 3776 that are divisible by 17 is= 222-116
= 106
;. the number of integers from 1976 to 3776 that are not divisible by 17 is
= total number of numbers - 106
But the total number of integers from
1976 to 3776 is= 3776 - 1976 + 1
= 1800 + 1 = 1801
:. the number ofnumbers that are not divisible by 17 is 1801 - 106 = 1695.

EXAMPLE 6
Find the number of positive lntegers s; 3076 that are not divisible by 24.

Solution.
The number of integers : : ; 3076 that are divisible by 24 is

[3~~6] = [128.1]= 128

The number of numbers not divisible by 24 is= total number of numbers - 128
= 3076- 128 = 2498.

EXAMPLE 7
Prove by induction that 2n3 + 3n2 + n is divisible by 6 for all integers n ~ 0.
Solution.
Letp(n) be the statement 2n3 + 3n2 + n is divisible by 6.
To prove p(n) is true V n;;:: 0.
Basis step: Here n0. = 0
:. p(O): 0 is divisible by 6, which is true
So, p(O) is true

Inductive step: Assume p(k) is true, k > 0.

=> 2k3 + 3k2 + k is divisible by 6 is true

=> 2k3 + 3k2 + k = 6x (I)

where x is an integer.
3.12 • Algebra and Number Theory

To prove p(k + 1) is true.

That is to prove 2(k+ 1)3 + 3(k+ 1)2 + (k+ 1) is divisible by 6 is true.
Now
2(k+ 1)3+3(k+1)2+(k+1) = 2(k3 + 3k2+3k+1)+ 3(k2+2k+1) + k+ 1
= (2k3 +3k2 +k)+6k2 +6k+ 2+6k+3.+ 1
= (2k3 +3k2 +k)+6k2 +12k+6
= 6x + 6( k2 + 2k + 1) [using(l)]
= 6[x+k2 +2k+l],
where x + k2 + 2k + 7 is an integer.
:. p(k+ 1) is true.
Thus p(k) is true => p(k + 1) is true.
Hence by first principle of inductionp(n) is true V n;;::: 0.
EXAMPLE 8
Prove by induction that 24n + 3n - 1 is divisible by 9 'rt n ~ O.

Solutlon.
Letp(n) denote the statement
24n + 3n - 1 is divisible by 9.
To prove p(n) is true V n;;::: 0.
Basis step: Here n0 = 0
p(O) is 2° + 3.0- 1 = 0, which is divisible 9
p(O) is true.

Inductive step: Assume that p(k) is true fork> 0

=> 24k + 3k- 1 is divisible by 9 is true
=> 24k + 3k - 1
/
= 9x '
where x is an integer. (I)
To prove p(k + 1) is true.
i.e., to prove 24(k+ I)+ 3(k+ 1)-1 is divisible by 9 is true.
Now
24(k+I) + 3(k+ 1)-1=24k · 24 + 3k + 3-1
= 16(9x-3k+ 1)+3k+2 [using (1))
= 144x-45k+18
= 9(16x-5k+2),
where 16x - Sk + 2 is an integer.
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.13

24(k + 1) + 3(k + 1)-1 is divisible by 9 is true

p(k+ 1) is true.
fhusp(k) is true ee p(k+l) is true.
Hence by I principle ofinductionp(n) is true V n ~ 0.

EXAMPLE 9
If the sum of the cubes of threeconsecutive integers is a cube k3 prove that 31 k,

Solutlon.
Let n, n + 1, n + 2 be the three consecutive integers.
Given n3 + (n + 1)3 + (n + 2)3 is a cube k3

n3 + n3 + 3n2 + 3n + 1 + n3 + 3n2 · 2 + 3n · 22 + 23 = k3
3n3 +9n2 +15n+9 = k3

3(n3 +3n2 + 5n+3) = k3

3lk3 =}3lk·k·k
Since 3 is a prime, 31 k.

EXAMPLE 10
Show that n3 + (n + 1)3+(n+1)3 + (n + 2)3 = (n + 3)3 has a unique solution.

Solutlon.
Given n3 + (n + 1)3 + (n + 2)3 = (n + 3)3 (1)
Since L.H.S is the sum of cubes of three consecutive integers, by example 11, 3ln+ 3
Since 31n +3 and 313, we get 3ln + 3-3 :::::} 3ln
n = 3m, where m is an integer

:. (1) => (3m)3+(3m+1)3 + (3m + 2)3 = (3m + 3)3

=> 27m3 +(3m)3 +3·(3m)2 ·1+3(3m)+1
+ (3m)3 + 3 ·(3m)2 · 2+ 3(3m) · 22 + 23
= (3m)3 +3(3m)2 ·3+3(3m)·32 +33

=> 27m3 + 27m3 + 27m2+9m+1

+ 27m3 +54m2 +36m+8 = 27m3 +81m2+8lm+ 27
3 .
Simplifying, we get 54m - 36 m - 18 =0
3m3 -2m-1=0
(m-1)(3m2+3m+1) = 0
m-1=0 (·:3m2+3m+l=F-0)
3.14 • Algebra and Number Theory

because 3m2 + 3m + 1 = 0 has no real roots

m= 1 =>n=3.
So, the solution of equation (1) is unique.

3.3 BASE - b REPRESENTATIONS

We are familiar with the use of decimal notation, base 10, to express any integer or real number.
We use it every day.
For example,
352 = 3(102) + 5(10) + 2(10°)

= 3(102) + 5(10) + 2.1

This is called the decimal expansion of 352.

And 35.23 = 3(101) + 5 (100) + 2 (10-1) + 3(10-2)

But computers usually use binary notation, base 2, when carrying out arithmetic operations. Very
long binary numbers are often handled by using octal (base 8) or hexadecimal (base 16) notations.
Similarly these bases are used for expressing characters such as letters or digits.
In fact, any integer ~2 can be used as a valid base for representing integers.
We now state a fundamental result without proof.

Theorem3.4 Let b be an integer ~ 2. If n is a positive integer, then it can be uniquely expressed

in the form n + ak bk+ ak-l bk-l + ... + a1 b + a0, where a0, al' ... , ak are non negative integers less
than band ak-:¢:. 0.
This theorem enables us to define the following representation.

Definition 3.3 If n is a positive integer and b ~ 2 and

(1)

where a0, a 1' ... , ak are non negative integers then the expression in ( 1) is called the base b expansion
of the integer n.
We then write n = (ak ak-l ... a1a0)b.
For example,
(345)10= 3(102) + 4 (10) + 5 (100)

(345)g = 3(82) + 4(8) + 5 = 165

3.3.1 Binary Expansions
When base is 2, then the expansion is called the binary expansion when b = 2, each coefficient i1
0 or 1 The digits 0 and 1 are called binary digits or bits. So, the binary expansion of an integei
~s just a bit string. Binary expansions are used by computers to represent and do arithmetic witl
integers. ·
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.15

Note
1. The number system with base 10 is called the decimal system because the latin word decem
means 10.
The decimal system uses the 10 digits 0, 1, 2, 3, ... , 9.
2. If the base b > 10, we use the letters A, B, C, ... to represent the digits 10, 11, 12, ... respectively
in decimal notation.

3.3.2 Hexadecimal Expansion

Another base used in computer science is 16. The base 16 expansion of an integer is called its
hexadecimal expansion. Hexadecimal expansion uses the sixteen digits 0, 1, 2, ... 9,A, B, C, D, E andR
Where the letters A to F represent the digits 10 to 15 respectively (in decimal notation).

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
Express (101011111)2 in base 10.

Solutlon.
(101011111)2= 1(28) + 0(27)+1(26) + 0(25) + 1(24) + 1(23) + 1(22)+ 1(2) + 1(2°)
= 256+64+ 16+8+4+2+ 1
= 351

EXAMPLE 2
Express (3 ABOE)i6 in base ten.

Solutlon.
We know A= 10, B = 11, E = 14
(3ABOE)16 = 3(164) + A(l63)+ B(l62)+ 0(16)+ E(16°)
= 3(164) + 10(163) + 11(16)2+14
= 196608+40960+ 2816+ 14
= 240398
EXAMPLE 3
Express (3 ABC)u; in base 10.

Solutlon.
We know A= 10, B = 11, C = 12

(3ABC)16 = 3(163) + A(l 62) + B(l 6) + C

=3(163)+ 10(16)2+11(16)+12
= 12,288+ 2560+176+12
= 15036
3.16 • Algebra and Number Theory

3.3.3 Base Conversion Algorithm - Decimal to Base b

We shall now consider the converse problem of writing a decimal integer n into base b integer.
First divide n by b and obtain the quotient and remainder.
i.e., n = q0(b) + r0, 0 s r0 < b.
Next we divide q0 by b
i.e., qo=q1 b+r., 0 ~r1 < b
Next divide e, by b,
i.e., qi =q2 b+r2, O~r2 <b

Proceed in this way until we get zero quotient.

Then the remainders in the reverse order gives the b representation of n.

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 4
Express 1076 in the binary system.

Solution.
1076 538 (2) + ~-0~
I I 538 269 134 67
538 269 (2) +:o:
I I 2~ 2V38 2) 269 2~
269 = 134 (2) +: 1 : 10 4 2 12
134 = 67 (2)
I
+ O•
I -- -- --
I 7 13 6 14
67 33 (2) + l: I 6 12 6 14
+ 1:
33 = 16 (2)
16 = 8 (2)
8 = 4 (2)
+ O•
+ o:
I

I r 16
16
--
18
18
9
8
0

I 0 0
4 = 2(2) + o:
2 = 1 (2) + o: I
33 16
1 = 0 (2) + 1 :
2~ 2F
6
--2
7 13
6 12
-
1

1076 = (10000110100)2
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.17

:XAMPLE 5
ix.press 12345 in the octal system.

;olutlon.
We have to write the decimal integer into base 8 system.

12345 = 1543 (8) + : l : 1543 192 24 3

1543 = 192 (8) ++ 17:: 0: r
I I
8) 12345 ·
8
8JT543
8
8~ 8F
192 = 24 (8) I I -- -- 16 24
24 = 3 (8) + :I o: I 43 74 32 0
3 = 0 (8) + : 3: 40 72 32
-- -- --
34 23 0
32 16
--
25 7
24
1

12345 = (3007l)g

EXAMPLE 6.
Express 1776 in the octal system.

Solution.
r--.,
1776 = 222 (8)
+:o:I 222 27 3
222
27
=
=
27 (8) +:6:
3 (8)
I

+:3:
I 8~
16
s?2
16
8~
I I
-24
3 = 0 (8) +: 3: 17 62 3
16 56
--
16 6
16
0

1776 = (3360)g
3.18 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 7
Express 3014 in base 8.

Solution.

3014 376 (8) 376 47 5

376 47 (8)
8~ 8~ 8~
47 5 (8) 24 32 80
5 0 (8)
--
61 56 7
56 56
54 0
48
6

3014 = (5706)g

EXAMPLE 8
Represent 15036 in hexadecimal system.

Solution.
We write

r--,
153036 = 939 (16) + : 12: ~ c 939 58 3
939 = 58 (16) + iI 111 I = B 16) 15036 16F 16~
58
3
=
=
3 (16)
0 (16)
+ :10:
I

+ :3 :
I
=A
1 144
63
80
139
48
10
48 128
156 11
144
12

153036 = (3 ABC)16
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions •
3.9
1

EXAMPLE 9
f;xpress 177130 in hexadecimal system.

Solution.
We write

177130 = 11070 (16) +: 10 l= A 11070 691 43 2

11070 = 691 (16) + :I 14 := E

I
I 16) 177130 16) 11070 16~ 16~
691 = 43 (16) + : 3 :
I I
16 96 64 32
43 = 2 (16) +:11:=B 17 147 51 11
2 = 0 (16) + : 2 : 16 144 48
-- -
113 30 3
112 16
--
10 14

. 177130 = (2 B3EA)16
We have seen how to convert decimal system to base-b system and base-b system to decimal system.
We shall now find the method of changing a binary number to octal or hexadecimal system.

3.3.4 Base Conversion from Binary to Octal

To convert a binary system number to octal system, we group the binary digits into blocks of three
bits from right to left and adding if necessary initial zero at the left most block and replace each group
with the corresponding octal digit.

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Convert the binary number (11110011)2 into octal digit.

Solution.
Given 11 110 011
We group the digits in blocks of three digits from right to left.
Here the blocks are 011, 110, 011 (adding 0 to the left most block to get 3 digits).

Now 011=0(22)+1(2)+1=3

110=1(22)+1(2)+0 = 6

and 011=0(22)+ 1(2) + 1=3

(1111001 l)i = (363)8
3.20 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 2
Write 111010two as an octal integer.

Solution.
Given (11 lOlO)two
We rewrite 111010 = 111, 010

Now 111 = 1(22) + 1(2) + 1 = 7

and 010 = 0(22)+1(2)+0 =2
(11 lOlO)z = (72)g

EXAMPLE 3
Convert (11100101)2 to octal digit.

Solution.
Given the binary number 11100101
We group into blocks of three bits from right to left.
The blocks are 011, 100, lOI by adding 0 to the left most block.

Now OI I= 0(22)+ I(2)+ I= 3

100 = I(22)+0(2)+0 =4
and lOI = I(22)+0(2)+1= 5
(11 lOOIOI)z = (345)8

3.3.5 Base Conversion from Binary to Hexadecimal

We group the binary digits into block of four bits from right to left, adding if necessary initial zero at
the left most block to get a block of four bits. Replace each block by a hexadecimal number.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
Write (11111010111100)2 as a hexadecimal digit.

Solution.
Given (l I l I IOI lOI I I lOO)z

We rewrite I I 1110 1011 I 100 as 001 I, 1110, lOI l, llOO

Now

0011=0(23)+ 0(22)+ I(2)+ I= 3

I I IO= I(23)+ I(22)+ I(2)+0 = 8+4+2 = I4(= E)

 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.21

1011=1(23)+0(22)+1(2)+1=8+2+1=11(= B)
· 1100=1(23)+1(22)+0(2)+0= 8+4= 12(=C)
(11l11010111100)i = (3EBC)t6

EXAMPLE 2
Write (1110101)2 as a hexadecimal number.

Solution.
Given (1110101)2
We rewrite 111, 0101=0111, 0101
Now 0111=0(23)+1(22)+ 1(2)+ 1 =7
and 0101=0(23) +1(22) + 1(2) + 1=5
(1110101)i = (75)16

EXAMPLE 3
Write (11110011)2 as a hexadecimal number.

Solution.
Given (1110011)2
We rewrite 11110011 =1111,0011
Now 1111 = 1(23) + 1(22) + 1(2) + 1 = 15 (= F)

0011=0(23) + 0(22) + 1(2) + 1 =3

(1111001 l)i = (F3)16

EXAMPLE 4
Rewrite 23716 as a binary digit.

Solution.
Given (237)16
So each digit we have to rewrite as blocks of four bits.
:. we write 2 = 0(23) + 0(22) + 1(2) + 0(1) = 0010
3 = 0(23) + 0(22) + 1(2) + 1(1) = 0011
and 7 = 0(23) + 0(22) + 1(2) + 1(1) = 0111
(237)16 = (0010 0011 01 ll)i
= (1000110111)2
3.22 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 5
Rewrite (36)16 as a binary number.

Solution.
Given (36)16
We rewrite each digit as a block of four bits.

:. we write 3 = 0(23) + 0(22) + 1(2) +I= 0011

and 6 = 0(23) + 1(22) + 1(2) + 0 = 0110

(36)16= (001101 lO)z

= (110110)z

EXAMPLE 6
Write (3 AD)16 as a binary number.

Solution.
Given (3AD)16
We rewrite each digits as block of four bits.

:. we write 3 = 0(23) + 0(22) + 1(2) + 1=0011

A= 10 = 1 (23) + 0(22) + 1(2) + 0 = 1010

D = 13 = 1 (23) + 1(22) + 0(2) + 1 = 1101

(3 AD)16 = (00111010110l)z

=(1110101101)z

EXAMPLE 7
Rewrite (345)8 as a binary number.

Solution.
Given (345)8
We write each digits as block of three bits.
:. we write 3=1(22)+ 1(2)+ 1 =011

4 = 1(22) + 0(2) + 0 = 100

and 5 = 1(22) + 0(2) + 1 = 101
(345)8 = (011100101)2

;;,,, (11100101)2
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.23

EXAMPLE 8
Convert (237)8 as a binary number.

Solution.
Given (237)8
We rewrite each digit as blocks of three bits.

:. we write 2 = 0(22) + 1(2) + 0 = 010

3 = 0(22) + 1 (2) + 1 = 011

and 7 = 1 (22) + 1 (2) + 1 = 111

(237)g = (010011111)2

= (1001111 l)i

EXAMPLE 9
Arrange the binary numbers 1011, 110, 11011, 10110 and 101010 in increasing order of
magnitude.

Solution.
Given 1011, 110, llOll, 10110.
We will convert these binary numbers into decimal numbers for comparison.

:. we write 1011=1(23)+0(22)+ 1(2)+ 1=11

110= 1(22)+ 1(2)+0=6

11011 = 1(24) + 1(23) + 0(22) + 1(2) + 1 = 27

10110 = 1(24) + 0(23) + 1(22) + 1(2) + 0 = 22

and 101010 = 1(25) + 0(24) + 1(23) + 0(22) + 1(2) + 0 = 42

:. the binary numbers in increasing orderare 110, 1011, lOllO, 101010.

. EXAMPLE 10
Find the number of ones in the binary representation of 24 -1.

Solution.
Given 24-1
Now we write 24-1=15= 1(23)+ 1(22)+ 1(2)+ 1

= 1111

So, the numbers of ones is 4.

Note· More generally, the number of ones in the binary form of 2n -1 is n,

3.24 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 11
Find the value of the base b if lOOlb = 9.

Solution.
Given lOOlb = 9
Since the digits are binary, we expect b = 2.
We shall now workout
Now lOOlb= 9

=> l(b3) + O(b2) + O(b) + 1 = 9

=> b3 + 1 = 9 => b3 =8 = 23 => b = 2

EXAMPLE 12
If 144b = 49, find the base b.
Solutlon.
Given (144)b = 49
l(b2) + 4(b) + 4 = 49
b2 +4b-45 =0

=> (b + 9)(b - 5) = 0
Since base b is ~ 2, b+9:t=O.

b-5=0 => b=5

EXERCISE 3.1
I. Find the number of positive integers ~ 3076 that are divisible by 17.
2. Find the number of positive integers s 3076 that are divisible by 19.
3. Find the number of positive integers s 3076 that are not divisible by 17.
4. Find the number of positive integers from 1976 to 3776 that are divisible by 15.
5. Find the number of positive integers from 1 to 250 that are divisible by 2, 3, 5.
6. Express 3014 in base eight. 7. Express 15036 in the hexadecimal system.
8. Write 6137 in the octal system. 9. Write (Al3F)16 in the binary system.
10. Write 527 in binary system. 11. Write 527 in hexadecimal system.
12. Write (1010111)2 in hexadecimal system.

ANSWERS TO EXERCISE 3.1

1. 11802
2. 161 3. 2896
4. 120 5. 66 6. (5706)g
7. (3ABC)16 8. (13771)8 9. (1010000100111111)2
10. (10000001111)2 11. (20F)16 12. (57)16
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.25

3.4 NUMBER PATTERNS

In drawing scientific conclusions, there are two fundamental processes of reasoning that are commonly
used.
One is the process of deduction, which is the process of reasoning from general to particular.
The other process of reasoning is the process of induction, which is the process of reasoning
from particular to general. This process may lead to true or false conclusion. To succeed in the art
of inductive reasoning one must be good at studying pattern, Observing particular cases or pattern
a general statement is usually made. Such a statement is called a conjecture or educated guess.
A conjecture remains a conjecture until it is proved or disproved.
Inductive reasoning ends with the conjecture. Then the difficult task of proving it begains, one of
the methods of proof is by mathematical induction.
We now consider some of the famous conjectures.
1. The great French mathematician Fermat (1601-1605) observed

221 + 1 = 5, a prime
2
22 + l = 17, a prime
3
22 +1=257, a prime

On the basis of these particular cases Fermat conjectured that 2.2" + 1 is a prime for any positive
integer n and he challenged the mathematicians of his days to disprove it.
After nearly 100 years, the great Swiss mathematician Euler (1707-1783) showed that 225 + 1 =
4294967297 is not a prime because it is divisible by 641. Thus the conjecture is disproved .
2. The great German mathematician G.W. Leibnitz ( 1646-1716) noticed that for any positive integer n. ·
n3 - n is divisible by 3
n5 - n is divisible by 5
n 7 - n is divisible by 7
Observing this pattern, he was on the verge of conjecturing that for any odd integer r, nr -n is
divisible by r.
But soon he noticed that 29 - 2 = 510 is not divisible by 9.
This counter example disproved the conjecture.
3. The Prussian mathematician Christian Goldback (1690-1764) observed
4=2+2
6=3+3
8=3+5
10=3+7
12 = 5 + 7, ...
These even integers are expressed as a sum of two primes.
On the basis these particular cases he conjectured that every even integer greater than 2 is a sum
of two primes.
In 2006, with the help of computers it is verified for all even integers upto 2.107.
But till today it continues to remain as a conjecture.
From these examples, we find that inductive reasoning need not lead to correct conclusion.
3.26 • · Algebra and Number Theory

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE1
From the pattern.
1.9+2=11
12.9+ 3=111
123.9+4=1111
1234.9+ 5=11111

Write down the nth row and prove the validity of the number pattern.

Solutlon.
From the given pattern we find the nth row is 1· 2·3·4·5 ... n·9+(n+ 1) = ~
n+lones

L.H.S = 1·2·3·4 ... n- 9+(n+l)

= 9[1(10n-t) + 2(10n-2) + + (n-1) · 10+ n · 1 ]+ (n + 1)

;(10-l)[lOn-l +2·10n-2 +(n-l)·lO+n]+(n+l)

= lOn .f.z.10n-l +3·10n-2 + ... +(n-1)·102 +n·lO
-(10n-l +2·10n-2 + ... +(n-l)·lO+n)+(n+l)

= lOn +10n-l + 1on-2+ +10-n+n + 1

=lOn +10n-l +lon-2 + +10+1
= 111 ... 1 =R.H.S (using place value)
'--v--'
(n+I) ones

EXAMPLE2
Using the number pattern
12-02=1
22-12=13
32-22 =5
42 -32 = 7

Make a conjecture about row n and prove the conjecture.

Solution.
From the· given number pattern, we find the nth row is
n2-(n-1)2=2n-1.
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.27

:. the conjecture is
n2-(n - 1)2 = 2n - 1Vn'2::.0
L.H.S = n2 -(n-1)2
= n2 -(n2-2n+l) = 2n-1 = R.H.S
EXAMPLE 3
Given the pattern
9·9+7=88
98·9+6=888
987. 9 + 5 = 8888

Find the formulafor the nth row and prove it.

Solution.
Observing the pattern, we find the nth tow is

987... (10-n) · 9+(8-n) = ~· 1~ n ~ 8

(n+l) eight

L.H.S = 987... (10-n)·9+(8-n)

= 9·[9·10n-l +8·l0n-2 +7·10n-3 + ... +(11-n)·IO
+(10-n)· 1]+ (8-n)

= (10-1)[9·10n-l +8·10n-2 +7·10n-3 + ... +(11-n)·IO

+(10-n)· 1]+(8-n)]

= 9·10n +8·10n-l +7·10n-2 + ... +(11-n)·l02 +(10-n)·lO

-(9· lOn-l +8· lOn-2 + ... + (11-n) · 10 + (10- n)+(8-n)

= 9 · lOn -(lon-I + 1on-2+ +10)-(10-n) +8- n

= ioio- -(lOn +ion-I + +10+1)-1

= 10n+I -(lOn+I -1)-1

10-1

= l on+ 1 -( 1 On: - l )- l

= i-[9· lOn+I -lOn+I + 1-9]

3.28 • Algebra and Number Theory

= i[ J
8 · lOn+I - 8 = % [10n+l -1 J
R.H.S = 888... 8
'---v--'
(n+I) eights
= 8 · lOn + 8 · lOn-l + 8 · lOn-l + ... + 8·10 + 8

= 8[ 10n + 10n-l + ... + 10+1 J

= s( 1~~+~~1) = %(10n+I -1)
L.H.S = R.H.S

EXAMPLE 4
Observing the patternof numberswrite down the formulafor the nth row and prove it.
1·8+1=9
12·8+2 = 98
123. 8 + 3 = 987
1234· 8+ 4 = 9876

Solution.
From the given number pattern, we find the nth row is

1 2 3 ... n x 8 + n =9 8 7 (10 - n ), 1::;; n s: 9

L.H.S = 12 3 n·8+n
= 8[10n-l +2·10n-l +3·10n-3 + ... +(n-l)lO+n·l]+n

Let S = 10n-l + 2· lOn-2 + 3.10n-3 + ... +(n-1)· lO+n· 1] (1)

S = n- 1+(n-1)·10+ ... +3· lOn-3+2·10n-2+1on-l

It is an arithmetic geometric series with the common ratio of the G.P part is 10.
Multiplying (1) by 10. We get
lOS= n·lO+(n-1)102 + ... +2·10n-l +Ion (2)
(1) - (2)
9S = n-(10+102 + ... +Ion-I +10n)

lOn -1) = n-- 10 ( 10 n -1 )

= n-10· --
( 10-1 9

10(
S =8110 n
-1 ) -9n
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.29

L.H.S = 8[~~ (10n -1)-% ]+n

80 n 8n 80 ( n ) n
= 81(10 -1)-g-+n = 8110 -1 +9

R.H.S = 9876 ... (10-n) [no. of factors= 9-(10-n) + 1 = n]

= 9.10n-J +8·10n-2 + 7.10n-3+ ... +(11-n)·l1+(10-n)·l

Let
S = (10-n)l +(11-n) · 10+ '." + 8 .10n-2 + 9.10n-l (1)
This is an arithmetic geometric series with the common ratio of the G.P. part is 10.
Multiplying by 10, we get

lOS = (10-n)lO + (l 1-n)102 + ... + 8· lOn-l + 9· lOn (2)

(1)- (2)

-9S = (10-n)+ (10+102 + + lOn-l)-9. lQn

= (10-n)+ (10+102 + +10n-l + lOn)-10 · lOn

= (10-n)+ 10(10n -l)-10n+l

10-1

10 on -1)-10 n+I
=10-n+g-(1

= l0-n+.!.(10n+l _10-9·10n+I)
9

= i-[90-9n-10-8 · lOn+I J
=i-[80-80·10n-9n]

80 n
= 90-10 )-n

s = -80 (1-1 on ) + !:
81 9
80
R.H.S =
. 81
(10n. -1) + !:9
Hence L.H.S = R.H.S.
3.30 • Algebra and Number Theory

3.5 PRIME AND COMPOSITE NUMBERS

An important concept based on divisibility is the concept of a prime number. Prime numbers are the
building blocks of integers as the fundamental theorem of arithmetic shows. It states that every integer
greater than 1 can be written uniquely as the product of prime numbers. Prime numbers have become
essential in modem cryptography.

Definition3.4 A positive integer p > 1 is called a prime if its only positive factors are 1 and p.
If p > 1 is not a prime, then it is called a composite number (or simply composite).
It is obvious, the integer n is composite if and only if there exists an integer a such that a I n
and 1 <a « n.
For example, 5 is prime because its only positive factors are 1 and 5.
But 6 is a composite number because it has 2 and 3 as factors.
Note that by definition the integer 1 is neither a prime nor a composite number.
1 is just the multiplicative identity or unit.

Theorem3.5 Every integer n ~ 2 has a prime factor.

Proof We prove the theorem by strong principle of induction on n.

If n = 2, then the statement is true. Since 2 is a prime and 2 is a factor of 2.
Assume the statement is true for all integers upto k, k > 2.
To prove it a true for k + 1.
If k + 1 is a prime, then k + 1 is a prime factor of k + 1.
If k + 1 is not a prime, then k + 1 must be a composite number.
So, it must have a factor d, where d s; k. Then by the induction hypothesis, d has a prime factor p.
Since p I d and d I k + 1, we have p I k + 1. Sop is a factor of k + 1.
Hence by second principle of induction the statement is true for every integer > 1.
i.e., every integer ;;::: 2 has a prime factor. •
Prime numbers were studied in ancient times for philosophical reasons. Today prime numbers
are studied for practical use, especially in cryptography. The famous mathematician Euclid, in 3rd
centaury BC, proved that there are infinitely many primes.

Theorem3.6 Euclid [AU 2013, 2017)

There are infinitely many primes.

Proof We prove by contradiction niethod.

Assume that there are only n primes p 1' P» , p n' where n is finite.
Now consider the integer m = p1 · P: · p3, ,pn + 1
Since m > 1, byTheorem 3.5, m has a prime factor p.
But none of the primes p 1, P» ... , p n divide m
For, if Pi I m and since Pi I Pt · P2 · ... 'Pt · · · · · Pn
We get P; I m - p1p2 ••• Pn => P; I 1, which is not true and hence a contradiction
p;fm
So, we have a prime p which is not in the list of n primes.
Thus we haven+ 1 primes p1,P2····•Pn,P·
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.31

Which contradicts the assumption there are only n primes.

So, our assumption of finiteness is wrong.
Hence the number of primes is infinite. . •
A natural question now arises is that given an integer ~ 2, can we say it is prime or not?
The next theorem enables us to answer this question.

Theorem 3.7 Every composite number n has a prime factor s [.Jn].

Proof Given n is a composite number.
Then there exist positive integers a and b such that n = ab, where 1 < a < n, 1 < b < n.
We will now prove a s J;,, or b s J;,, .
Suppose a > J;,, and b > J;,,
Then a· b > J;,, · J;,, = n => n > n, which is impossible.
either a :s:; J;,, or b s J;,,
=> a s[ J;,,] or b S [ J;,,] ( ·: a, b are integers)
We know [by Theorem 3.5] that every positive integer z 2 has a prime factor.
Any such factor of a orb is also a factor of ax b n. =
So, n must have a prime factor S [ J;,,] •
Note From this theorem it follows that if n has no prime factor S [ J;,,] , then n is a prime
(contrapositive statementjr-e q ~ 1q--+ 7p)

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
Show that 101 is a prime.

Solutlon.
Given number is 101.
First we find all primes :5 [ /101] = 10. The primes are 2, 3, 5, 7.
Since none of these is a factor of 101, (by the above note), we get 101 is a prime.

EXAMPLE 2
Determine whether 1601 is a prime.

Solution.
Given number is 1601.
J
First we find all primes :5 [ .J160l = 40.
The primes are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31and37.
We can verify that none of them is a factor of 1601.
Hence 1601 is a prime.
3.32 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 3
Determine 1001 is a prime.

Solution.
Given number is I 00 I. To prove it is a prime.

First we find all primes s [.JI 00 I J = 31 .

The primes are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 19, 23, 29, 31.
We find 7 j 1001. Hence I 00 I is not a prime.

EXAMPLE 4
Find the smallest prime factor of 119.

Solution.
Given number is 119.
We have to find the smallest prime factor of 119.

First we find all primes ::;; [ .Ji19] = I 0 .

The primes are 2, 3, 5, 7.
We find 7I119.
So, the smallest prime dividing 119 is 7.

Definition 3.5 Let x be a positive real number. Then 1t(x) denote the number of primes ::;; x.
For example n-(10) =4 (·: 2,3,5, 7 are the primes s 10)
n-(18.75) =7 (·: 2,3,5, 7,11,13,17 are the primes s 18.75)
If n is a positive integer, then by using inclusion-exclusion principle we state a formula for 1t(n),
the number of primes ::;; n.

Theorem 3.8 Letpl'p2, ... .», be the prtmes s [ -Fn]. Then the number of prlmes S n is ni_n) and

n-(n)=n-l+n-(-Fn)-I,[!!._]+
; P;
L,[-n ]- L [ n ]
i«] PiPj ic j-ck P;PjPk

+.•. +(-1) r [ n
P1P2···Pr
J
EXAMPLE 5
Find the number of primes s; 47 using Theorem 3.8.

Solution.
We have to find the number of primes ::;; 4 7.
Here n:: 47, then Fn = .J47 = 6.8.
The primes s ( .J47) are 2, 3, s.
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.33

n(J47) == 3.
We know

== 46+3-(23+15+9)+(7+4+3)-1
== 49 - 47+14 -1
== 15
EXAMPLE 6
Using the formula for n(_n) find the numberof primess; 100.

Solution.
We have to find the number of primes s 100. Here n == 100, and J;; ==Mo== 10.
The primes s 10 are 2, 3, 5, 7.

n(v'iOO) == 4.
We know n( n) == n -1 + n ( J;;)- L [!!_]
P;
+ L [~]- L [ n
PiPj P;PjPk
] + ...

n(lOO) == lOO- l + 4-([1~0] + [1~0] + [l~O] + [1~0 ])

+([100] + [100] + [ 100] + [100] + [100] + [100])

2·3 2·5 2·7 3·5 3.7 5.7

100 ] [ 100 ] [ 100 ] [ 100 ]) [ 100 ]

- ([ 2·3·5 + 2·5·7 + 2·3·7 + 3.5.7 - 2·3·5·7

== 103-(50 + 33+20+14) + (16+10 + 7 + 6+4+2)-(3+1+2+ 0)-0

== 25
the number of primes s; 100 is 25.
Though the formula for 1t( n) gives the exact value of the number of primes, when n is large it is
practically impossible to find the value of n(n).
The prime number theorem is one of the important results in numbertheory, which gives an
approximate value of n(n ), when n is large.
3.34 • Algebra and Number Theory

The~rem 3.9 Prime number theorem

Ifx>O, then
x~~c:x)
Jim n-(x) = 1

This means as x becomes very large n(x) approaches

x
lnx
* It is known that 2,3 are the only consecutive integers that are primes.
Also it is known that 3, 5, 7 are the only three consecutive odd integers that are primes.
However, there are many consecutive integers that are composite members. This is given by the
next theorem.

Theorem 3.10 For every positive integer n, there are n consecutive integers that are composite
numbers.

Proof Let n be a positive integer and n ; : : I .

To prove the existence, we have to construct suitably.
Consider the n consecutive integers
(n+ l)! + 2, (n+ 1)! +3, (n + l)! +4, ... , (n+ 1)! +(n+ 1)
where n;;:::: 1.
Suppose k is an integer such that 2 ::;; k::;; n + 1, then k is a factor of (n + 1 )!
[·: (n + 1) ! = 1 · 2 · 3 ... k ... (n + 1))
Nowkl(n+ 1)! andkjk => kl(n+ 1)! +kforeveryk.
:. (n +. l)! + k is a composite number fork= 2, 3, ... , (n + 1).
Thus the n consecutive composite numbers are
(n + l)! + 2, (n + l)! + 3, (n + 1)! + 4, ... , (n + l)! + (n + 1)
•
WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Find five consecutive composite numbers. (AU 2013)

Solutlon.
Here n= 5.
We know the 5 consecutive composite integers are
(n + 1)! + 2,(n + 1)! + 3,(n + 1)! + 4,(n + l)! + 5,(n + l)! + 6
Putn = 5,

(n+l)! +2 = 6! +2 = 720+2 = 722

(n+l)! +3 = 6!+3 = 720+3 = 723
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.35

( n + 1) ! + 4 = 6 ! + 4 = 720 + 4 = 724

( n + 1) ! + 5 = 6 ! + 5 = 720 + 5 = 725

( n + 1) ! + 6 = 6 ! + 6 = 720 + 6 = 726

: . the five consecutive composite numbers are

722, 723, 724, 725, 726.

EXAMPLE 2
Obtain six consecutive integers that are composite numbers'. [AU 2017]

Solution.
Here n = 6.
Then the six consecutive composite numbers are
(n+ l)! + 2, (n+ 1)! +3, (n+ l)! +4, (n+ l)! +5, (n+ l)! +6, (n+l)! +7

Put n = 6
(n+l)! +2 = 7! +2 = 5040+2 = 5042

(n+l)! +3 = 7! +3 = 5040+3 = 5043

(n+ 1)!+4 = 7! +4 = 5040+4 = 5044

(n+l)! +5 = 7! +5 = 5040+5 = 5045

(n+ 1)! +6 = 7! +6 = 5040+6 =5046

(n+ 1)! +7 = 7! +7 = 5040+ 7 = 5047
:. The six consecutive composite numbers are
5042, 5043, 5044, 5045, 5046 and 50474.

EXAMPLE 3
Find five consecutive integers < 100 that are composite numbers.

Solution.
Since 5! = 120 > 100
We consider
4!, 4! +1, 4! +2, 4! + 3, 4! +4,
=> 24, 25, 26, 27, 28 are 5 consecutive composite numbers c 100.
.> • .>u • Aigeora ana rsurnoer 1 neory

3.6 GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR (GCD) AND

FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ARITHMETIC
The divisibility concepts are used for finding common factor of two or more positive integers. In this
section, we are interested in finding greatest common divisor.

Definition 3.6 The greatest common divisor (gcd) of two integers a and b, not both zero, is the largest
positive integer that divides both a and b.
It is denoted by gcd (a, b) or (a, b).
For example
(12, 18) = 6, (-15, 20) = 5
(3, 6) = 3, (-3, 6) = 3, (5, 0) = 5
and (12, 23) = 1.
One way to find gcd of two integers is to find all positive common divisions and then take the largest
common divisor.
For example, the common factors of24 and 36 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 12, of which the largest is 12.
gcd (24, 36) = 12

Note Since gcd (a, -b) = gcd (-a, b) = gcd (-a, -b) = gcd (a, b),
we confine our discussion of gcd to positive integers.
Now we give the symbolic definition of gcd.

Definition 3. 7 A positive integer dis the gcd of integers a and b if

(i) dlaanddlb.
(ii) If c I a and c I b, then c Id, where c is a positive integer.

Theorem3.11 The gcd of two positive integers a and bis a linear combination of a and b.
i.e., if d =(a, b), then d =la+ mb for some integers I and m. [AU 2013)

Proof Let S={xa+yblxa+yb>O,x,yeZ}.

Since a> 0, then a= la+ Ob E S
So, Sis non-empty set of positive integers.
Hence by well ordering principle S has a least positive integer d.
:. d = la + mb for some integers land m.
We shall now prove d = gcd (a, b).
Since d > 0, by division algorithm to a and d we can find integers q and r such that
a =qd+ r, 0 ~ r « d.

==> r=a-qd

=a - q (la+ mb) = (1-ql)a + (-qm)b

This shows that r is a linear combination of a and b.
If r :;t: 0, then r > 0 and so r E S. Further r < d.
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.37

Hence we get a contradiction to the fact d is the least element of S.

r=O. So, a =qd dla
Similarly we can proved I b.
Thus dis a common divisor of a and b.
If cla andelb then cl/a +mb ~ cld.
Hence a is gcd of'c and e ~ d=(a,b)

Definition 3.8 Two positive integers a and b are relatively prime if their gcd is 1 ie (a, b) = 1.
•
For example the gcd (6, 25) =I and so 6 and 25 are relatively prime.

Corollary 1 Two positive integers a and b are relatively prime if and only if there exist integers
a and f3 such that aa + f3b = 1.
Proof If a and b are relatively prime, then (a, b) = 1.
Then, by Theorem 3.11, there exist integers a and f3 such that aa + f3b = 1.
Conversely, let aa + f3b = 1.
To prove (a, b) = 1.
If d= (a, b), then dla anddlb
~ dlaa+f3b ~ dll
d=l (asd>O)

Corollary 2
(a, b) = 1 ~a and bare relatively prime.

If ale and bl'1 and (a, b) = 1, then prove that able.

•
Proof Given ale and ble.
:. e =ma and e = nb for some integers m, n.
Also given (a, b) = 1 ~ aa + /3b =I for some integers a and f3 (by cor. 1)
aae+ f3bc = e
aa (nb) + /3b(ma) = e
(an+ f3m)ab = e
able
Note that al be does.not mean alb or ale
For example, 6124 ~ 613 · 8.
Butthis does not mean that 613 or 6 I 8.
•
Corollary 3 If a and b are relatively prime and if a I be, then a I c.

Proof Given (a, b) = 1 ~ aa + f3b = 1 for some integers a, /3.

Since a I aac and a I be, we get a I aac + f3be
~ a I (aa + /3b)e .
all·e~ale
•
3.38 • Algebra and Number Theory

Theorem 3.12 Euclid's lemma

Ifp is a prime andp I ab thenp I a or p I b.

Proof Given pis a prime and p I ab.

If p I a there is nothing to prove.
If pf a, then we have to prove p I b.
Since pis a prime and pf a, then (p, a)= 1
ap+f3a=l for some integers a and /3.
Multiply by b, then apb + f3ab = b
Since p I ab andp !pb we have p I apb + f3ab ::::} p I b(ap + f3a)
::::} plb·l::::}plb
•
Corollary 1 If p is a prime and p I a1 · a2 · a3 ••• an,
where a1, a2, a3, ••• , an are positive integers, then p I a; for some i, 1 :S: i :S: n,

Proof We prove by first principle of induction

Letp(n) denote the statementp I a1 · a2 · a3 · ... ·an,::::} p I ai for some ai
Ifn=l,p(l)ispla1 ::::} pla; whichistrue. :. p(l)istrue
Assume p(k) is true for an arbitrary k > 1.
i.e., p I al . a2 ..... ak ::::} p I ai for some i, I :5 i s k.
To prove p(k + 1) is true.
i.e., to prove p I a1 a2 ... ak ak+ 1 ::::} p I ai for some a1 is true
Consider P I (al° a2 .. · ak) ak+ 1
Then p I a1 • a2 ... ak or p I ak+ 1' by Euclid's lemma.
Ifp I a1 · a2 · ... ak then by induction hypothesis
p I a; for some a;, 1 s i s k.
Thus p I a1, 1 s i s k or p I ak+ 1
Hence p I a;, 1$.i$.k+1 ::::} p(k+ 1) is true.
Thus p(k) is true ::::} p(k+ 1) is true.
Hence by first principle of induction p(n) is true for all n <::: 1.
We can extend the definition of gcd to more than two positive integers.
•
Definition 3.9 The gcd of n positive integers al' a2, ... , an is the largest positive integer d that
divide each ai, where n ;: : : 2.
We denote the gcd as d = (ap a2, ... , an).
. We remarked earlier that the prime numbers are building blocks of integers. This means that
integers are made up of prime numbers or every integer can be decomposed into prime numbers. .

Theorem 3•13 Fundamental theorem of arithmetic.

Every integer n ~ 2) is either a prime or can be written as a product of primes in only one way,
except for the order of the factors.· [AU 2018)
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.39

l'otOOf We prove by second principle of induction on n

Let p(n) denote the proposition n is a prime or can be expressed as a product of primes.
To prove p(n) is true for all n;;:: 2. •
l'.IJasis Step: Here n0=2
p(2) is 2, which is a prime.
Thus p(2) is true.

flnductive Step: Assume that the proposition is true for all integers upto k, k > 2.
f i.e., p(3),p(4), ... ,p(k) are true.
To prove P(k + 1) is true.
i.e., to prove k + 1 is either a prime or is a product of primes.
If k + 1 is a prime, then we are through.
If k + 1 is not a prime, then it is a composite number.
k+ 1 =.xy, where 1 <x < k+ 1, 1 <y < k+ 1.
That is the integers x, y are ~ k.
So, by our induction hypothesis x and y are primes or product of primes.
k + 1 = .xy is a product of two or more primes.
p(k+ 1) is true.
Hence by second principle or strong principle of induction p(n) is true for all n ;;:: 2.
Thus every integer n (:e:: 2) is either a prime or product of primes.
Next we prove uniqueness of the product.
Let n = p1 · p2 · p3 · ... ·Pr and n = q1 • q2 · q3 · ... · q8 be two factorisations of n into product of
primes.
We shall prove r = s and every pi is some qj'
1 s i s r, 1 ~j ~ r.
We have
Suppose r<s
Since p1 I P, · Pi · p3 • ••• • p, we have p1 I q1 · q2 · q3 · ... · q8 and p1 is a prime.
p1 must divide some qj => p1 = qj' as they are primes.
Divide both sides by Pp we get
P2 · P3 -»,> qlqz ... qj-lqj+l -s,
Repeat this argument with P2, P3, ... , Pr·
Since r < s, finally we get 1 =a product of q's (the excess over r)
i.e., 1 = a product of primes, which is a contradiction.
:. Our assumption r <sis wrong => r e s.
Similarly ifs< r (arguing with q's instead of p's)
We get a contradiction
s ;;:: r and hence r = s.
Hence the primes p1, Pi- p3, ... ,Pr are the same as q1, q2, ... ,qr in some order.
Thus the factorization is unique, except for the order.
3.40 • Algebra and Number Theory

This theorem is also known as unique factorization theorem for positive integers.
For example
2 240
240 = 24 .3.5 2~50
5 125 2 120
250 = 2·53 5 25 2 60
These are called prime power decomposition. 5 2 30
Since the primes are written in increasing order, 3 15
these decompositions are called canonical decompositions.
5
Definition 3.10 Canonical decomposition
The canonical decomposition of a positive integer n is of the form n = pf 1 • p~2 · pf 3 ••• pfk, where
p1, Pz- ... , Pk are distinct primes with p1 < Pz < ... < Pk and a1, a2, ... , ak are positive integers.

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Find the canonical decompositions of
(i) 999
(ii) 1024
(iii) 2520

Solution. 2 1024 2 2520

3 999
(i) 999 = 3 . 3 . 3 . 37 = 33 . 37
(ii) 1024 = 25• 32 = 2s. 2s = 210 3 333 2 512 2 1260
(iii) 2520 = 23 • 33 . 7 3 111 2 256 2 630
37 2 128 3 315
These are canonical decompositions.
We can use canonical decompositions 2 64 3 63
to find gcd of two positive integers. 32 =25 3 21
7
EXAMPLE 2
Find the gcd of 414 and 662 using canonical decompositions.

Solution.
We have to find the gcd of 414, 662 2'j 662
First we find the canonical decompositions 2~14
3 207 331
414=2·32·23 3 69
662 = 2·331 23

gcd (414, 662) = 2

 _;-.i{ ·.
Divisibility Theory and Canonical De~ompositions
• 3J41

EXAMPLE 3
Find (175, 192) using canonical decompositions.

Solutlon.
We have to find (175, 192).
First we find the canonical decompositions
5tit
5 35
7
2 192
2
2
96
48
175 = 52 ·7 2 24
192=27·3 2 24
We notice that there is no common factor except 1. 2 12
2 6
(175, 192)= 1
3
EXAMPLE 4
Find gcd of 168 and 180 using canonical decompositions. [AU 2017]

Solution.
2 168 2 180
We have to find gcd of 168, 180.
First we find the canonical decompositions ' 2 84 2 90
2 42 3 45
168=23·3·7
3 21 3 15
and 180=22·32·5
7 5
gcd (168, 180) = 22 · 3 = 12

EXAMPLE 5
Find the gcd of 120 and 500.

Solution. 2 120 2 500

We have to find gcd of 120 and 500.
2 60 2 250
First we find the canonical decompositions
2 30 5 125
120 = 23 .3.5
3 15 5 25
.and 500 = 22 .53 5 5
gcd (120, 500) = 22 · 5 = 20
* Notice that we choose the common factors with smaller index.
More generally,
If a = Pia1 · P2a1 ···Pkak and b = Pif:J1 · P2f:J1 ···Pkf:Jk
are the canonical decompositions of a and b, then
- min(a1,f:J1) min(a1,f:J1) min(a3,f:J3) min(ak,f:Jk)
gcd(a, b) - Pi · P2 · P3 ···Pk ..
3.42 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 6
Use recursion to evaluate (12, 36, 60, 108).

Solution.
We have to evaluate gcd (12, 36, 60, 108).
We isolate each term from the right and find gcd of the inner groups as below.

(12,36,60,108) = ((12,36,60),108)
= ( ( (12,36)60),108)

Now (12, 36) = 12 [ ·: 12 is a factor of36]

Then ((12, 36), 60) = (12, 60) = 12 [ ·: 12 is a factor of 60)

(((12, 36), 60), 108) = (12, 108) = 12 [ ·: 12 is a factor of 108]

(12, 36, 60, 108)= 12

EXAMPLE 7
Use recursion to evaluate (18, 30, 60, 75, 132). [AU 2017]

Solutlon.
2 18, 30
We have to evaluate gcd (18, 30, 60, 75, 132).
We isolate each term from the right and then find the gcd of inner 3 9, 15
groups. 3, 5 - No common
factor
(18,36,60, 75,132) = ((18,36,60, 75),132)
= (((18,30,60), 75),132)
3~
= ((((18,30),60), 75),132) 2, 25 - No common
factor
Now (18, 30} = 2. 3 = 6

(18, 30), 60) = (6, 60) = 6 [ ·: 6 is a factor of 60]

(18, 30), 60), 75) = (6, 75) = 3

(18, 30, 60, 75, 132) = (3, 132)

=3 [ ·: 3 is a factor of 132]

EXAMPLE 8
Use recursion to evaluate (12, 18, 28, 38, 44).

Solution.
We have to evaluate gcd(l2, 18, 28, 38, 44).
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.43

We isolate each term from the right and then find the gcd ofinner groups
2~
as below
3~
(12, 18, 28, 38, 44) = ((12,18,28,38),44)
2, 3 - No factor
= (((12,18,28),38 ),44)
= ( ( ( (12\18),28 )~38 ),44) 2~
3, 14 -. No factor
Now (12, 18) = 2 . 3 = 6

( (12, 18),28) = ( 6,28)

=2
(((12,18),28),38) = (2,38) = 2 [ ·: 2 is a factor of 38]

(12, 18, 28, 38, 44) = (2, 44) = 2 [ ·: 2 is a factor of 44]

EXAMPLE 9
Using recursion evaluate (15, 24, 28, 45).

Solution.
We have to evaluate gcd (15, 24, 28, 45). 3115,24
We isolate each term from the right and then find the gcd of inner
5, 8 - No factor
groups as below
(15, 24, 28, 45) = ((15, 24, 28), 45)

= (((15, 24), 28), 45)

Now (15, 24) = 3

((15, 24), 28) = (3, 28) = 1

(((15, 24), 28), 45) = (1, 45) = 1
(15, 24, 28, 48) = 1

EXAMPLE 10
Find the gcd of a= 22 · 33 • 52. 7 -112
and b = 211 · 39 · 53 · 11
Solution.
Given a= 22 · 33·52·7·112
and b= i11-39 .53 ·11
(a,b) = 22 .33 ·52 ·11=29, 700
(choosing minimum of powers of common factors)
3.44 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 11
Find the gcd of 92928 and 123552.

Solution. 2 92928 2 123552

We have to find the gcd of92928 and 123552.
First we ftnd their canonical decompositions 2 46464· 2 61776
2 ·23232 2 30888
92928 = 28·3·112 2 11616 2 15444
123552 = 25. 33·1l·13 2 5808 2 7722
the gcd(92928, 123552) = 25 · 3·11 2 2904 3 3861
= 1056 2 1452 3 1287
Aliter: We can find gcd as below taking both the numbers 2 726 3 429

2 92928, 123552 3 363 11 143

11 121 13
2 46464,61776
11
2 23232,30888
2 11616, 15444
2 5808, 7722
3 2904,3861
11 968, 1287
88, 117 - No factor

:. gcd (92928, 123552) = 25 · 3 · 11 = 1056.

3.7 THE GCD AND THE EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM
Theorem 3 .11 gives us a powerful theoretical tool for gcd of two positive integers a and b as a linear
combination of a and b. But it does not provide us with a practical method of finding gcd of a and b.
Euclidean algorithm, which is repeated application of division algorithm, gives us an efficient
method of finding gcd of two positive integers.
The next theorem gives the basis for Euclidean algorithm.

Theorem 3.14 Let a and b be two positive integers such that

a=qb+r, O~r<b.
Then the gcd (a, b) =the gcd (b, r)

Proof Given a and b are positive integers such that

a= qb + r, 0 ~ r < b. (1)

=> a=qb=r
Let d = gcd (a, b) and d' = gcd (b, r).
To prove d=d'.
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.45

Since d = gcd (a, b), d I a and d I b ==) d I a - qb

~ di~
Thus d I band d Ir and sod I gcd (b, r) => d Id'.
Since d' = gcd (b, r), d' I band d' I r.
:.(1)=> d'la
Thus d' I a and d' I band sod' I gcd (a, b) ==) d' Id
Hence d = d' => gcd (a, b) = gcd (b, r)
The gcd (b, r) means the gcd of the divisor and remainder. •
3. 7 .1 The EuclideanAlgorlthm
Suppose a and bare positive integers with a;;::: b.
If a= b, then (a, b) =(a, a)= a.
So, assume a > b.
Then by successive application of division algorithm. we get
a= q1b + 1j, 0 :s; 'i < b
b = qz 'i + rz,
'i = q3r2 +r3,

rn-2 = qnrn-1 + rn'

and rn-1 = qn+lrn + 0
Where b > 1j > r2 > ... 2': 0. The sequence ofremainders terminate with remainder 0.
By Theorem 3 .12,
gcd (a, b) = gcd (b, r1) = gcd (rp r2) = .... = gcd (rn-1' rn)= "«
Thus (a, b) = rn' where rn is the last non-zero remainder in the sequence of divisions.

EXAMPLE 1
Find the gcd (414, 662) using Euclidean algorithm.
1 1
Solution.
We have to find the gcd (414, 662). Here 662 > 414. 414) 662 248E
Applying division algorithm successively, we get 414 248
662 = I(414) + 248 248 166
414=1(248)+166
1 2 41
248 = 1(166)+ 82
166) 248 82F 2~
166 = 2(82) + [l] 166
82 = 41(2)+ 0 --164 8
2
82 2
The last non-zero remainder is 2. 2
the gcd (662, 414) = 2 0
3.46 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 2
Find the gcd (2076, 1776) using Euclidean algorithm. [AU 2018)

Solution. 1 5
Here 2076 > 1776.
1776) 2076 300) 1776
Applying division algorithm successively we get:
1500
2076 = 1(1776)+ 300
--1776
300 276
1776 = 5(300)+276
300 = 1(276)+ 24 11 1
276=11(24)+[gj 24) 276 276~
24 = 2(12)+0 24 276
--
The last nonzero remainder is 12 34 24
24
the gcd (2076, 1776) = 12 10
EXAMPLE 3
Apply Euclidean algorithm to compute (3076, 1976). [AU 2017)

Solution.
We have find the gcd of3076 and 1976.
Here 3076 > 1976.
Applying the division algorithm successively, we get 1 1 1

3076=1(1976)+1100 1976) 3076 1100~ 876~

1976 1100 876
1976 = 1(1100)+ 876
1100 876 224
1100 = 1(876)+ 224
876 = 3(224)+ 204 3 10 1
224=1(204)+ 20 224~ 20) 204 204) 224
672 200 204
204 = 10(20) +@]
204 4 20
20 = 5(4)+0
The last nonzero remainder is 4
the gcd (3076, 1976) = 4

EXAMPLE 4
Apply Euclidean algorithm to express the gcd of1976and1776 as a linear combination of them.
[AU 2017)

Solution.
We have to find the gcd of 1976 and 1776. Here 1976 > 1776.
Applying division algorithm successively, we get
1976=1(1776)+200
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.47

1776=8(200)+176 1 8
200 = 1(176)+ 24 1776) 1976 200~
176 = 7(24) + [fil 1776 1600
--
200 176
24 = 3(8)+0
1 3
The last nonzero remainder is 8.
176) 200 8~
gcd (1976, 1776) = 8 176 24
Using the above equations in reverse order and substituting for
-
24 0
remainder each time, we get the linear combination of 1976 and 1776.
(1976, 1776) =8
= 176-7(24)
= 176 - 7[200 .: 1(176)]

= 8 (176)- 7(200)

= 8 [1776 - 8(200)] - 7(200)

= 8(1776)- 71 (200)

= 8 (1776) - 71 [1976 - 1(1776)]

= 79(1776)- 71 (1976)

= 79(1776) + (-71) (1976)

:. the gcd is a linear combination of the numbers 1776 and 1976.

EXAMPLE 5
Use the Euclidean algorithm to express the gcd of 4076 and 1024 as a linear combination of
them.

Solution.
We have to find the gcd of 4076 and 1024. Here 4076 > 1024. 3 1
By applying division algorithm successively, we get 1024) 4076 1004) 1024
407 6 = 3(1024) + 1004 3072 1004
1024=1(1004) + 20 1004 20
1004 = 50(20) + [±]
20 = 5(4)+0 50 5
The last nonzero remainder is 4. 20) 1004 4~
100 20
the gcd (4076, 1024) = 4
4 0
Using the above equations in reverse order.
3;48 • Algebra and Number Theory

Substituting successively for remainders each time, we get

(4076, 1024) = 4

= 1004 - 50(20)

= 1004 - 50 [1024 - 1(1004)]

= 51(1004)- 50(1024)
= 51 [4076- 3(1024)] - 50(1024)
= 51 (4076)- 203(1024)

= 51 (4076) + (- 203) (1024)

:. the gcd is a linear combination of the numbers 1024 and 4076.

Theorem 3.15 Thereare infinitely many primesof the form 4n + 3. [AU2018]

Proof We prove by contradiction method.

Suppose there are only finite number of primes of the form 4n + 3, say
p0,ppp2, ... ,pk where Po= 3 and pk is the largest prime.
Consider the positive integer

Clearly m >Pk and is of the form 4n + 3 (Here n = p1 p2 ••. h)

If m is a prime, then m is a prime larger, than the largest prime Pk·
which is a contradiction.
If m is not a prime, then m is a composite number.
Clearly m is an odd number.
So, every factor of m is of the form 4n + 1 or 4n + 3.
Suppose every factor is of the form 4n + 1, then their product will be of the form 4n + 1.
:. m will be of the form 4n + 1. [·: (4/ + 1)(4m+ 1) = l6m +4(1+m)+1=4[4/m +I+ m]+ 1]
Since mis of the form 4n + 3, at least one of the factors ofm, say p, is of the form 4n + 3.
If p = Po = 3, then 3 I m and 313 ~ 3 I m- 3
3 I 4PiP2 ... Pk ~ 3 I 4 or 3 I some P; [by Euclid's lemma]
But both are impossible and hence a contradiction.
If p = P; for some P;, then p Im and p I P1P2 ·Pk
00

P I m - P1P2 ... Pk ~ p I 3, a contradiction

Therefore in both the cases, we get a contradiction.
This means our assumption of finiteness is wrong.
Hence there are infinitely many primes of the form 4n + 3.
•
Note Similarly we can prove there are infinitely many primes of the form 4n + 1.
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.49

EXAMPLE 6
For any positive integer n, Prove that 8n + 3 and Sn + 2 are relatively prime.

solution.
To prove (8n + 3, 5n + 2) 1 =
When n = 1, 8n + 3 = 11 and 5n + 2 = 7

gcd (11, 7) =1
Hence it is true when n 1 = 1
For n ;;:: 2, we have 8n + 3 > 5n + 2. By division algorithm,
8n + 3 = 1·(5n+2) + (3n + 1), 0<3n+1<5n+2
5n + 2) 8n + 3
5n+3
5n+2=1·(3n+1)+(2n+l), 0<2n+l<3n+l
3n +1
3n+l = 1·(2n+l)+n
2n + 1 = 2(n)+[!J 1
n=l·n+O 3n + 2) 5n + 2
: . the last nonzero remainder is 1. 3n +1
2n + 1
gcd (8n + 3, 5n + 2) = 1 'Vn:2:2

So, 8n + 3 and Sn + 2 are relatively prime for any positive integer.

EXAMPLE 7
Prove that (a, a - b) = 1 if and only if (a, b) = 1. [AU 2017]

Solution.
=
Let (a, b) 1.
Then there exist integers l and m such that
la+ mb = 1
la + ma + mb - ma = 1 (adding ma and substracting ma)

(/ + m)a-m(a-b) =1

(/ + m)a + (-m)(a - b) = 1
(a,a-b)= 1

Conversely, let (a; a - b) = 1. To prove (a, b) = 1.

Then there exist integers a and f3 such that aa + /3( a - b) = 1
aa+f3a-/3b=l

(a+ fJ)a + (-{J)b = 1

(a, b)= 1

Note Similarly, we can prove that if (a, b) = d, then (a, a - b) = d.

3.50 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 8
If the square of an integer is odd, then prove that the integer is odd.

Solution.
Let n be an integer such that n2 is odd.
To prove n is odd.
Suppose n is not odd, then n is even.

n = 2m for some integer m.

n2 = 4m2 = 2(2m2),

which is even and hence a contradiction.

n is odd.
Similarly, we can prove that if n2 is even, then n is even.

EXAMPLE 9
If (a, b) = 1, then prove that (a2, b2) = 1.
Solution.
Given (a, b) = 1.
To prove (a2, b2) = 1.
Suppose (a2, b2) -:t:. 1, then a2 and b2 have a common factor and hence have a prime factor p.

p I a2 andp I h2
=> p I a· a andp I b · b
=> p I a andp I b (·:pis a prime andp I ab=> p I a or p I b).
:. p I the greatest common divisor of a and b
=> p I (a, b) => p I I,
which is not possible and hence a contradiction.
=> (a2, b2) = 1.
•
EXAMPLE 10
If a and b are positive integers such that bla and bla + 2, prove that b = 1 or 2.

Solution.
Given b I a and b I a + 2
b I la+ m(a + 2) for all integers/, m.
=> b I (/ + m )a + 2m for all I, m.
In particular, it is true for l = -1, m = 1.
=> b I oa+2 => bl2
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.51

Since b is a positive integer,

bl2 => b=1 or 2.

EXAMPLE 11
If a, b are odd positive integers, prove that 21 a2 + b2 but 4 J a2 + b2•

S,olutlon.
Given a and b are odd positive integers.

Then a = 2m + 1 and b = 2n + 1,
where m, n are integers :2: 0.

a2 + b2 = (2m + 1)2 + (2n +1)2

= 4m2 + 4m + 1 + 4n2 + 4n + 1
= 4m2 + 4n2 + 4m + 4n + 2
= 2(2m2 + 2n2 + 2m + 2n +1)

f
but 4 a2 + b2. [ ·: 2m2 + 2n2 + 2m + 2n + 1 is an odd integer]

EXAMPLE 12
Prove that the product of any two integers of the form 4n + 1 is also the same form.

Solution.
Let a= 4m + 1, b = 4n + 1 be two integers.
To prove ab is of the form 4n + I.
Then a· b = (4m +1)(4n + 1)
= 16 mn + 4 m + 4 n +1

= 4 (4 mn + m + n) + 1

=4k+ 1,
which is of the same form.
Hence ab is of the form 4n + 1.

3.8 LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE (LCM)

Definition 3.11 The least common multiple of two positive integers a and b is the smallest positive
integer that is divisible by both a and b.
The lcm of a and bis denoted by [a, b] or lcm(a, b).
We can use canonical decomposition to find lcm.
If a = pf1 • p~2 · · · p~K and b = pf · pg2 · · · p~K, where ai, {3i are non-negative integers.
Then
3.52 • Algebra and Number Theory

WORKED EXAMPLES.

EXAMPLE 1
Find the lcm of 1050 and 2574.

Solution. 2 1050 2 2574

We have to find lcm of 1050 and 2574.
5 525 3 1287
First we find the canonical decompositions.
5 105 3 429
1050 = 2 . 3 . 52 . 7 = 2 . 3 . 52 • 7 . 110 . 130
3 21 11 143
and 7 13
the lcm(a, b) =product of factors with maximum indices.
[a, b] = 2 · 32 • 52 • 7 · 11 · 13
=450, 450

EXAMPLE 2
Find the lcm of 120 and 500.

Solution. 2 120 2 500

We have to find lcm of 120 and 500.
First we find the canonical decompositions. 2 60 2 250
2 30 5 125
120 = 23 . 3 . 5 = 23 . 3 . 5
3 15 5 25
and 500 = 22 . 53 = 22 . 3o . 53 5 5
the lcm[120, 500] = factors with maximum of the indices
[120, 500] = 23 . 3 . 53
= 3000.

EXAMPLE 3
Find the gcd and lcm of 504 and 540.

Solutlon. 2 504 2 540

We have to find gcd and lcm of 504 and 540.
First we find the canonical decompositions. 2 252 2 270
2 126 3 135
504 = 23 . 32 . 7 = 23 . 32 . 5° . 7
3 63 3 45
and 540 = 22 . 33 . 5 = 22 . 33 . 5. 1° 3 21 3 15
gcd (504, 540) =factors with minimum powers 7 5

= 22. 32 = 36
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.53

km (504, 540) =factors with maximum powers

= 23. 33. 5. 7

=7560

Theorem 3.16 If a and bare positive integers, then

a·b
[a,b]=-.
(a,b)

Proof Let a= pf1 • pf2 ••• pfk and b = p~··pf2 ... pfk be the canonical decompositions of a and b.
_ · min(a1,J3i) min(a2,,82) min(ak,.Bk)
Then (a, b) - P1 · P2 ···Pk
_ max(a1,J3i) max(a2,,82) . max(ak,.Bk)
and [a, b] - Pt · P2 ···Pk
= min(a1,J3i) + max(a1,J3i). min(a1,/3i) + max(a2,/32) min(ak,.Bk) + max(ak,.Bk)
(a, b) [ a, b] P1 P2 ···Pk
a1+A a2+A ak+.Bk
= P1 ·P2 ···Pk
_-1 Pa1 . PAI . Pa2 p.82 Pak . p.Bk
22···k k

= (pfl. pf2 ... pfk Hp~. pf2 ... pfk)

=a·b
a·b
[a,b]= (a,b) •
Note
1. This theorem gives another method for finding km.
2. If a and b are relatively prime, then (a, b) = 1
a·b
[a,b]=-1- = ab

Thus km of relatively prime numbers is their product.

EXAMPLE 4
Find the lcm of 504 and 540 using their gcd.

Solution.
We have to find the km of 504 and 540.
First we find the canonical decompositions.
Now 504 = 23 ·32
·and 540 = 22 .33 .5
gcd (504, 540) = 22 · 32 = 36
504·540=14.540
km [504 540] = = 7560
' 36
3.54 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 5
Use recursionto evaluate [24, 28, 36, 40].

Solution. 2 24,28
We have to find [24, 28, 36, 40].
We isolate each term from the right and find the lcm of the inner 2 12, 14
groups as below 6, 7 - No common
factor
[24, 28, 36, 40] = [[24,28,36],40]
= [[[24,28],36],40 J 2 168,36
2 84, 18
But [24, 28] = 2. 2. 6. 7 = 168
3 42,9
[[24,28],36] = [168,36] 14, 3 - No common
= 2·2·3·14·3 = 504 factor

[24, 28, 36, 40] = [504, 40] 2 504,40

2 252,20
= 23. 5. 63
2 126, 10
=2520 63, 5 - No common
factor
EXAMPLE 6
Use recursionto find [15, 18, 24, 30].

Solution.
We have to find [15, 18, 24, 30].
We isolate each term from the right and find the lcm of the inner groups as below
[15, 18, 24, 30] = [[15,18,24],30] 3 90,24 3115, 18
= [[[15,18],24],30 J 2 30, 8 5,6
15, 4 - No common
But [15, 18] = 3 . 5 . 6 = 90
factor
[[15,18],24] = [90,24]
= 3·2·15·4 = 360
[15, 18, 24, 30] = [360, 30]
=360 [ ·: 30 is a factor of 360]

EXAMPLE 7
Find the positive integera if [a, a+ 1] = 132. [AU 2017]

Solution.
Given [a, a+ 1] = 132
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.55

Since a and a + 1 are consecutive integers, they are relatively prime.

(a,a+l)=l
Hence [a, a+ l] =a (a+ 1) [by note in page 3.53]
132=a(a+l)
a(a+l)=11·12
a= 11
*We now state a resultconcerning n!
If p is a prime and p I n ! , then the highest .Jiower ofp dividing n ! in its canonical decomposition is

It is a finite sum because

EXAMPLE 8
Findthe canonical decomposition of 23!

Solution.
The primes dividing 23 ! are
2,3,5, 7, 11, 17, 19,23. [·: 23! = l . 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7 ... 23]

The power of2 dividing 231 is= [2;]+[~n+[~;J+G!J

= 11+5+2+1=19
2:]
The power of 3 di~iding 23 ! is = [ + [ ~;] (•: 33 > 23)

=7+2=9
2:]
The power of 5 dividing 23 ! is = [ + [ ~;] = 4 + 0 = 4

2;]
The power of 7 dividing 23 ! is = [ =3

The power of 11 dividing 23 ! is = [ ~~] = 2

The power of 13 dividing 23 ! is = [ ~~] = 1

The power of 17 dividing 23 ! is = [ :~] = 1

3.56 • Algebra and Number Theory

The power of 19 dividing 23! is = u~] =l

The power of 23 dividing 23 ! is = [ ~~] = l

:. the canonical form of23! = 219 · 39 · 54 · 73 · II2 · 13 · 17. 19. 23

EXAMPLE 9
Find the largestpower of 2 that divides 97!

Solution.
We know 2 I 97!
: . the largest power of 2 dividing 97 ! is

=48+24+12+6+3+1=94
294 is the highest power of2 dividing 97!

EXAMPLE 10
Find the numberof trailingzeros in the decimal value of 260!

Solution.
The number of zeros in which 260 ! is ending with is the same as the highest power of l 0 dividing 260 !
Now 10=2·5
10m =2m. 5m
: . the highest power of 10 is the same as highest power of 5.
The highest power of 5 dividing 260! is

= [ 2:0 ]+[ 25~0 ]+[ 25~0]

=52+10+2=64
:. 1064 is the highest power of 10 dividing 260!
:. the number ofzeros in the decimal form of260f.is 64.
In the other words, 260! ends 64 zeros.

Note Ifwe find the highest power 2 contained in 260!, then we get

J
[ 2~0 + [ ~~o J + [ 2~0 J + ... + [ 22~0J

=258
Min {258, 64} = 64.
So, it is enough we find the power of 5.
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.57

EXAMPLE 11
Find the number of trailing zeros in 234!

Solution.
The number of zeros in which 234! is ending with is the same as the highest power of 1Odividing234!
Now 10==2·5
So, the highest power of 10 is the same as the highest power of 5 dividing 234 !
The highest power of 5 dividing 234! is

== [ 2~4] + [ 2;24] + [ 2;34] (·: 54 > 234)

== 46 + 9 + 1 ::: 56
:. 264! ends with 56 zeros.

EXERCISE 3.2
1. Use the Euclidean algorithm to find the gcd of the following pairs of integers.
(i) 1024, 1000 (ii) 2076, 1076
{iti) 20241 1024 (iv) 1947, 63
2. Express gcd as a liner combination of the two given numbers.
(i) 2076, 1776 (ii) 414, 662
(iii) 3076, 1976 (iv) 1820, 231
3. Use recursion to find the gcd of the given numbers.
(i) (16, 20, 36, 48) . (ii) (28, 48, 68, 78)
(iii) (14, 18, 21, 36, 48) (iv) (12, 17, 31, 37)
4. Find the canonical decomposition of:
(i) 1771 (ii) 1001
(iii) 729 (iv) 7007
5. Find the lcm of:
(i) 123, 243 (ii) 1000, 625
(iii) 22 . 33 . 53' 25 . 33 . 52 (iv) 2·3·5·7·11·13, 211 .39 ·11·1714
6. Find the number of trailing zeros in the decimal value of 1400!

ANSWERS TO EXERCISE 3.2

1. (i) 8 (ii) 4 (iii) 8 (iv) 3
2. (i) 12 == 83(1776) + (-71)(2076)
(ii) 2::: 8(414) + (-5)(662)
(iii) 4=-97(3076)+151 (1976)
(iv) 7 == 8(1820) + (-63) (231)
3. (i) 4 (ii) 2 (iii) 1 (iv) 1
4. (i) 7 . 11 . 23 (ii) 7 . 11 . 13 (iii) 36
5. (i) 9963 (ii) 5000 (iii) 25 . 33 . 53 (iv) 211 · 39 · 5 · 7 · 11 · 13 · 1714
6. 349
3.58 • Algebra and Number Theory

PART A QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. State the division algorithm for two integers a and b, where b > 0.
Ans. a = q b + r, where q and rare integers such 0 Sr< b.
2. Find the quotient and remainder in the division algorithm when -23 is divided by 5.
Ans. -23 = -5 (5) + 2, 0 S 2 < 5.
:. the quotient q = -5, remainder r = 2
3. If a I b and a I c then a I -2c + 3b - True and false.
Ans. True.
a I b, a I c => b =la and c =ma for some integersc and m.
Now-2c + 3b = -2(ma) + 3 (la)
= (-2m + 31) a => a I -2c + 3b.
4. Find the number of positive integers :S: 2076 that are divisible by 19.
2~~ 6]
Ans. The number of positive integers S 207 6 and divisible by 19 is = [ = [ 109.26] = 109
5. If the square of an integer is even, prove that the integer is even.
Ans. Let n be an integer such that n2 is even To prove n is even.
Suppose n is odd, then n = 2m + 1 for some integer m.
n2 = (2m + 1 )2 = 4m2 + 4m + 1
= 2 (2m2 + 2m)+ 1, which is odd and hence contradicts the hypothesis.
our assumption is wrong. Hence n is even.
6. Find the number of positive integers :S: 2076 that are divisible by neither 4 nor 5. [AU 2013, 17)
Ans. Refer worked example 2, page 3.7.
7. Find the gcd of 168 and 180 using the canonical decomposition. [AU2017]
Ans. Refer worked example 4, Page 3 .41.
8. Find the canonical decomposition of 29 - 1. [AU 2017)
Ans. 29 - 1 = 511 = 7 · 73
9. If a I b and c I d prove that ac I bd.
Ans. Given a I b => b = ma
and c I d => d = nc for some integers m, n.
:. bd= ma nc = (mn) ac => ac I bd.
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3,59

10. Express (10110)2 in base 10.

Ans. (10110)2 = 1(24) + 0 (23) + 1(22) + 1(2) + 0 (2°)
= 16 +4 +2= 22
11. Express (1776)8 as a decimal number.
Ans. (1776)8 = 1(83) + 7 (82) + 7(8) +'6(8°)
=.1022
12. What are the digits and symbols used i~ the hexadecimal representation?
Ans. The 16 symbols are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F, where A, B, C, D, E, F represent
10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 respectively.
13. Write 111010twoas an octal integer.
Ans. Refer worked example 2, Page 3.20.
14. Write (1110101)2 as a hexadecimal number.
Ans. Refer example 2, Page 3 .21.
15. Find the value of the base b if 54b = 64.
Ans. Given 54b = 64 => 5(b1) + 4(b0) = 64
=> 5b+4=64
=> Sb= 60 => b =12

16. If (a, b) = d, then prove that ( ~·~) = 1.

Ans. Given (a, b) = d => d = xa + yb for some integers x, y. (1)
Since (a, b) = d, d I a and d I b

=> -a andb- are mtegers

.
d d

(1) =>x(~)+y(%)=1

=> gcd(~·%)=1

17. If n is a positive integer, then prove that gcd (n, n + 2) = 1 or 2.

Ans. We have 2 = 1(n+2) + (-l)n
Let gcd (n, n + 2) = d.
Since d is the smallest positive integer that can be expressed as a linear combination of n and
n + 2, it follows that d :s; 2.
3.60 • Algebra and Number Theory

Further d I 2 => d = 1 or 2.
:. gcd (n, n + 2) = 1 or 2
18. If a, h, care positive integers, prove that gcd (ca, ch)= c gcd (a, h).
Ans. Let d =(a, b), then d = xa + yb for some integers x andy.
de= (xa)e + (yb)e
= x(ae) + y(be) = (ae, be)
=> e(a, b) = (ae, be)
19. If (a, h) = 1 then prove that (a+ b, a - h) = 1 or 2.
Ans. Let d =(a+ b, a - b)
Then d I a+ b and·d I a-b.
d I (a+ b) +(a - b)and d I (a+ b) - (a - b)

=> d I 2a and d I 2b
=> d I gcd (2a, 2b)
But we know gcd (2a, 2b) = 2 gcd(a, b) (Refer example 18 Part A]
=2·1=2 [·: gcd (a, b) = 1]
d I 2 => d = 1 or 2
20. If (a, h) = 3 and ah= 693 find [a, h].
Ans. We know that
693
[ a,b] = !!.J?__ = = 231
(a,b) 3
21. Find the positive integer a if [a, a+ 1] = 132. [AU 2017]
Ans. Refer example 7, Page 3.54.
22. If a and bare positive integers with a= 231, (a, I!)= 7 and [a, h] = 600060, find b.
a·b
Ans. We know that [a, b] = --
(a, b)
231
60060 = 'b
7
b = 60060 x 7 = 1820
231

23. If (a, h) =[a, h], what can you say about the relation between a and b.
Ans. If(a, b) =[a, b] then the only possibility is a= b.
 Divisibility Theory and Canonical Decompositions • 3.61

24. If ah= 156, and a and bare relatively prime find [a, b].
Ans. Given a and b are relatively prime.
.. (a,b)=l.
a-b 156
We know that [a, b] = -- = - = 156
(a, b) 1

25. The lcm of two consecutive positive integers is 812. Find the numbers.
Ans. Let a and a + 1 be the consecutive integers.
Then a and a + 1 are relatively prime.
:. (a, a+ 1)== 1.
Given [a, a+ 1] = 812

a(a+l) = 812
(a,a+l)
a(a+1)=812
2 812
But 812=2. 2. 7. 29
2 406
=28. 29
7 203
a(a + 1) = 28 · 29 29
Hence a= 28.
26. If a and b are positive integers with a · b = 24 · 34 · 53 · 7 · 113 · 13.
and[a,b]=22·33·52·7· 112· 13whatis(a,b)?
Ans. Given a· b = 24 · 34 · 53 · 7 . 113 · 13
and [a, b] = 22 · 33 · 52 · 7 · 112 · 13
a·b
We know --=[a,b]
(a, b)
a·b
(a,b)-;= [a,b]

24·34·53·7·113·13
=-------
22·33·52·7·112·13
= 2·3·5·11=330
Linear Diophantine Equations
and Congruences 4
4.0 INTRODUCTION
Equations with integer coefficients which are to be solved in integers are called Diophantine equations.
This type of equation was first investigated by the Greek algebraist Diophantus of Alexandria in the
third century AD.
For example the equations
2x+ 3y=4,
are called Diophantine equations ifwe restrict their solutions to be integers.
The Diophantine equation 2x + 3y = 4 is linear where as the other two Diophantine equations are
nonlinear.
The equation 2x + 3y = 4 has (-1, 2) as a solution. In fact it has infinitely many solutions
(2 + 3t, -2t), where tis an arbitrary integer.
Geometrically, such solutions are points in the plane with integer coordinates and they are called
lattice points.

4.1 LINEAR DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS (LDE)

The linear Diophantine equations are the simplest class of Diophantine equations.
The general form of a linear Diophantine equation (LDE) in two variables x and y is
ax+by=c,
where a, b, c are integers.

Theorem 4.1 The linear Diophantine equation ax+ by= c is solvable if and only if d I c, where
d=(a,b).
If x0, y0 is a particular solution of the linear diophantine equation, then all its solutions are
given by

where t is any integer.

Proof Assume the linear Diophantine equation ax + by = c is solvable.

To proved! c
If x = a, y = f3 is a solution, then
aa+ bf3= c (1)·
Since d =(a, b), d I a and d I b
d I aa+ bf3
di c
4.2 • Algebra and Number Theory

Conversely, assume d I c.
=
To prove the diophantine equation ax + by c is solvable.
Since d I c, c = dm for some integer m.
Since d = (a, b), then there exist integers r and s such that
d= ra +sb
Multiplying by m, we get
dm = (ra)m + (sb)m
c = (rm)a + (sm)b
This shows that x0 =rm, andy0 = sm is a solution of the linear Diophantine equation ax+ by= c.
So, it is solvable.
Next we shall prove that if (x0, y0) is a solution of ax + by = c, then

x = x0 + ( %} and Y = Yo -( ~}
is a solution for any integer t.
Now

ax+by =a[ x0 +(% }]+b[Yo -(~}]

ab ab
= (ax0 +by0 ) +-t--t
d d

[ ·: (x0, y0) is a solution of ax+ by= c,

=
we have ax0 + by0 c]

b
x = x0 +-t ution f or any t.
an d y =Yo --ta. is a so lution
d d
Finally, we prove that every solution x', y' is of this form.
Since x0, Yo and x', y' are solutions of the linear diophantine equation ax+ by= c,
we have ax0 + by0 = c and ax'+ by'= c
ax0 + by0 =ax'+ by' => a(x' - x0) = b(y0 -y') (2)
Dividing by d, we get

-a ( x - xo
d
I )
= -db ( Yo -. Y ')
Since (a,b)=d, (~·%)=1
Hence, %1(x'-xo) => x'-xo =(%} for some integer t

x' x +(%}
= 0
 Linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences • 4.3

Substituting in (2), we get

a(~}= b(y0 -y')

Yo - y ' =-ta
d

Y ' =Yo --ta

d
Thus every solution is of the form
b a
x = x0 + -;zi and y = Yo - -;/, t is an arbitrary integer.

This solution is called the general solution of ax+ by= c.

Corollary If(a,b) = 1, then the linear diophantine equation ax+by=cis solvable and the general
•
solution is
x= x0 +bt
y= Yo-at
where x0,y0 is a particular solution and tis an arbitrary integer.
We can extend this result to equation with more than 2 variables.

Theorem 4.2 The linear diophantine equation a1x1 + a-r2 + ... + a,,xn = c is solvable if and only
if (ap a2, ... , an) I c. When it is solvable, it has infinitely many solutions.

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Determine if the linear diophantine equation 12x + 18y = 30 is solvable. If so, find the solutions.

Solution.
Given the LDE is 12x+ 18y=30 (1)

Here a=12,b=18,c=30
(a, b) = (12, 18) = 6

So, d=(a,b)=6
Since 6 I 30, we have d I c
So, the LDE is solvable.
Clearly, x0 = 1, y0 = 1 is a solution of ( 1)
Therefore the general solution is given by

x = x0 + ( ~} and y = Yo -( ~}, t E Z
4.4 • Algebra and Number Theory

18 12
=> x=l+-t and y=l--t
6 6
X = 1+3t and y = 1- 2t, t E Z
EXAMPLE 2
Examine whether the LDE 12x + 16y = 18 is solvable. Write the general solution if solvable.
[AU 2013)

Solution.
Given the LDE is 12x+16y=18
Here a= 12, b= 16, c= 18
(a, b) = (12, 16) = 4

d=4

Since 4/18, dfc

Hence the given LDE is not solvable.

EXAMPLE 3
Prove that LDE ax+ by= c is solvable if and only if d I c, where d =(a, b). Further obtain the
general solution of 15x + 21y = 39. [AU 2017, 2018]

Solutlon.
For the first part refer Theorem 4.1
Given the LDE is 15x+21y=39 (1)

Here a= 15, b=21, c=39

(a, b) = (15, 21) = 3 3115,21
d=(a,b)=3 5, 7
Since 3139, we have d I c
Hence the LDE is solvable.
By inspection (or trial and error), we find one solution of (1) is
x0=-3 and y0=4
Then the general solution is given by

b a
x=x0+-t and y=yo--t, teZ
d d
21 15
=> x=-3+-t and y=4--t
3 3
=> x=-3+7t and y = 4-5t, teZ
 Linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences • 4.5

Remark The solution (x0, y0} can be also found by using division algorithm systematically by first
expressing gcd (a, b) as a linear combination of a and b.
In the above problem
21=1(15)+6
15 = 2(6)+3
6=2(3)+0

(a, b) = 3 =d
Now (15, 21) = 3
= 15 - 2(6) = 15 - 2[21 - 15]

= 3(15)- 2(21)

3(15)- 2(21) = 3
Multiplying by 13, we get
39(15)- 26(21) = 39.

So, x0 = 39, and y0 = -26.

So, the general solution is

b a
x=39+-s and y=-26--s seZ
d d'
21 15
=> x=39+-s and y=-26--s
3 3
=> x=39+7s and y = -26-5s, seZ

We have found two sets of(apparently different) solutions

x=-3+7t and y=4-5t, t eZ

and x=39+7s and y = -26-5s, seZ

For some t and s if 39+7s=-3+7t

Then 7(t-s) = 42 => t=s = 6

=> s=t-6

x = 39 + 7 (t - 6) = -3 + 7t

and y = -26 - 5(t - 6) = 4 - 5t

So, we find the two sets solutions are same though they appear to be different as t, s are arbitrary in Z.
4.6 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 4
Find the general solution of the LDE 6x + Sy + 12z = 10.
[AU 2017}

Solutlon.
Given the LDE is 6x + 8y + 12z = 10 (1)
Here a1=6, a2=8, a3=12, c=lO
216, 8, 12
(al' a2, a3) = (6, 8, 12) = 2 and c = 10
3,4,6
d = (a1, a2, a3) =2
Since 2 110, d I c
So, the given LDE is solvable by Theorem 4.2
Since 8y + 12z is a linear combination of 8 and 12, it must be a multiple of (8, 12) = 4
8y+ l2z=4u (2)
:. (1) => 6x+4u = 10 (3)
First we solve the LDE (3) in two variables x and u.
Here a=6,b=4,c=l0
(a, b) = (6, 4) = 2 2~
d=Ia, b) =2andc::;:10 3,2

Since 2110, d I c
So, equation (3) is solvable.
We find x0 = 1, u0 = 1 is a solution of (3)
Therefore the general solution of (3) is
b a
x=x0+-t and u=u0--t, tEZ
d . d
4 . 6
=> x=l+-t and u=l--t
2 . 2
,
==> x=l+2t and u = l-3t,
Substituting for u in (2), we get
8y+ 12z=4(1-3t)

Since d=( S, 1~) = 4 and 4 = 2 · 8 + (-1) · 12 is a linear combination of8 and 12.
Multiplying by (1 - 3t), we get
4(1 - 3t) = 2(1 - 3t). 8 + (-1) (1 - 3t). 12
= (2 - 6t). 8 + (-1+3t). 12
 Linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences • 4.7

:. a solution of(2) is

Yo= 2 - 61 and z0 = -1+31. ·

So, the general solution of (2) is

y= Yo b '
+di and z=z0--1 a ' I' E Z
d '

12 ' z=-1+31-~I'
y= 2 - 6 1+41 and
4
y = 2-6t+3t'. and z = -1 +3t.-'J;t~:

Thus the general solution of(l) is

x=1+2t, y= 2-6t+3t', z= -1+3t-21'

for any integers t and t'.

Note that we reduced the 3 variable equation to a two variable equation and solved.
This method can be extended to linear Diophantine equation with finite number of unknowns.

EXAMPLE 5
Determineif the LDE 2x + 2y + 3z = 6 is solvable? If so find the general solution.

Solution.
Given the LED is 2x+2y+3z= 6 (1)

Here c=6

(al' a2, a3) = (2, 2, 3) = 1

d=landsodlc
Hence the equation is solvable.
Since 2y + 3z is a linear combination of 2 and 3, it must be a multiple of (2, 3) = 1.

2y+3z=u (2)

:. the equation (1) => 2x+u=6 (3)

Here a=2, b= 1, c=6

(a, b) = (2, 1) =1
d = 1, since 1 I 6; dIc
So, (3) is solvable.

Clearly x0 = 2, and u0 = 2 is a solution of (3)

4.8 • Algebra and Number Theory

:. the general solution is

b
x=x0+-t=2+t tEZ
d
a
and U = Uo --t = 2-2t, t EZ
d
Substituting for u in (2), we get
2y + 3z = 2 - 2t, tEZ
Now d= (2, 3) = 1 and 91,
1 = (-1) · 2 + 1 · 3 is a linear combination.
Multiply by 2 - 2t, f>ll..€-I )-t3 (IJ..!::t(2.-2t)
2-2t = (-1)(2-2t)·2+(2-2t)·3
= (2t-2)· 2+(2-2t). 3
So, a solution of (2) is
Yo = 2t - 2 and z0 = 2- 2t.
: . the general solution of (2) is
3
y=yo+-t' and Z = Zo - -2 t ', t ' E Z
1 1

y=2t-2+3t' and z=2-2t-2t', t'EZ

:. the general solution of (1) is

x=2+t, y = 2t-2+3t', z=2-2t-2t' for any t, t' E Z.

EXAMPLE 6
Determine if the LDE 2x + 4y- 5z = 11 is solvable. If solvable, find its general solution.
Solutlon.
GivenLDE is 2x + 4y - 5z = 11 (1)

Since 4y - 5z is a linear combination of 4 and - 5, it must be a multiple of (4, -5) = 1

4y-5z=u (2)

Hence (1) => 2x+u=ll (3)

Here a=2, b= 1, c = 11
(a,b)=(2,l)=l

d= 1andc=11
Since 1 I 11, di c
Hence (3) is solvable.
 Linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences • 4.9

One solution of (3) is x0 = 5, u0 = 1

:. the general solution of (3) is
b a
x=x0+-t and u=u0--t, teZ
d d
2
x=5+t and u = 1--t
1
::::) x=5+t· and u = 1-2(, te Z
Substituting for u in (2), we get
4y-5z=(l-2t) l\-(-'}- ~(-\ ):- l l\-2_·()
Since d = (4, - 5) = 1 and l = (-1) · 4 + (-1) · (-5) is a linear combination of 4 and-5.
Multiplying by 1 - 2t, we get
(1-2t) = (-1+2t)4+ (-1+2t)(-5)
One solution is
Yo = -1+2t and z0 = -1+2t
:. the general solution is
(-5) ' 4
y= Yo +--t
1
and z = Zo -l t' ' t' EZ

y=-1+2t-5t' and z=-1+2t-4t', t'eZ

:. the general solution of(l) is
x=5+t, y=-1+2t-5t' and z=-1+2t~4t' wheret,t'eZ

4.2 CONGRUENCES
We have seen congruence relation in chapter 1. Congruence relation was introduced and developed
by the German mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855). Gauss is considered as one of the
greatest mathematician of all time, known as the prince of mathematics.
When Gauss was in elementary school his teacher gave the class the problem of finding the sum
of the first 100 natural numbers. In no time Gauss, at the age of 7, had the answer. The teacher was
surprised to see his answer.
He has considered the numbers in increasing order as
l, 2, 3, , 99, 100.
and in the decreasing order as 100, 99, 98, , 2, 1
and added them. Each sum is 101.
There are 100 terms and so the total is 100 · 10 L
Since each number is used twice, he divided it by 2.
. 100·101
So, the answer is = 5050.
2
This type of addition is now known as Gaussian addition.
It is used to find the sum of n terms of an A.P a, a + d, a + 2d, ...
4.10 • Algebra and Number Theory

Definition 4.1 Congruence modulo m

Let m be a positive integer. An integer a is congruent to an integer b modulo m if m I a - b.
Symbolically, we write a= b (mod m). mis the modulus of the congruence relation.
If a is not congruent to b modulo m, the we write a ~ b (mod m ).
If a is not congruent to b mod m, we say a is in congruent to b mod m.
We use congruence in every day life.
For example we use:
(i) Congruence mod 12 to tell the time of the day (clock is numbered in this way).
(ii) Congruence mod 7 to tell the day of the week.
(iii) Congruence mod I 00,000 is used in odometers of automobiles.

Theorem 4.3 a= b (mod m) if and only if a= b +km for some integer k,

Proof Let a= b (mod m)

Then m I a - b => a - b = mk for some integer k
=> a= b+mk
Conversely, let a=b+km
Then a=b e km => mla-b

a =b (modm)
•
Note
I. Through the result is very simple, the significant aspect about it is that it gives the relation
between congruence and equality.
= =
2. It follows that a 0 (mod m) if and only if m I a. Thus a 0 (mod m) and m I a mean exactly the
same thing.

Theorem 4.4 Properties of congruence relation

1. Reflexive property: i.e., a a a (mod m) 'Va e Z.
2. Symmetric property: If a= b (mod m), then baa (mod m)
3. Transitive property: If a ab (mod m) and b == c (mod m), then a a c (mod m).

Proof
I. Since mla-a=O 'iaeZ
a= a(modm) vs«z
2. If a== b (mod m), then m I a- b
m 1-(b-a)
=> mlb-a=>b=a(modm)
3. If a= b (mod m) and b = c (mod m), then m Ia-band m I b-c.
m I (a-b)+(b-c) => m I a-c =>a= c(modm)
This theorem says congruence relation is an equivalence relation.
•
 Linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences • 4.11

Theorem 4.5 a e b (mod m) if and only if a and b have the same remainder when divlded by m,

Proof Let a=b(modm)

Then mla-b
=> a=b+ mk for some integer k.
=> a=b+km
Now consider b and m. By division algorithm
b= qm+r, OS r< m
Then
a= qm+r+km
=> = (q+k)m+r, OSr<m
a leaves remainder r on division by m.
Thus a and b have the same remainder r when divided by m.
Conversely, let a and b have the same remainder r, when divided by m.
a=qm+r
and b=q' m +r,
a-b=(q-q')m => m I a-b
=> a =b (modm)

Corollary If a= r (mod m), where 0 Sr< m, then r is the remainder when a is divided by m,
•
Theorem 4.6 If a= b (mod m) and c = d (mod m), then
(i) a+c=b+d(modm)
(ii) a· ess b · d(~odm)

Proof Given a = b (mod m) and c = d (mod m)

a=b+km
and c=d+k' m for some integers k, k'.
a+ c = b + d + (k + k')m
•
=> a+ c = b +d(mod m)
Hence (i) is proved
Now ac = (b +km)(~+ km)
= bd + (k k' + dk)m + kk' m2

=> ac-bd = m[bk' +dk+kk'm]

=> m i ac=bd
=> ac = bd (modm)
Hence (ii) is proved
4.12 • Algebra and Number Theory

Corollary If a e b(mod m), c E d(mod m), then

(i) a-c=b-d(modm)
(ii) ac = bc(mod m)
(iii) a2 = b2(modm)
More generally a., = b., (mod m) for any positive integer r,

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
Find the remainder when 1! + 2! + 3! + ... + 100! is divided by 15.
Solution.
We know n! = 1 · 2 · 3 ... (n - 1) · n
For divisibility by 15, we consider mod 15.
5! = 1 · 2 · 3 · 4 · 5 is divisible by 15. (but 4! = 1 · 2 · 3 · 4 is not divisible by 15)
5! = O(mod 15)
All higher factorials are divisible by 15.
So, for r ~ 5, =
r! 0 (mod 15)
:. 1! +2! +3! +4! +5! + ... + 100!
= 1! + 2! + 3! + 4! + 0 + 0 + ... + 0 (mod 15)
= 1 + 2 + 6 + 24 (mod 15)
= 1+2 + 30 (mod 15)
= 3 + 0 (mod 15) [:. 30 = 0 (mod 15)]
= 3 (mod 15)
:. when 1! + 2! + 3! + ... + 100! is divided by 15, the remainder is 3.

EXAMPLE 2
Find the remainder when 1! + 2! + 3! + 4! + ... + 300! is divided by 13.
Solution.
For divisibility by 13, we consider mod 13.
For r ~ 13, r! will contain 13 as a factor.
r! = 0 (mod 13)
:. 1! + 2! + 3! + 4! + ... + 12! + ... + 300!
= 1! + 2! + 3! + 4! + ... + 12! + 0 + 0 + ... + 0 (mod 13)
= 1! +2! +3! +4! +5! +;., + 12! (mod 13)
== 1 + 2 + 6 + 24 + 120 + ... + 12! (mod 13)
 Linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences •" 4>.l~
'··;,'

But 2 + 24 = 26 = 0 (mod 13) 9 2

5! = 120 = 3 (mod 13)
13~ 13~
6! = 5! 6 = 3 x 6 (mod 13)
--117
3
-·26- .
= 18 (mod 13) 9
= 5 (mod 13)
5 4
7! = 6! 7 = 5 x 7 (mod 13)
13~ 13 ~
= 35 (mod 13)
=9(mod13)
-657 52
11
8! = 7! 8 = 9 x 8 (mod 13)
8 5
=72(mod13)
=7(mod13) 13Fo 13F
9! = 8! 9 = 7 x 9 (mod 13) --104 65
6
= 63(mod13)
= 11(mod13)
10! = 9! 10 = 11 x 10 (mod 13)
= 110 (mod 13)
= 6 (mod 13)
11! = 10! 11 = 6 x 11 (mod 13)
= 66(mod13)
= 1(mod13)
12! = 11! 12 = 1 x 12 (mod 13)
= 12 (mod 13)
1! + 2! + 3! + ... + 300! = 1+6 + 0 + 3 + 5 + 9 +7 +11+6 + 1+12 (mod 13)
= 61 (mod 13) = 9 (mod 13)
:. the remainder is 9 when 1! + 2! + 3! + ... + 300! is divided by 13.

EXAMPLE 3
Find the ones digit in the sum 1! + 2! + 3! + ... + 100!, when expressed in decimal notation.

Solution.
Required the digit in the unit's place of the number 1 ! + 2 ! + 3 ! + 4 ! + ... + 100 !
So, we find the remainder when it is divided by 10.
If r e 5, then r! has 10 as a factor
r! = 0 (mod 10) [:. 5! = 120]
1! + 2! + 3! + 4! + ... + 100! = 1+2 + 6 + 24 (mod 10)
= 1 + 2 + 30 (mod 10)
4.14 • Algebra and Number Theory

::; 3 + 0 (mod 10)

::; 3 (mod 10)
:. the digit in the units place of
1! + 2! + 3! + 4! + ... + 100! is 3

EXAMPLE 4
Compute the remainder 3181 is divided by 17. [AU 2018]

Solutlon.
We have to find the remainder when 3181 is divided by 17.
We have 32 = 9 (mod 17) 4 2

34 = 92 = 81(mod17) 17~
68
17E
34
= 13 (mod 17) 13 5
=-4 (mod 17)
38 = (-4)2 (mod 17)
=16(mod17)
=-1(mod17)
316 = (-1)2 = 1 (mod 17)
(316)9=19=1(mod17)
3144 = 1 (mod 17)
3181=3144+32+4+ 1=3144. 332. 34. 31

But (316)2= l(mod 17)

332 = l(mod 17)
3181=1·1·13·3(mod17)
= 39 (mod 17)
3181 = 5 (mod 17)
:. the remainder when 3181 is divided by 17 is 5.

EXAMPLE 5
Compute the remainder when 3247 is divided by 25. [AU 2017]

Solution. 3 10
We have to find the remainder when 3247 is divided by 25.
25~ 25~
We have 32 = 9(mod 25) 75 250
34 = 92 = 81 = 6 (mod 25) 6 6
 Linear Diophantine Equations and C . . ..,
· ongruences •

38 = 62 = 36 = 11 (mod 25)
316 = 112 = 121=21(mod25)
332 = 212 = 16 (mod 25)
364 = 162 = 6 (mod 25)
3128 = 62 = 11(mod25)
Now 3247 = 3128+64+32+)6+4+2+ I

= 3128. 364. 332. 316. 34. 32. 3

= 11 · 6 · 16 · 21 · 6 · 9 · 3 (mod 25)
= 11 · (96) · (21) · (54) · 3 (mod 25)
= 11 · (-4) · (-4) · 4 · 3 (mod 25)
= 44 · 48 (mod 25)
= (-6)(-2) (mod 25)
= 12 (mod 25)
:. the remainder is 12 when 3247 is divided by 25.

EXAMPLE 6
Find the remainder when 3247 is divided by 17.

Solutlon.
We have to find the remainder when 3247 is divided by 17.
We have 33 = 27 = lO(mod 17)
36 = 102 (mod 17)
=> 36 = -2 (mod 17) [ ·: 102 is divisible by 17]
=> (36)4 = (-2)4(mod17)
=> 324 = 16 (mod 17) =-1 (mod 17)
(324)10 = (-1)10 (mod 17)
=> 3240 = 1 (mod 17)
3247 = 3240+6+ 1
= 3240. 36. 3

=l ·(-2)·3(mod17)
=-6 (mod 17)
= 11(mod17)
: . the remainder is 11 when 3247. is divided by 17.
4.16 • Algebraand NumberTheory

EXAMPLE 7
Find the remainderwhen 13218 is divided by 17.

Solution.
We have to find the remainder when 13218 is divisible by 17.
132= 169=-1(mod17)
(l32)109= (-1)109(mod 17)

=> 13218 =-1(mod17)

= 16 (mod 17)
:. the reminder is 16, when 13218 is divided by 17.

EXAMPLE 8
Find the remainderwhen 193183 is divided by 19. [AU 2013)

Solution.
We have to find the remainder when 193183 is divisible by 19.
We have 193 = 3 (mod 19)
1932 = 9 (mod 19)
1934 = 81=5 (mod 19)
1938 = 52 = 6 (mod 19)
19316 = 36 =-2 (mod 19)
(19316)4 = (-2)4 (mod 19)
=> 19364 = 16 (mod 19)
=-3 (mod 19)
(19364)2 = 9 (mod 19)
=> 193128 = 9 (mod 19)
193128. 19316 = 9 · (-2) (mod 19)
= -18 (mod 19)
=> 193144 = 1 (mod 19) ·
193144. 19316 = 1 · (-2) (mod 19)
=> 193160=-2(mod 19)
193183=193160+16+4+2+ 1
= 193160. 19316. 1934. 1932. 193
= (-2) · (-2) · 5 · 9 · 3(mod 19)
 Linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences . '11!1 !i)ftfi;~
=(4 x 5) · (9 x 3) (mod 19)
~'?'
= 1 · 8 (mod 19)

= 8 (mod 19) =
[·: 4 x 5 20 = l(mod 19)
and 9 x 3 = 27 = 8 (mod 19)]
. ·. the remainder is 8 when 193183 is divided by · 19.

EXAMPLE 9
Find the last two digits in the decimal value. of 17761776,
Solutlon.
The last two digits is the remainder when a number is divided by 100.
1776 = 76 (mod 100)
We shall now study the powers of 76.

762 = 5776 = 76 (mod 100)

763 = 76 · 76 = 76 (mod 100)

and so on. We find 76n = 76 (mod 100) "ii n ~ 1

1776n = 76 (mod 100) "ii n~1
17761776 = 76 (mod 100)

Hence the last two digits is 76.

EXAMPLE 10

Prove that 225 + 1 is divisible by 641.

Solutlon.
We observe that 640=-l (mod641) [·: 640 = 64. 10

5 · 21 =-1(mod641)
= 26. 2. 5J

54. (27)4 = (-1)4 = 1 (mod 641) (1)

But 54 = 625 = -16 (mod 641)
= -24 (mod 641)
:. (1) ~ -24. 22s = 1 (mod 641)

-232 = 1 (mod 641)

232=-l (mod641)

. 225 + 1=0 (mod641)

5
Hence 22 + 1 is divisible by 641.

Note In Section 3 .3 we have referred this number and Euclid proved it is not a prime.
4.18 • Algebra and Number Theory

Theorem .4. 7 If a= b (mod m1), a= b (mod m2), a= b (mod m3) ••• a= b (mod mr>·
Then a= b (mod [m1, m2, ••• , mrD·

Proof Given a=b(modm;), i=l,2,3, ,r

Then mi I a -b, i = 1, 2, 3, , r
Since zs, I a=b, m2 I a - b, ... , m; I a - b, then, their lcm [mp m2, ... , m;-] I a - b
=> a= b (mod[m1, m2, ... , mr])
•
Corollary If a= b (mod m;), i = 1, 2, 3, ••• ,rand ml' m2, ••• , mr are pairwise relatively prime then
a e b (mod m1 · m2 · ••• · mr)

Note The above result says that congruences of two numbers with different moduli can be combined
into a single congruence.

Theorem 4.8 If ac =be (mod m) and (c, m) = d, then a= b (mod;).

Proof Given ac =be (mod m) and (e, m) = d

=> m I ae - be => m I c (a - b) and ( ~, ; ) = 1

=> c(a-b)=km (1)

Dividing ( 1 ), we get
c m
-(a-b)=k-
d d

Since ~ and·; are· relatively prime, we get ; divides (a - b).

=>

Corollary If ac =be (mod m) and (c, m) = 1, then a= b (mod m).

For example,
14 = 8 (mod 6) => 2 · 7 = 2 · 4 (mod 6) and (2, 6) =2

Inverse of a modulo m

Definition 4.2 When (a, m) = 1, there is unique least residue x such that ax= 1 (mod m). Then a is
said to be invertible and xis called an inverse of a modulo m, denoted by a-1•

a a-1 = l(modm)
If
a-1 =a, then a is said to be self-invertible.
 Linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences • 4.19

Theorem 4.9 The unique solution of the linear congruence ax= b (mod m), where (a, m) = 1, is
the least residue of a-1b (mod m).

Proof Given the linear congruence

ax= b (mod m), where (a, m) = 1

Since (a, m) = 1, then a has an inverse a-1 modulo m
Multiplying by a-1,
a-1 (ax)= a-1 b (mod m)

(a-1a)x = a-1b(modm)
lx = a- b (modm)
1

x = a- b (modm)
1

the solution is the least residue of a -I · b (mod m)

For example,
Since 2 · 3 = 1(mod5)
2 is invertible and 3 is the inverse of2 (mod 5)
i.e., 2-1 = 3 (mod 5)
Since 4 · 4 = 1 (mod 5), the inverse of 4 is 4 (mod 5) and so 4 is selfreciprocal. •
4.3 LINEAR CONGRUENCE
We have seen congruence and their properties. We shall now consider congruence containing variables.
Linear congruence is the simplest of congruence with variable. We will see that linear congruence and
linear diophantine equation are related.

Definition 4.3 A congruence of the form ax = b (mod m), where m is a positive integer and a, b are
integers and x is a variable, is called a linear congruence.
Next theorem gives the necessary and sufficient condition for a linear congruence to be solvable.

Theorem 4.10 The linear congruence ax= b (mod m) is solvable if and only if d I b, where d =(a, m).
If d I b, then it has d incongruent solutions.

Proof Given the linear congruence

ax= b (mod m), where m E z+- and a, b E Z.
ax=b(modm) ifandonlyif mlax-b (1)
(2)
i.e., if and only if ax-b =my<:::> ax-my= b
which is a linear diophantine equation.
=
Thus, the linear congruence ax b (mod m) is solvable if and only if the linear diophantine equation
ax - my = b is solvable.
Let d =(a, m).
4.20 • Algebra and Number Theory

Then (by Theorem 4.1) the linear diophantine equation is solvable iff d I b.
When d I b, there are infinitely many solutions, which are given by

x=x0 +(-;} and y=y0-(~}· teZ

x = x +(; }-t)
0 and y =Yo+(~ }-t)
m,
x=x0+-t where t' = +t E Z
d
Where (x0, y0) is a particular solution of (2).
=
Hence the congruence ax b (mod m) has infinitely many solutions given by
where x0 is a particular solution if the congruence and t is an arbitrary integer.
When d I b, we shall now prove that there are only d incongruent solutions.

Suppose x1 = x0 + (;) t1 and x2 = x0 + (;) t2 are two solutions of the congruence.

Suppose x0 +; t1 =x 0 +; t2 (modm), then (; }1 = (; }2 (modm).

Since m Im, we get

d
t1 t2 (mod d) = [by Theorem 4.6]

Thus x1 andx, are congruent ifft1 = t2 (mod d).

:. x1 and x, are incongruent solutions iff u, t2 belong to different congruence classes mod d.
-But we know that there are only d congruence classes modulo d.
So, the number of incongruent solutions is d and they are given by

x=x0 +(;}. OSt<d

This is the general solution of the congruence.

•
Corollary The linear congruence ax= b (mod m) has unique solution if and only if (a, m) = 1.

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Determine whether the congruence 12.x = 48 (mod 18) is solvable and also find all the solutions
if solvable. (AU 2013)

Solution.
Given the linear congruence equation
12x 48 (mod 18) =
Here a= 12, b=48, m= 18
(a, m) = (12, 18) = 6

d=6
 Linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences • 4.21

Since 6 I 48, we have d I b

:. the equation is solvable.
Hence the general solution is
m
x=x0+-t, tEZ
d
We find, when x = 1,
12 = 48 (mod 18) [·: 12-48 =-36]
:. x0 = 1 is particular solution
18
x =1+-t
6
= 1+3t, t EZ
The incongruent solutions are x = 1 + 3t, where 0 ~ t ~ 6.
When t = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, we get the incongruent solutions 1, 4, 7, 10, 13 and 16.

EXAMPLE 2
Determinethe numberof incongruentsolutions of 48.x= 144 (mod 84). [AU 2017, 2018)

Solution.
Given the congruence
48x = 144 (mod 84)
Here a=48, b=144, m=84
Now (a, m) = (48, 84) = 12

d= 12
Since 121144, d I band so the congruence is solvable. It has 12 incongruent solutions.

EXAMPLE 3
=
Find the incongruentsolutions of the linear congruence 28.x 119 (mod 91).

Solution.
Given the congruence 28x = 119, (mod 91)
Here a=28, b=l19, m=91
(a, m) = (28, 91) = 7
1 J 28, 91
d=7 4, 13
Since 71119, we have d I b
:. the congruence is solvable and the incongruent solutions are given by
m
x=x0+-t, O~t<d
d
4.22 • Algebra and Number Theory

We observe that x = 1 is a solution, since 28-119 = -91, which is divisible by 91.

91
x0 =1 and x=l+-t, O~t<7
7
=> x = 1+13t, 0~t<7

When t = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, we get the solutions 1, 14, 27, 40, 53, 66, 79 (mod 91)

EXAMPLE 4
Solve the linear Diophantine equation 63x - 23y = - 7 using congruence.

Solutlon.
Given the LDE is 63x - 23y = - 7 (1)
From this we get the congruence
63x =-7 (mod 23) and -23y = -7(mod 63)

We solve 63x =-7(mod 23)

Since 63 = -6 (mod 23),
we get - 6x =-7 (mod 23) => 6x = 7 (mod 23)
Here a=6, b=7, m=23
(a,m)=(6,23)= 1

d=l
We find x0 = 5 is a solution, since 30 = 7 (mod 23).
:. the general solution of the congruence is
m
x=x0+dt

=> = 5+-t23 = 5+23t, t EZ

1
Now substituting for x in ( 1 ), we get
63 (5 + 23t)- 23y = -7

23y = 63 (5 + 23t)+ 7

= 322 + 63 + 23t

=> y= 14+63t
:. the general solution of the LDE is
x= 5 +23t, y= 14+63t, te Z.
 Linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences • 4~23

[ ·: 7 single fruits]

63x + 7 = 23y => 63x-23y=-'-7 (1)

which is a diophantine equation.
This is same as example 4.
So, solve as problem 4 and get the general solution.
General solution is x = 5 + 23t, y = 14 + 63t, t e Z.
When t = 0, we get one possible solution.
The solution is lx=5, y=141
When·t = 1, we get another possible solution.
The solution is x=28, y=77
Infact many possible solutions are there.

Note This problem is taken from the Indian mathematician.

Mahavira's book Ganita-Sara-Sangraha (AD 850).
This puzzle of mahavira yields the above diophantine equation. Mahavira was born in Mysore.
He was an astronomer and mathematician in the Court of King Amogavartana.

EXAMPLE 6
Use congruence to solve the LDE 15x + 2ly = 39.
Solution.
Given the LDE is 15x+21y=39 (1)
From (1), we form the congruence
3115, 21
15x = 39 (mod 21) 5, 7
Here a= 15, b=39, m=21
(a, m) = (15, 21) = 3

d=3
Since 3 J 39, we have d I band so the congruence is solvable.
4.24 • Algebraand Number Theory

The general solution is

m
x=x0+dt, tEZ

We find x = 4 is a solution of the congruence

since 60 = 39 (mod 21) [as 60-39 = 21 is divisible by 21]
Xo =4
Hence
21
x=4+-t
3
=> x=4+7t, tEZ
Substituting for x in (1), we get
15(4+7t)+21y = 39
2ly = 39-60-105t
= -21-105t
=> y =-l-5t
:. the general solution of the LDE is
x=4+7t and y=-1-5t, tEZ

EXAMPLE 7
Using inverse find the incongruentsolutions of the linearcongruence Ss; = 3 (mod 6).

Solution.
Given the linear congruence
5x=3 (mod6) (1)
Here a= 5, b = 3, m=6
(a, m) = (5, 6) = l

d=l
Since l I 3, we have d I b and hence it is solvable
We know 5 · 5 = 25 = 1 (mod 6)
the inverse of 5 is 5
5-l = 5 (mod 6)
Multiplying (I) by 5-1, then
(5-I · 5) X = 5-l · 3 (mod 6)
=> x=5· 3 (mod6)
x = 3 (mod 6) is the solution
 Linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences • 4.25

4.3.1 DivislbllityTests
As an application of theory of congruence we shall now find the criterion for a given integer
to be divisible by another integer.
Let n be a positive integer in the decimal system.

Let

Then (1)

Using this expansion we shall now develop criterion for divisibility by

2, 22, 23, ... , and 3, 5, 9, 10, 11.

Divisibility Test for 10

We know 10 = O(mod 10)
:. the expression(!) reduces ton= n0 (mod 10)
So, n is divisible by 10 if the unit place n0 is divisible by 10.
i.e., iff n0 = 0.
Thus an positive integer is divisible by 10 if its unit digit is 0.
Divisibility Test for 5
We know 10 = 0 (mod 5), the expression (1) reduces ton= n0 (mod 5)
:. n is divisible by 5 i.ffthe unit digit n0 is divisible by 5.
But the only single digit numbers divisible by 5 are 0 and 5.
:. n is divisible by 5 if.its unit digit is 0 or 5.

Divisibility Test for 2, 22, 23, •••

We know 10 = 0 (mod 2) and 10; = O (mod 2;)
n= n0(mod2)
= n1n0(mod22)
= n2n1n0(mod23)
Thus n is divisible by 2 if n0 is divisible by 2
n is divisible by 4 if n1n0 is divisible by 4
n is divisible by 8 if n2n1n0 is divisible by 8
For example,
We know 31432 is divisible by 2, since the last digit is divisible by 2.
It is divisible by 4, since the last 2 digits 32 is divisible by 4.
It is divisible by 8, since the last 3 digits 432 is divisible by 8.

Divisibility Test for 3 and 9

We know 10 = 1(mod3), 10; = 1(mod3)
n = nk +nk-l + ... +n2 +n1 +n0 (mod 3)
So, n is divisible by 3, if the sum of the digits is divisible by 3
4.26 • Algebra and Number Theory

n = nk + nk-l + ... + n1 + n0 (mod 9)

So, n is divisible by 9 if the sum of the digits is divisible by 9.
For example,
123456 is divisible by 3,
since the sum of the digits 1+2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 21 is divisible by 3.
But it is a not divisible by 9, since 9 j 21.
Divisibility Test for 11
We know 10=-l(mod11) and io' =(-Ii (mod 11)

n = (-l)k nk +(-l)k-lnk-l + ... +n2 -n1 +n0 (modll)

= (n0 +n2 +n4 + ... )-(n1 +n3 +n5 + ... ) (modll)
n is divisible by 11 if
the sum of digits in the even places - sum of digits in odd places
is divisible by 11.
For example,
We know 243506076 is divisible by 11.
For, (7 + 6 + 5 + 4) - (6 + 0 + 0 + 3 + 2) = 22 - 11 = 11
which is divisible by 11.

4.4 SYSTEM OF LINEAR CONGRUENCES

When we consider a set of two or more linear congruences in the same number of variables, we call it
a system of linear congruences.
First we shall consider a system of linear congruences in one variable x with pair wise relatively
prime moduli.
For example,
x= 1(mod3), x = 2 (mod 5), x= 3 (mod 7)
is a system of linear congruences.
A solution of a linear system is a number that satisfies every congruence in the system.
One method of solving a linear system is iteratiorl.
That is successive substitution for x until the last congruence is used.

EXAMPLE 1
Solve the system of congruences x = l(mod 3), x = 2(mod 5), x = 3(mod 7).

Solution.
Given x= l(mod 3), x=2(mod 5), x= 3(mod 7)
We solve this system by iteration. We start with x = 1 (mod 3)
Here a= 1, b = 1, m=3
 Linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences • 4.27

(a,m)=(l,3)=1

d= 1 and so di b
So, the equation has a solution x0 = 1.
:. the general solution is
m
x=x0+dt
=> X = 1+3t1, t1 E Z (1)
Substituting in (1) x = 2 (mod 5), we get
1 +3t1 =2(mod5)

=> 3t1 = 1 (mod 5)

We find t1 = 2 is clearly a solution, since 6 = 1 (mod 5)
t1=2 (mod 5) is a particular solution
Here a=l, b=2, m=5 and (a,b)=(l,2)=1.
So, general solution is
t1 = 2 + 5 t2, t2 e z
x = 1 + 3 (2 + 5 t2) = 7 + 15 t2 (2)
Substituting in (2) x = 3 (mod 7), we get
7 +15 t2 = 3 (mod 7)

=> 15 t2 =--4 (mod 7)

=> =
15 t2 3 (mod 7) [·: --4 = 3 mod 7]
We find t2 = 3 is a solution, since 45 = 3 (mod 7)
'z = 3 (mod 7) is a particular solution
Here a= 15, b = 3, m =7 and (a, m) = (15, 7) = 1

t2 = 3 + 7t, t E Z
X = 7 + 15 (3 + 7t) = 52 + 105t, t E Z

:. the general solution of the system is

X = 52 + l05t, tEZ
We note that 52 is the unique solution modulo, 105 = 3 · 5 · 7
The next theorem gives a systematic method of solving system oflinear congruences single variable
•
with pairwise relatively prime moduli._Itis known as Chinese Remaindertheoremin honour of early
contributions of chinese mathematicians to the theory of congruences.
In the first centuary AD, a puzzle was posed by the chinese mathematician Sun-Tsu.
There are certain number of things when divided by 3, the remainder is 2;
4.28 • Algebra and Number Theory

when divided by 5, the remainder is 3,

and when divided by 7, the remainder is 2.
What will be the number of things?
This puzzle is the earliest known example of the chinese remainder theorem.

Theorem 4.11 Chinese Remainder theorem

The system of linear congruences x= a1 (mod m1),x=a2 (mod m2), ,x= ak (mod mk), where
m., m2, ... , mk are pairwise relatively prime positive integers and a., a2, , ak are given integers,
has unique solution modulo m1 · m2 · m3 · ... · mk. [AU 2018]

Proof First we prove the existence of the solution

Let n = m1 · m2 · m3 · ... · mk

Let ni = !!_,i = 1,2,3, ... ,k.

mi
Since ml' m2, ... , mk are pairwise relatively prime
(n;, m;) = l, i = 1, 2, 3, ... , k
Also

1. First we construct a solution to the linear system.

i '#- j
•
Since (n;,mi) = l, the congruence n;Y; = l(modm;) has a unique solution v,
(in fact yi is the inverse of ni modulo m), i = l, 2, ... , k.
Let x = a1n1Y1 + azn2Y2 + ... + aknkYk
Now, we will show that xis a solution of the system of congruences.
Since ni = O(modmk) for i '#- k, all terms except the JC-h term in this sum are
congruent to 0 modulo mk.
Since nkyk = l(modmk), we see that x = aknkYk = ak(modmk), fork= 1, 2, 3, ... , n.
Thus x satisfies every congruence in the system.
Hence xis a solution of the linear system.
2. Next to show that the solution is unique modulo n = m1 · m2 · ... · mk.
Let xi' x2 be two solutions of the system
To prove x. =x2 (modn)
Since x1 = a1(modmf) and x2 = a/modmJ), j = 1, 2, 3, ... , k,
we have x1-x2=0 (mod m)
mJ I x1 -x2 for every j
Since ml' m2, ... , mk are pairwise relatively prime,
lcm [ m1,m2, ... ,mk]= m1m2 ... mk lx1 -x2
=> =
n I x1 -x2 => x1 x2(modn)
Hence the solutions is unique mod m1m2 ... mk
 Linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences • 4.29

. n
Working rule: Let n = m1m2 ... mk and ni = -
mi

Step 1: Find the solutionsyi'y2, ... ,yk, where niyi= 1 (mod m;), i= 1, 2, ... , k.
Step 2: x = a1n1y1 + a2n2y2 + ... + aknkYk is the solution (mod n)

EXAMPLE 2
Solve the system x = 1 (mod 3), x=2 (mod4), x=3 (mod 5). [AU 2017, 2018]

Solution.
Given system is
x = l(mod3)
x = 2(mod4)
x = 3(mod5)
Here a2 =2,

m2=4,
We find m1 m2 m3 are pairwise relatively prime
Let ' ' n = m1 m2 m3 = 3 · 4 · 5 = 60
n 3·4·5
and n1=-=--=20
m1 3
n 3·4·5
n2 =-=--=15
m2 4
n 3·4·5
n3 =-=--=12
m3 5
1. We find yi' y2, y3 from the congruences
n1y1 = l(modm1)
n2y2 = l(modm2)
~y3 = l(modm3)
we have n1y1 = l(mod m1)

=> 20y1 = l(mod 3) [·: n1=0,

Since 20 · 2 = 40 = 1 (mod 3), we see y1 = 2 is a solution
we have n2y2 = 1 (mod m2)
=> 15y2 = 1 (mod 4)
Since 15·3=1 (mod4), we see y2 = 3 is a solution
we have n3y3 = 1 (mod m3)
=> 12y3 = 1 (mod 5)
Since 12 · 3 = 36 = 1 (mod 5), we see y3 = 3 is a solution
4.30 • Algebra and Number Theory

2. Then solution is x = any

1 1 1 +a2n2y2 +a3n:iy3 (modn)
x = 1· 20·2+ 2· 15·3+3· 12·3 (mod60)
=> x = 40+ 90+72 (mod60) 3

=> x = 238 (mod60) 60~

180
=> x = 58 (mod 60)
58
:. 58 is the unique solution (mod 60).
:. the solution of the system is x = 58 (mod 60) and it is the unique solution.

EXAMPLE 3
Solve the linear system x = 3(mod 7), x = 4(mod9); x = S(modll)
[AU 2018]

Solutlon.
Given linear system is
x = 3(mod7), x = 4(mod9), x = 8(modl 1)
Here a2 =4, a3 = 8
and m2 = 9, m3 = 11
we find ml' m2, m3 are pairwise relatively prime
Let n = m1 m2 m3 = 7 · 9 · 11 = 693
and
n 7·9·11
n1 =-=--=99
m1 7·
n 7·9·11
n2 =-.=--=77
m2 9
n 7·9·11
n3 =-=--=63
m3 11
1. We find yl' y2, y3 from the congruences
n1y1 = l(modm 1) ' 14
n2y2 = l(modm 2) 7~
n3y3 = l(mod m3) 7
29 64
We have n1y1= l(modm 1) 28 63
=> 99y = l(mod 7)
1

We know 99 · 1 = 99 = 1 (mod 7). 40

y1 = 1 is a solution 11~
We have n2y2 = 1 (mod m 2) 440
=> 77y2 = 1 (mod 9)
 Linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences • 4.31

We know 77 · 2 = 154 =I (mod 9)

y2 = 2 is a solution
We have n3y3 = I (mod m3)
=> 63 y3 = 1 (mod 11)
We know 63·7=441=1(mod11)
y3 = 7 is a solution
2. Then solution is x = a1 n1y1 + a2n2y2 + a3n3y3 (mod n) is the solution
x = 3·99· 1+4·77 · 2+8·63· 7 (mod693)
=> x = 297 +616+3528 (mod693)
=> x = 4441 (mod 693)
=> x = 283 (mod 493)
283 is the unique solution (mod 493)

EXAMPLE 4
Sun-Tsu's puzzle given in the introduction page 4.26 can be translated as a system of congruences.
If x is the number of things then
x = 2(mod 3), x = 3(mod 5), x = 2(mod 7).

Solutlon.
Given linear system is
x = 2(mod3), x = 3(mod5), x = 2(mod7)
Here a2 = 3,
m1 = 3, m2 = 5, · m3 = 7
We find m1, m2, m3 are pairwise relatively prime
Let n = m1 m2 m3 = 3 · 5 · 7 = 105
and
n 3·5·7
n1 =-=--=35
m1 3
n 3·5·7
n2 =-=--=21
m2 5
n 3.5.7
n3 =-=--=15
m3 7
1. We find y 1' y2, y3 from the congruences

n1y1 = l(modm1)
n2Yz = l(mod m2)
~Y3 = l(mod m3)
4.32 • Algebra and Number Theory

We have n1Yi = l(modm1)

=> 35y1 = l(mod 3)
Since 35 · 2 = 70 = 1 (mod 3), we see y1 = 2 is a solution
We have n2y2 = 1 (mod m2)

=> 21y2 = 1 (mod 5)

Since 21·1=21=1 (mod5), we see y2 = 1 is a solution
We have n3y3 = 1 (mod m3)

=> 15 y3 = 1 (mod 7)
Since 15 x 1=15 = 1 (mod 7), we seey3=1 is a solution
2. Then solution is x = a1n1y1 + a2n2y2 + a3n3y3 (modn) is the solution

x = 2·35·2+3·21·1 +2·15·1 (mod105) 2

=> x = 140+63+30 (mod105)
105~
=> x = 233 (mod105) 210
=> x = 23 (mod105) 23
:. 23 is the smallest number satisfying the system.
=>the number of things is 23.

EXAMPLE 5
Find the least positive integer that leaves remainder 3 when divided by 7, 4 when divided by 9,
and 8 when divided by 11.

Solution.
Let x be an integer that leaves remainder 3 when divided by 7, 4 when divided by 9, 8 when divided
by 11.
x = 3(mod 7), x = 4(mod 9), x = 8(mod 11)
This is same as example 3, page 4.30.
Solution is x = 283 (mod 493).
: . the least positive integer is 283

EXAMPLE 6
Find the least positive integer which when divided by 3, 4, 5, 6 leaves remainder 2, 3, 4, 5
respectively.

Solution.
Let x be the number. When x is divided by 3, 4, 5, 6, the remainders are 2, 3, 4, 5 respectively
x = 2(mod3) => x = -l(mod3) 2 3, 4, 5, 6
x = 3(mod4) => x = -l(mod4) 3 3, 2, 5, 3
x = 4(mod5) => x = -l(mod5) 1, 2, 5, 1
x= 5(mod6) => x =-l(mod6)
 Linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences
• 4.33

But lcm of [3, 4, 5, 6] = 2 . 3 . 2 . 5 = 60

x=-1 (mod60) [by Theorem 4. 7]
= 59 (mod 60)
59 is the least positive integer required.

4.5 2 x 2 LINEAR SYSTEMS

In the previous section we discussed system of linear congruences in one variable.
Now we shall consider a linear system of congruences in two variables with the same modulus.

Definition4.4 A system of linear congruence of the form

ax+by = e(modm)
cx+dy = f(modm)
is called a 2 x 2 linear system, where a, b, c, d, e,fare integers and mis a positive integer.
A solution of the linear system is a pair x = x0 (mod m ), y = Yo (mod m) that satisfies both the
congruences.
The solution can be obtained by a formula similar to Cramer's rule and by elimination method.

Theorem 4.12 The liner system of congruences

ax+ by= e(modm) and cx+dy = /(modm)
has unique solution if and only if ca, m) = 1, where a = ad - bc(mod m).
Proof Given the linear system
ax+by = e(modm) (1)
cx+dy=f(modm) (2)

Let bl
..:i= ac d =ad-bc(modm)·
l
Suppose the system has a solution
x = x0(modm) and y = y0(modm)
Then ax0 + by0 = e(mod m) (3)
cx0 +dy0 = /(modm) (4)
(3)xd ~ adx0 + bdy0 =de (modm)
(4)xb ~· bcx0 + bdy0 = bf (mod m)
Subtracting, (ad-bc)x0 = (de-bf)(modm)
~ Lix0 =(de-bf) (modm)
This is a linear congruence in x0•
We know x0 has unique value ijf (..:i, m) = 1 .
Similarly,y0 has unique value ijf(..:i,m) = 1.
4.34 • Algebra and Number Theory

Hence the system has unique solution modulo m iff(l1,m) = 1.

The unique solution modulo m is given by
x0~11-1(de-bf)(modm)

= 11-11; ~I (modm), where 11 = lac: dbl

Yo= 11-11: ;1 (modm),

where 11-11-1 = 1 (modm).

Thus x = x0(modm), y = y0(modm) is the unique solution of the linear system.
•
Note This method is similar to Cramer's rule. In x0 the determinant I e bl is obtained from 11 by
replacing x column by constant column. f d

,la fel is obtained from 11 by replacing y column by constant column.

And in y0, c

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Solve the system of congruences
3x+ 13y = 8 (mod55)
5x+ 21y = 34 (mod55).
Solution.
Given the linear system
3x+ 13y = 8 (mod55)
5x+21y = 34 (mod55)

131=3·21-5·13
Now 11=13 (mod55)
5 21
=-2(mod55)
= 53 (mod55)
Here 11 = 53 and m = 55
(11, m) = (53, 55) = 1
:. the system has unique solution modulo 55
131
The solution is x 0 = 11-118 (mod55)
34 21
81
and y0 = 11-113 (mod55)
5 34
 Linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences • 4.35

To find a-1:
Now A·A-1 =l(mod55) => 53A-1 =l(mod55)

-2·A-1 =l(mod55) [ ·: -53 = -2 (mod 55)]

If A . . . 1 = -28 then (-2) · (-28) = 56 = l(mod 55)

But -28 = 27 (mod 55)
K1 = 27 (mod 55)
x0 = 27·(8:21"""'."34·13) (mod55)
= 27 ·(-274) (mod55)
= 27·1 (mod 55) [·: 274 = -1(mod55) => -274 = 1(mod55)]
=> x0 = 27 (mod55)
and Yo = 27 · (3 · 34 - 5 · 8) (mod 55)
= 27 · 62 (mod 55)
= 27· 7 (mod 55)

=> Yo = 24 (mod 55)

Thus x = 27 (mod 55) and y = 24 (mod 55) is the unique solution of the given system.

Note The solution is also written as x = 27 + 55t, y = 24 + 55t, tE Z.

EXAMPLE 2
Solve the system of linearcongruences
5x + 6y = 10(mod13)
6x-7y 2 (modl3). = [AU 2013]

Solution.
Given the linear system of congruences
5x+6y = 10 (mod13)
6x-7y = 2 (mod13)

Now Ll=I~. ~71=-35-36(mod13)

=--71(mod13)
·'

=7(mod13) [·: -71=7 (mod 13)]

Here S=7
! '.:_ ' :- ;f ~ {." : ';
and m= 13
4.36 • Algebra and Number Theory

So, the system has unique solution mod13 given by

61
xo =A -11102 (mod13)
-7

Yo =A -1156 1012 (mod13)

To findA-1:
Now A·A-1=1(mod13)=>7·A-1=1 (mod13)
We have 7 · 2 = 14 = 1 (mod 13)
A-1 = 2 (mod 13)
x0 = 2·(-70-12)(mod13)
= 2·(-82) (mod13)
= 2(-4) (mod13)
=-8(mod13)
x0 = 5 (mod 13)
and Yo = 2·(10-60) = 2(-50) (mod13)
= 2·2 (mod13)
y0 = 4 (mod13)

[·: 50 = -2 (mod13) => -50 = 2 (mod13))

the solution is x = 5 (mod 13) and y = 4 (mod 13)

EXAMPLE 3
Solve the linear system of congruences
3x+4y = 5(mod7)
4x+5y = 6(mod7)
by using elimination method.

Solutlon.
Given the linear system of congruences
3x+4y = 5(mod7) (1)
4x+5y = 6(mod 7) (2)
(l)x5 => 15x+ 20y = 25 (mod 7)
(2)x4 => 16x + 20y = 24 (mod 7)
Subtracting, we get -x= 1(mod7)
=> x=-1(mod7)
=> x= 6 (mod 7)
 Linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences • 4.37

Substituting in (1) for x, we get

3 · 6 + 4y = 5 (mod 7)

18 + 4y = 5 (mod 7)

4 + 4y = 5 (mod 7)

4y= 1(mod7)

y=2 (mod 7) [ ·: 4 · 2 = 8 = 1 (mod 7)]

:. the solution is x = 6 (mod 7) and y = 2 (mod 7)

EXAMPLE 4
Solve the linear system of congruences
x+3y=3(mod11)
5x+ y = 5 (modll)
by using eliminating method.

Solution.
Given the system of linear congruences
x+3y = 3 (modll) (1)
5x+y = 5(modl1) (2)
(1) is x + 3y = 3 (mod 11)
(2) x 3 :::} 15x+3y= 15(mod11) 1

Subtracting, we get 11F

11
-14x =-12 (mod 11)
3
-3x=-12(mod 11)
x;i:4(mod 11) [·: 14 = 3 mod 11]
Substitute in (2), we get
5 · 4 + y = 5 (mod 11)

20+y=5(mod11)

y=-15(mod11) [ ·: 15 = 4 mod 11]

=-4(mod11)
y=7 (mod 11) [-4 = 7 (mod 11)]
:. the solution is x= 4 (mod 11) andy = 7 (mod 11).
4.38 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXERCISE 4.1
1. Find the general solution of the following linear Diophantine equations, if the solution exists
(i) 14x + 16y = 15 (ii) 12x + 16y = 20 (iii) 12x + 20y = 28
2. Solve the following linear congruences, if solvable
=
(i) 15x 20 (mod 25) =
(ii) 3x 4 (mod 7)
=
(iii) 4x 5 (mod 9) =
(iv) 8x 3 (mod 27)
3. Solve the linear Diophantine equations using congruences
(i) 3x + 4y =:= 5 (ii) 36x + 156y = 96
4. Solve the system of linear congruences, if solvable.
= =
(i) x 2 (mod 3), x 3 (mod 5)
= =
(ii) x 2 (mod 3), x 3 (mod 5), x 5 (mod 2)=
= =
(iii) x 0 (mod 3), x 1 (mod 4), x 5 (mod 7)=
5. Find the least positive integer that leaves remainder 2, 3, 2 when divided by 3, 5, 7.
= =
[Hint: x 2 (mod 3), x 3 (mod 5), x 2 (mod 7)] =
6. Find the remainder when
(i) 21000 is divided by 17 (ii) 3100 is divided by 101
(iii) 21ooo is divided by 9
7. Solve the 2 x 2 linear system of congruences
(i) 5x + lly = 8(mod 13)
=
1 lx + 5y 9 (mod 13)
=
(ii) 5x + 7y 3 (mod 9)
6x + 5y = 4 (mod 9)

ANSWERS TO EXERCISE 4.1

1. (i) no solution
(ii) X = 3 + 4t, y ::: -1 - 3t, t E Z
(iii) x=4+5t,y=-1-3t,tE Z
2. (i) X = 3 + 5t, t E Z
(ii) X = 6 + 7t, t E Z
(iii) X = 8 + 9t, t E Z
(iv) X = 24+ 27!, t E Z
3. (i) x=3+4t,y=-1-5t,tE Z
(ii) X = 7 + 13!, y = -1 - 3t, t E Z
4. (i) X = 8 + 15t, t E Z
(ii) X = 23 + 30t, t E Z
(iii) X = 33 + 84t, t E Z
5. 23
6. (i) I (ii) I (iii) 7
7. = =
(i) x 4 (mod 13), y 6 (mod 13)
[(or)x=4+ l3t
y = 6 + 13!, t E Z]
= =
(ii) x 5 (mod 9), y 2 (mod 9)
 linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences • 4.39

PART A QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Is the linear diophantine equation 6x + Sy= 25 solvable? [AU 2018)
Ans. Given 6x + 8y = 25
Here a = 6, b = 8, c = 25
(a, b) = (6, 8) = 2.
Since 2 / 25, f
d c
So, this equation is not solvable.
2. Examine whether the linear diophantine equation 12x + 16y = 18 is solvable. Write its
general solutions, if solvable. [AU 2013)
Ans. Refer worked example 2, Page 4.4.
3. Determine if the linear diophantine equation 6x + 12y + 15z 10 solvable. =
Ans. Given LDE is 6x + l2y + 15z = 10
Here a1 = 6, a2 = 12, a3 = 15, c= 10
(al' a2, a3) = (6, 12, 15) = 3
d= 3andc=10
Since 3 / 10, d/c
Hence the equation is not solvable.
4. If a· b a 0 (mod m), then a a 0 (mod m) and ba 0 (mod m).
State True or False.
Ans. False
For example let a= 3, b = 4, then 3 · 4 = 12 = 0 (mod 6)
But a= 3 %' 0 (mod6) and b = 4 %' 0 (mod6)
S. If a Ji!f 0 (modm) and b Ji!f O(modm), then a-b %' O(modm).
Ans. False
For example a= 3, b = 4
a= 3 %' 0 (mod6), b = 4 %' 0 (mod6)
=
But a-b = 12 0 (mod6).
6. Is it true that 9too - 1 is divisible by 10.
Ans. True
We have 91 = 9(mod 10)
92 = 81 = l(mod10); 9 = 9(mod10)
3

94 = 81 = l(modlO)
and so on.
4,40 • Algebra and. Number Theory

:. we observe that 92n = 1 (mod 10) for all integers n 2: 1

9100 = 1 (mod 10)
=> 9100 -1 = 0 (mod 10)
Hence 9100 _ 1 is divisible by 10
IR
7. If today is Wednesday, what day will it be in 129 days?
Ans. To find day of a week we use mod 7
7n29
7
129 = 3 (mod 7) 59
56
So, if today is Wednesday then after 3 days, the day will be Saturday.
3

8. If today is Monday what day will it be in 999 days? 142

Ans. To find the day use mod 7

999 = 5 (mod 7)
»=:
7
29
So, if today is Monday, then after 5 days it will be Saturday. 28
19
14
5

9. If it is 11.30 AM now what time will it be in 1769 hours? 147

Ans. To find the time, we consider mod 12. 12~
12
1769 = 5 (mod 12)
56
So, if now the time is 11.30 AM, then after 5 hours it will be 4.30 PM. 48
89
84
10. Is 2x = 7 (mod 4) solvable? 5
Ans. Given the linear congruence 2x = 7 (mod 4).
Here a=2, b= T, m=4
(a,m)=(2,4)=2
d=2andb=7
Since 2 f7, d / b.
So, the equation is not solvable in integers.

11. Solve the linear congruence 3x = 1 (mod 5). [AU 2013, 2018)
Ans. Given 3x = 1 (mod 5)
Here a= 3, b = 1, m = 5
(a, m) = (3, 5) = 1
 Linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences • 4.41

d= 1andb=1
:. di b.
So the equation has unique solution.
We see x0 = 2 is a solution, since 3 · 2 = 6 = 1 (mod 5)
:. the only incongruent solution is
m
x=x0+-t, 0::;;; t < 1
d
5
= 2+-t1 (·: t=O)

=2

But all solution are given by x = 2+~t = 2+5t, t e Z.

. 1

l2. Determine the number of incongruent solutions of the congruence 48x• 144 (mod 84).
[AU 2017, 18]
Ans. Refer worked example 2, Page 28.
l3. Given an example of a linear congruence that has an unique solution. [AU2018)
Ans. Consider 3x = 1 (mod 5), which has unique solution .
. 4. Find the remainder when 297 is divided by 13. [AU 2017)
Ans. 22=4(mod13),z4=16 = 3(mod13)

28 = 3 = 9(mod 13)
2 6

216 = 92 = 81==3(mod13) 13~

78
(2'6)4 = 34 = 81=3 (mod 13) 3
264 = 3 (mod 13).
But (2'6)2 = 32 = 9 = 9 (mod 13)
232 = 9 (mod 13)
297=264+32+1
297 = 264. 232. 2'

291 = 3 . 9 . 2 (mod 13)

= 54(mod13)
= 2 (mod 13)
:. the remainder is 2 when 297 is divided by 13.
4.42 • Algebra and Number Theory

15. Find the inverse of 7 modulo 26. 4

Ans. If x is the inverse, then 7x = 1 (mod 26) 26~
104
But 7 · 15 = 105 = 1 (mod 26)
1
x = 15 is the inverse of 7 (mod 26)
16. Determine the number of incongruent solutions of 4x a S(mod 9).
Ans. Given 4x= 5 (mod 9)
Here a= 4, b = 5, m = 9
(a,m)=(4,9)=1
d= 1 and b= 5
:. d I b and so the equation is solvable.
Since d = 1, the number of incongruent solution is 1 and the only incongruent solution is
8(mod 9).
17. Find the last digit in 3ss.
Ans. The last digit of 355 is the remainder when it is divided by 10.
So apply mod 10.
Now 32 = 9 (mod 10), 34 = 92 = 81 = 1 (mod 10)
33 = 27 = 7 (mod 10)
15
(34)13 = 113 (mod 10)
12
=> 352 = 1 (mod 10) 3
355 = 352+3 = 352. 33 5 1. 7 (mod 10)
= 7 (mod 10)
:. the unit's digit is 7 in 355.
18. State Chinese remainder theorem. [AU 2017]
Ans. Refer Theorem 4.10, Page 4.27.
19. Determine whether the linear system x = 5 (mod 9) and x = 7 (mod 12) is solvable.
Ans. Given x = 5(mod9)
x = 7(modl2)
We have (9, 12) = 3, but 3 H5-7) = -2.
So, the system is not solvable.
 Linear Diophantine Equations and Congruences • 4.43

20. Determine whether the linear system 6x+ 8y = 10(mod13) and 8x+ lOy = 12(mod13) is
solvable.
Ans. Given 6x +Sy= 10 (mod 13)
Sx + lOy = 12 (mod 13)
.:1=1: 1~1=60- 64 = -4(mod 13)
= 9(mod13)
Here m= 13
Now (.:1, m) = (9, 13) = 1
:. the system has unique solution.
21. Determine whether the LDE 6x + 8y = 25 is solvable. [AU 2018)
Ans. Given the LDE 6x + Sy = 25
Here a = 6, b = S, c = 25
(a, b) = (6, S) = 2
d=2, c=25
Since 2 / 25, f
d c.
:. The LOE is not solvable.
Classical Theorems
and Multiplicative FunOBDns 5
In this chapter we will discuss three important classical results in number theory namely-Wilson's
theorem, Fermat's little theorem and Euler's theorem. These theorems are important milestones in the
development of the theory of congruence and illustrate the significance of congruence.

5.1 WILSON'STHEOREM
The result known as Wilson's theorem was only conjectured (or guessedjby the British mathematician
John Wilson (1741-1793). But the first proof was given by Langrange in 1770. He observed the
converse is also true.

Theorem 5.1 Wilson's theorem

lfp is prime, then (p-1)! =-1 (modp).

Proof We have to prove (p- l)! =-1 (modp)

Whenp = 2, (p- 1)! = (2 - 1)! = 1 =-1 (mod 2).
So, the theorem is true when p = 2.
Now letp > 2 and let a be a positive integer such that 1::;; a :5:p- 1.
Since pis a prime and a <p, (a,p) = 1.
Then the congruence ax= 1 (mod p) has a solution a' congruence modulo p.
aa' = l(modp), where 1::;; a' :5:p-1
a, a' are inverses of each other modulo p.
If a' = a, then a · a = 1 (mod p) ~ a2 - 1 = 0 (mod p)
p I a2 - 1 ~ p I (a - 1) (a+ 1) ~ p I a- 1 or p I a+ 1
Since a < p, if p I a + 1 then a = p - 1.
If p I a - 1, then a - 1 = 0 ~ a = 1
a= 1 or p-1 if a= a'
i.e., 1 and p - 1 are their own inverses.
If a' :;e a, excluding, 1 and p - 1, the remaining p - 3 residues 2, 3, 4, ... , (p - 3), (p - 2) can be
3
grouped into p - ·pairs of the type a, a' such that
2
aa' = 1 (modp)
Multiplying all these pairs together we get
2·3·4 (p- 3) (p- 2) = 1 (modp)

1 ·2·3·4 (p - 2) (p - 1) = p - 1 (mod p)
 •
' .
,A,tgebra ano.rsurnaer rneory

:I'
=> (p-1)! =-1 (modp) (': p- 1 =-l(modp)

This can Be.rewritten

·• ""-· _._. _ as (p - l}l 't::.'1 = 0 (mod p)
' .. ,,· ,··-.- ./
,f Hence the theorem. •
=> pl(p-1)!+1,
which is the result suggested by Wilson.

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Show that 18! + 1 is divisible by 437.

Solution.
Wilson's theorem is (p-' 1)! + 1 is divisible by a prime p.
Here 437 is not a prime and 437 = 19 · 23, where 19 and 23 are primes.
Since 19 is a prime (19-1)! + 1=18! + l is divisible by 19
=> 18! + l = 0 (mod 19)
Since 23 is a prime (23 - l)! + 1=22! + l is divisible by 23.
=> 22! + 1 = 0 (mod 23)

=> 22 · 21 · 20 · 19 · 18! + 1=0 (mod 23)

But 22 =-1 (mod 23), 21 =-2 (mod 23)

20 = -3 (mod 23), 19 =-4 (mod 23)

22 · 21 · 20 · 19 = (-1) (-2) (-3) (-4) (mod 23)

=24 (mod23)

= 1(mod23)
Multiplying by 18!, we get
22 · 21 · 20 · 19 · 81! = 18! (mod 23)

=> 22 · 21 · 20 · 19 · 81! + 1 = 18! + 1 (mod 23)

But LHS is 22! + 1=0 (mod 23)
Hence 18! + l = 0 (mod23)

18! + 1 is divisible by 19 and23

=> 18! + 1 is divisible by lcm [19, 23] 'f 19 · 23 = 437
=> 18! + l = 0 (mod 437)
 Classical Theorems and Multiplicative Functions • 5.3

EXAMPLE 2
If p is a prime number of the form 4m + 1, where m is a positive integer, prove that
(2m!)2 + 1 = 0 (mod p).

Solution.
Given the prime number p is of the form 4m + 1, where m is a positive integer.
To prove (2m!)2 + 1=0 (modp).
Since p = 4m + 1 is a prime, by Wilson's theorem
(p-1)! =-1 (modp)
=> (p- 1)! + 1=0 (modp)
=> (4m + 1 - 1)! + 1=0 (modp)
=> 4m! + 1=0 (modp) (1)
=> 4m(4m - 1)(4m -2) ... (4m -(2m -1)) · 2m! + 1=0 (modp) (1)
But 4m+ 1 =p
4m =p-1 =-l(modp)
4m -1 = p-2 = (-2)(modp)
4m-2 =p-3 = (-3) (modp)
4m-(2m- l)=p-2m =-2m (modp)
Multiplying together we get
4m( 4m -1)( 4m - 2)... (4m -(2m -1))
= (-1)(-2)(-3) ... (-2m)(modp)
=2m!(modp)
Multiplying both sides by (2m)! we get
4m(4m -1)(4m-2) ... (4m-(2m-1))(2m)!
= (2m!) (2m!) (mod p)
=> 4m! = (2m!)2 (modp)
=> 4m! + 1=(2m!)2+1 (modp)
=> 0 = (2m!)2 + 1 (modp) [using (l)]
(2m!)2 + 1=0 (modp)

EXAMPLE 3
If n is a positive integer such that (n -1)! a -1 (mod n), then prove that n is a prime.

Solution.
Given n is a positive integer such that
(n-1)1 = -l(modn) => (n -1)! + 1 = O(modn) (1)
5.4 • Algebra and Number Theory

To prove n is a prime.
Suppose n is not a prime, then n is a composite number.
:. n =ab, where a, b are integers between 1 and n
i.e., 1 <a, b < n.
Since a\ ab, a\ n by (1)
n\[(n-1)!+1)
a\[(n-1)!+1]
But l <a< n, so, a is one of the integers 2, 3, 4, ... , (n - 1)
:. a divides the product 2 · 3 · 4.;. (n - l) = (n - l)!
Thus, a\[(n-1)!+1] anda\(n-1)!
~ a\[(n-1)!+1-(n-l)!]~a\l
which is a contradiction, since l < a.
Our assumption n is composite is wrong
Hence n is a prime.

EXAMPLE 4
Prove that 63! a -1 (mod 71).

Solution.
Here p = 71 is a prime.
:. by Wilson's theorem,
(71 - 1)! =-1 (mod 71)

~ 70! =-1 (mod 71) (1)

But 70! = 70 . 69 . 68 . 67 . 66 . 65 . 64 . 63 !
Now
70 = -l(mod 71), 69 = -2(mod 71)
68 = -3(mod 71), 67 = -4(mod 71)
66 = -5(mod 71), 65 = -6(mod 71)
and 64 = -7(mod 71)

70 · 69 · 68 · 67 · 66 · 65 · 64 = (-1) · (-2) · (-3) (-4) · (-5) (-6) · (-7) (mod 71)

= -5040 (mod 71) 71
= -(-1) (mod 71) 11) 5040
497
= l (mod 71) 70
Multiplying both sides by 63 ! , we get 71

70 · 69 · 68 · 67 · 66 · 65 · 64 · 63! = 63! (mod 71) -1

 Classical Theorems and Multiplicative Functions • 5.5

70! = 63! (mod 71)

-1=63! (mod 71)

63! =-1(mod71)

EXAMPLE 5
If p is a prime, prove that
(p-1) (p- 2) (p- 3) •.• (p- k) e (-1)1'" k! (mod p),
where 1 ~ k <p.

Solution.
Given p is a prime
Now
p-1 = -l(modp)
p-2 =-2(modp)

p-k = -k(modp)

Multiplying together we get

(p-l)(p-2) ... (p-k) = (-1)(-2) ... (-k)(modp)

= (-l)K 1·2·3 ... k(modp)
= (-l)K k!(modp)
EXAMPLE 6
If x = 1 · 3 · 5- ••• (p- 2), where p is an odd prime, show that
p+l
x2 = (-1)-2-(modp).
Solution.
Given x = 1 · 3 · 5 ... (p - 2), where p is an odd prime.
Since p is a prime, by Wilson's theorem
(p-1)! = -l(modp)

1·2 · 3 · 4 · 5 ... (p-2) (p-1)=-1 (modp)

(1·3 · 5 ... (p-2))(2 · 4 · 6 ... (p-1)) =-1 (modp)

x (2 · 4 · 6 ... (p - 1)) )) = -1 (mod p)

x[p-(p-2)][p-(p-4)]. .. (p-1) = -l(modp) (1)

5.6 • Algebra and Number Theory

Now
p-(p-2) = -(p-2)(modp)
p-(p-4) = -(p-4)(mod p)

p-3 = -3(modp)
p-1 = -l(modp)

The number of equations is p - l .

2
Multiplying together, we get
(p-(p-2))(p-(p-4)] ... (p-3)(p-1)
p-1
=(-1) 2 ·(p-2)(p-4) ... 3·1(modp)
p-1
= (-1) 2 ·x·(modp)
Substitute in (1) we get
p-1
x·x(-1) 2 = -l(modp)
p-1+1
=> x2 = (-1) 2 (modp)
p+I
=> x2 = (-1)2(modp)

5.2 FERMAT'S LITTLE THEOREM

Ancient Chinese mathematicians believed that n is a prime if and only if 2n-l = l(modn).
They found that it is true if n is a prime.
For example: Ifn = 5, 24 = 16 = 1(mod5).
But they were incorrect in the conclusion of the converse. It was the French mathematician Fermat
who conjectured ifpis a prime and p J a then p I aP-1 -1 and communicated to Bernhard with a note
that the proof will be send subsequently.
But the first proof was given by the great Swiss mathematician Euler almost a century later.
However this result is known as Fermat's theorem or Fermat's little theorem (in order to
distinguish it from Fermat's last theorem).

Theorem 5.2 Fermat's Little theorem

Ifp is a prime and a is any integer not divisible by p, then ap-l = l(modp). [AU 2018)

Proof Givenp is a prime and a is any integer not divisible by p. i.e., pf a.

When an integer is divided by p, the set of possible remainders are 0, 1, 2, 3, ... ,p- 1.
Consider the set of integers
l·a, 2·a, 3·a, ... ,(p-l)a (1)
Suppose ia = O(modp ), then p I ia.
 Classical Theorems and Multlpll ti F Ill\ \
ca ve unencna •: ,. .,, . •

But p Ja :. p I i, which is impossible, since i < p.

ia ;/= O(modp) for i = 1, 2, ... ,p-1.
So, no term of (1) is zero.
Next we prove they are all distinct
Suppose ia = ja(mod p ), where 1 ~ i, j ~ p - I.
Then (i- j)a = O(mod p) => p I (i- j)a
Since p J a, p Ii- j and i,j < p =>Ji- jJ < p.
i- j = 0 => i = j(mod p)
i :t. j => ia :t. ja.

This means, no two of the integers in (1) are congruent modulo p.

: . The least residues (or remainders) of the integers a, 2ci, 3a, ... , (p - 1 )a modulo p are the same
as the integers 1, 2, 3, ... , p - 1 in some order.
So, their products are congruent modulo p.

a · 2a · 3a ... (p - I )a = I · 2 · 3 ... (p - I) (mod p)

1·2· 3 ... (p-1)· ap-l = (p- l)!(mod p)

=> (p-1)! ap-l = (p- l)!(mod p)

=> ap-l = l(modp) I

(·: p (p-1))
The result ap-l = l(mod p) is equivalent to aP = a(mod p).
Using Fermat's little theorem and properties of congruences we can find remainders of certain
•
number of the for am when divided by p.

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1
Find the remainderwhen 21000 is divided by 17.

Solution.
We have to find the remainder when 21ooo is divided by 17.
We known 17 is a prime.
:. by Fermat's theorem

217-1 = l(mod17)

=> 216 = l(mod17) 40

32
(216)62=162(mod17)
8
=> 2992 = l(mod17)
4 .
Also 2 =16=-l(mod17)
5.8 • Algebra and Number Theory

=> 24 = -l(mod17)
(24}2 =(-1)2(mod17)

28 = l(mod 17)
21000 = 2992+8 = 2992 . 28

21000 = 1·l(mod17)
= l(mod17)
: . The remainder is 1 when 21000 is divided by 17.

EXAMPLE 2
Find the remainder when 193183 is divided by 19. [AU 2013)

Solution.
We have to find the remainder when 193183 is divided by 19. 10
19 is a prime and 19/193. 18~
:. by Fermat's little theorem 18
19319-t = l(mod19) 3

=> 19318 = l(modl9) 10

(19318)'° = 110(modl9) 19~
190
193180 = 1(mod19) 3
Now 193183 = 193180+2+1

=193180·1932·193
But 193 = 3(mod19)
1932=32(mod19)=>1932 = 9(mod19)
193183=1·9·3(modl9)
= 27(mod19)
= 8(mod19)
:. the remainder is 8, when 193183 is divided by 19.

EXAMPLE 3
Find the remainder when 241947 is divided by 17. [AU 2018)

Solution.
We have to find the remainder when 241947 is divided by 17.
Here a=24, p= 17
We know 17 is a prime and 17 / 24
:. by Fermats theorem, 2411-1 = l(mod 17)
 Classical Theorems and Multiplicative Functions • 5.9

2416 = l(modl 7) 121

16) 1947
(2416)121=1121(mod17) 16
34
=> 241936 = l(mod17)
32
Now 241947 = 241936+11= 241936. 2411 27
24 2 = 576 = -2(rnod 17) 16
11
(242)2 = (-2)2(mod17)
34
244 = 4(mod 17)
17F?6
( 244 )2 = 42(mod 17) 51
66
248=16(mod17) 68
= -l(mod17) -2
2411 = 248 · 242 · 24 = (-1)(-2) · 7(modl 7)
= 14(mod17)

241947=1·14(mod17)
= 14(mod17)
:. the remainder is 14 when 241947 is divided by 17.

EXAMPLE 4
Find the remainder when 151976 is divided by 23.

Solutlon.
We know 23 is a prime and 23 / 15.
:. by Fermat's little theorem,
1523-l = l(mod23) 89
22~
=> 1522 = l(mod23) 176
216
(1522)89 =189(mod23)
198
=> 151958 = l(mod23) 18

151976 = 151958+18
= 151958.1516·152 9

23~
152=225=18(mod23) 207
=-5(mod23) 18
5.10 • Algebra and Number Theory

(152)2 = (-5)2 (mod23)

154 = 25(mod23)
= 2(mod23)

(154 r = 24(mod23)
= 16(mod23)

1516 = -7(mod23)
151976 = l·(-7)·(-5)(mod23)
= 35(mod23)
= 12(mod23)

:. the remainder is 12 when 151976 is divided by 23.

EXAMPLE 5
Find the remainder when 2341 is divided by 341.

Solution.
We know 341 = 11 · 31, where 11 and 31 are primes.
Here a = 2, 11 and 31 do not divide 2
So, by Fennats theorem
211-1=l(mod11)

210= 1(mod11)

and 231-1=1(mod31)

230 = 1(mod31)

(230)10 = 110 (mod 31)

2300 = 1(mod31)

and (210)4 = 14 (mod 11)

240= 1(mod11)

2341 = 2300+40+1
= 2300 .24o .2

= 1·l·2mod(lcm (31, 11))

= 2(mod341)
:. the remainder is 2 when 2341 is divided by 341.
 Classical Theorems and Multiplicative Functions • 5.11

EXAMPLE 6
Find the remainderwhen 52003 is divided by 11.

Solution.
We have to find the remainder when 52003 is divided by 11.
Here p = 11, a = 5 and p a f
:. by Fermat's theorem
51l-l = 1 (mod 11)

510=1(mod11)
(510)200 = 1200 (mod 11)

52000 = 1(mod11)
Now 52 = 25 = 3(modl l)
53 =15(modll) 2
= 4(modl 1)
11~
52003 = 52000 . 53 = 1·4(mod 11) 22
3
=4(modl 1)
. ·. the remainder is 4 when 52003 is divided by 11.

EXAMPLE 7
Computethe remainderwhen 71001 is divided by 17.

Solution.
We have 72 = 49 = -2 (mod 17)

(72)2 = (-2)2 (mod 17)

74 = 4 (mod 17)

(74)2 = 42 = 16 (mod 17)

78 =-1(mod17)

(78)2 = (-1)2 (mod 17)

716 = 1 (mod 17)

(716)62 = 162 (mod 17)

7992 = 1 (mod 17)

71001=7992+8+ I
Now
= 7992. 78. 7
5.12 • Algebra and Number Theory

=1 ·(-1)·7(mod17)
=-7(mod17)
= 10 (mod 17)
: . the remainder is 10 when 71001 is divided by 1 7.

EXAMPLE 8
Find the remainder when 1318 + 1912 is divided by 247.

Solution. 13 ~
19
We have 247 = 13. 19
Both 13 and 19 are primes.
By Fermats little theorem
1319-1 = l(mod19)

=> 1318 = l(mod19)

Since 19 = 0 (mod 19), 1912 = 0 (mod 19)
1318 + 1912 = 1 + 0 (mod 19)
= 1(mod19)
Further 13 = 0 (mod 13) => 1318 = 0 (mod 13)
By Fermats little theorem
1913-1 = 1 (mod 13)
=> 1912 = 1 (mod 13)
1318 + 1912 = 0 + 1 (mod 13)
= 1(mod13)
Since 1318 + 1912 gives same remainder 1 when divided by 13, 19
we get 1318 + 1912 = 1 (mod [13, 19])
= 1 (mod 13 · 19) (lcm [13, 19] = 13 · 19)
= 1 (247)
:. the remainder is 1, when 1318 + 1912 is divided by 247.
EXAMPLE 9
Prove that 1P-l + 2p-l + 3P-l + ... + (p-1)p-l = -l(mod p).

Solution.
We know by Fermat's theorem
ap-l = l(modp), if (p,a) =1
 Classical Theorems and Multiplicative Functions • 5.13

:. it is true fora= 1, 2, 3, ... ,p- l

Ip-I= l(modp), 2p-l = l(modp), 3P-I = l(modp)

and so on (p- ly>-1=1 modp.

Adding all these congruences we get

Ip-I+ 2p-l + 3P-I + ... +(p- l)p-I = (1+1 + ... + l)(mod p)

= (p- l)(mod p)
But p- l =-1 (modp)

Ip-I +2p-l +3p-I + ... +(p-l)p-l = -l(modp)

Theorem5.3 Let p be a prime and a any integer such that p J a. then the solution of the linear
congruence ax= b (mod p) is given by x = aP-2b(mod p).

Solutlon.
Given p is a prime and a is an integer not divisible by p.
(a,p) = 1

the congruence ax = b(mod p) (1)

has unique solution.

By Fermats theorem
ap-l = l(modp)
=> a·ap-Z = l(modp)
So, ar2 is the inverse of a mod p.
Multiplying (1) by ar2, we get

aP-2(ax) = aP- b(mod p)

2

=> aP-1x = aP- b(modp)

2

=> Ix= aP-2b(mod p)

=> x = aP- b(modp)

2

Hence the theorem.

5.14 • Algebra and Number Theory

5.3 EULER'S THEOREM

Fermats theorem is ap-l = l(mod p ), which is of the form af(p) = l(mod p ), where p is a prime.
It is natural to extend to the form af(m) = l(modm), where mis not a prime and (a, m) = 1.

Definition 5.1 Arithmetical Function or Number Theoretic Function.

A real (or complex) valued function defined on the set of positive integers N is called an arithmetical
function or number theoretic function.
We shall now define a special number theoretic function called Euler's Phi function or Euler
totient function </), named after one of the all time great mathematicians Euler.

Definition 5.2 Let </) : N ~ N be a function defined by </J(l) = l and for n > l .
</J(n) =the number of positive integers s n and relatively prime ton.
This function is called Euler's </>-function.
</)(2) = 1, since 1 is the only integer s 2 and prime to it.
</J(3) = 2, since 1, 2 are the only integers s, 3 and prime to 3.
</)(4) = 2, since 1, 3 are the integers s 4 and prime to it.
</J(5) = 4, since 1, 2, 3, 4 are the integers s 5 and prime to 5.
</J(6) = 2, since 1, 5 are the integers s 6 and prime to 6.
</J(7) = 6, since I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 are the integers s 7 and prime to 7.
Note that </)(5)=5-1=4
</J(7) = 7 -1 = 6
It is true for any prime p, since 1, 2, 3, ... , p - 1 are the positive integers ::;; p and prime top.
</J(p) = p - 1.

Theorem 5.4 Euler's theorem

Let m be a positive integer and a be any integer such that (a, m) = 1.
Then a¢(m) = l(modm).
Proof Given m is a positive integer and a is any integer such that (a, m) = 1.
Let rl' r2, ... , r ¢Cm) be all the positive integers s m and relatively prime tom.
Since ri - rj < m, clearly ri i: rj (mod m) if i ¢ j
Consider the products arl' ar2, ... , ar ¢Cm)
Since (a, m) = 1,
ar; ¢ arj(modm) if i ¢ j

we find ar1, ar2, ••• , ar ¢Cm) mod mare distinct.

We now prove (ar;, m) = 1.
For, suppose (ari, m) > 1, then let p be a prime factor of (ari, m) = d.
p I ar; and p I m

p I a or p I r; and p I m.
 Classical Theorems and Multiplicative Functions • 5.15

If p 1 'i and p Im then, (r;,m) :/!I, a contradiction.

If p I a andp Im, thenp I (a, m) ~(a, m) :/!I.
which is again a contradiction.
(ar;,m) =I, i = 1,2,3, ... t/)(m)
:. the t/>(m) least residues ar1, ar2, ••• , ar tf!(_m} modulo mare distinct and relatively prime tom.
" So, they are the same as integers ri' "» ..., rtf!(_m) in some order modulo m.
=
:. their product ar1 • ar2, ... , ar tf!(_m) r1 r2 ... r tf!(_m} (mod m)
~
Since each r; is relatively prime to m,

We get
at/J(m) = l(modm)
Hence the proof.
•
Note We can deduce Fermats theorem. If p is prime </>(p) = p - I.
ap-l = l(modp)
Definition5.3 Multiplicative function.
A number theoretic function/is multiplicative if/is not identically zero and iff(mn) =f(m)f(n)
whenever (m, n) =I.
A multiplicative function is called completely multiplicative ifwe also have
f(mn) = f(m)f(n) for all m, n EN.

Theorem 5.5 Let f be a multiplicative function and n be a positive integer with canonical
decomposr"tion n = Pta1 · p2a2 ••• Pkak •

Then

Proof We prove by induction on the number of distinct primes k.

If k=l, then n =. pf1 and f(n) = f(pf1).

Which is trivially true.
Assume it is true for any integer with canonical decomposition consisting of k distinct primes.

f(n) = f (pf 1 )· f (P~2 ) ... r (pfk)

Let n be any integer with k + 1 distinct primes in its canonical decomposition, say
n = P1a1 . pa2 pa3 . pak+t
2 ... k k+I
. { a1 a2 ak ak+t }- 1 . df. 1smult1phcat1ve,
. . .
Smee Pt ·P2 ... pk ,Pk+I - an
5.16 • Algebra and NumberTheory

Using induction hypothesis

The assumption for k distinct primes is true => it is true for k + 1 distinct primes.
Hence by mathematical induction, it is true for any positive integer n.
We shall now prove that t/J is multiplicative.
•
Theorem 5.6 Euler function t/J is multiplicative. [AU 2017]

Proof Let m and n be positive integers such that (m, n) = 1.

To prove </J(mn) = </J(m) </>(n)
Arrange the mn integers 1, 2, 3, ... , mn in m rows ofn numbers each.
m+l 2m+l 3m+1 (n-l)m+l
2 m+2 2m+2 3m+2 (n-l)m+2
3 m+3 2m+3 3m+3 (n-l)m+3

rthrow ~ r m+r 2m+r 3m+r (n-l)m+r

m 2m 3m 4m ... nm

Let r be a positive integer :::;; m such that (r, m) > l.

We will now show that no element of the rth row in the array is relatively prime to mn.
Let d = (r, m ). Then d I r and d I m => d I km + r for any integer k
This means dis a factor of every element in the r1h row.
Thus, no element in the r1h row is relatively prime to m and hence to mn if (r, m ) > 1.
In other words, the elements in the array relatively prime to mn come from the r1h row
only if(r, m) = 1.
Since r < m and relatively prime to m, we find there are </>(m) such integers r and have </>(m)
such rows.
Now let us consider the r1h row where (r, m) = 1. '
The elements in the r1h row are
r,m + r,2m + r, ... ,(n-l)m + r.
When they are divided by n, the remainders are 0, 1, 2, ... , n - 1 in some order of which </>(n) are
relatively prime ton.
Therefore, exactly </>(n) elements in the r1h row are relatively prime ton and hence to mn.
Thus there are </>(m) rows containing positive integers relatively prime to mn and each row contain
</>(n) elements relatively prime to it.
Hence the array contains </>(m) </>(n) positive integers s mn and relatively prime to mn.
That is </>(mn) = </>(m) </>(n).
Hence </J is multiplicative function. •
 Classical Theorems and Multiplicati~e Functions • 5.17

Theorem 5.7 Let p be a prime and a is a positive integer.

Then <{J (Pa) = Pa ~ Pa-1 = pa ( 1- ~). [AU2018J

Proof <{J (pa) = number of positive integers $pa and relatively prime to it
= number of positive integers $pa
- number of positive integers $pa and not relatively prime to it.
The number of positive integers $pa is pa (because they are 1, 2, 3, ... , p~
The number of positive integers $pa and not prime to it are the various multiples of p.
They are lp, 2p, 3p, ... .rr:»
The number of such numbers= pa-1•

Hence <t>(Pa)=pa-pa-l=pa(1-.;) •

Theorem 5.8 Let n = pf 1 pf 2

... p:k be the canonical decomposition of the positive integer n,

Then <{J(n) = n(l- ;J( ;J . .( :k}

1- 1-

Proof Given the canonical decomposition of the positive integer

Since </> is multiplicative,

[By Theorem 5.7]

This formula is useful to find the number of primes S n and relatively prime to n for lange values of n.
•
WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Find <{)(1105) and <{J(7!). [AU 2018]

Solution. 5~
We have 110.5 = 5 . 13 . 17 13CE.[
17
5.18 • Algebra and Number Theory

</>(1105)= </>(5). </>(13). </>(17)

= 4. 12. 16 [ ·: </>(p) = p - 1 if p is prime]
=768 2 5040
7! = 5040 = 24. 32. 5 . 7 2 2520
</>(7!) = </>(24) . </>(32) . </>(5) . </>(7) 2 1260
2 630
= 24 (1-~}32 (1-l}4·6 5 315
7 63
:::: 23 . 3. 2. 4. 6 = 1152
9=32
EXAMPLE 2
Compute t/>(6860). [AU 2017]

Solution.
2 6860
We have 6860 = 22 . 5 . 73
2 3430
(/)(6860) = (/)(22) · (/>(5) · (/)(73) 5 1715
7 343
= 22 (1-~}(4)·73 (1-~)
7 49
= 2·4·72 ·6 7
=2352
EXAMPLE 3
Find the positive integers n such that (/J(n) = 6. [AU 2017]

Solution.
Given </>(n) = 6
We have to find possible n by trial and error
</>(6) = </>(2 . 3) = </>(2) . </>(3) = 1 . 2 = 2 ¢ 6
</>(7) = 7 - 1 = 6. :. n = 7

l/>(8)=<1>(23)=23(1-~)=4¢6

l/>(9)=1/>(32)=32(1-l)=6 :. n=9

(/)(10) = (/>(2·5) = (/>(2)·(/)(15) = 1.4 ¢ 6

(/)(11) = 10 ¢ 6

(/)(12) = <!>( 22. 3) = <!>( 22) · (/>(3) = 22 ( 1- ~). 2 = 4 ¢ 6

 Classical Theorems and Multiplicative Functions • 5,19

<P(l3) = 12 =ft 6
<P(l4) = <P(2. 7) = <P(2). cp(7) = l · 6 = 6 :. n = 14
<P(l 5) = <P(3. 5) = <P(3). <P( 5) = 2. 4 = 8 =ft 6

<P(l6) = <P(24) = 24 (1-~) = 8 =ft 6

<P(l 7) = 16

cp(I8) = <P(32 ·2) = <P(32)·<P(2)

= 32 (1-~}1=3·2 =6 :. n = 18

the only possible values of n are 7, 9, 14, 18.

EXAMPLE 4

Show that cp(n) = !!. if n = 2k. [AU 2018]

2
Solution.
Givenn =2k

<P(n)=<P(2k)=2k(1-~)

= 2k . .!_ = !!.
2 2

EXAMPLE 5

Prove that <P( 22k+t) is a square. [AU2017]

Solution.

We have ¢>(22k+I) = 22k+1 (1-~)

= 22k+I . .!_
2
= 22k = (2k)2

EXAMPLE 6
Prove that 1699 a 1 (mod 437) using Eulers theorem.

Solution.
We have 437= 19. 23, where 19 and 23 are primes
:>.~u • Algebra ana Number 1 neory

</)(437) = </)(19). </)(23)

= 18. 22 = 396
Since (2, 437) = 1, by Eulers theorem,
2«437) = 1 (mod 437)
2396 = l (mod 43 7)
(24)99 = l (mod 437)
1699 = l (mod 437)

EXAMPLE 7
Using Eulers theorem find the remainder when 2451046 is divided by 18. [AU 2017]

Solution.
We have to find the remainder when 2451040 is divided by 18.
Here a= 245 = 5 · 72 and m = 18 = 32 · 2
(a, m)= l
Hence by Euler's theorem,
a«m) = l (mod m)
245«18) = 1 (mod 18)
But </)(18) = </)(32. 2) = </)(32). </)(2)

= 32 ( 1-l) · = l 6

2456 = l (mod 18) 173

(2456)173 = 1173 (mod 18) 6~
6
2451038 = 1 (mod 18) 44
2451040= 2451038+2 = 241038. 2452 42
20
But 245 =II (mod 18) 18
2452 = 112 (mod 18) 2

= 121 (mod 18)

= 13(mod18)
2451049 =1 . 13 (mod 18)
= 13 (mod 18)
:. the remainder is 13 when 2451040 is divided by 18.
 Classical Theorems and Multiplicative Functions • 5.21

EXAMPLE 8
Find the last two digits of 2731961.

Solutlon.
The last two digits are the remainder when 2731961 is divided by 100
273 = 73 (mod 100)
2731961=731961(mod100)
We apply Eulers theorem
Here a= 73, m = 100 and (a, m) = 1

<P(100) = l/J(22 ·-52) = 22 (1-~} 52 ( 1-~)

=2. 20=40 .
:. By Eulers theorem
49
40Ei
7340 = 1 (mod 100)
160
(7340)49 = 149 (mod 100) 361
360
731960 = 1 (mod 100)

731960 · 73 = 73 (mod 100)

731961=73 (mod 100)

2731961 = 73 (mod 100)
Hence the remainder is 73, when 2731961 is divided by 100.

Theorem 5.9 If n is a positive integer, then L </J(d) = n,

nld
Proof Given n is a positive integer.
Let S = { 1, 2, 3, ... , n}. We partition S into disjoint sets as below.
Let dbe a divisor of n and let Cd denote the set of those positive integers m::; n such that d = (m, n)

me Cd if (m,n)=d~ (;.~)=1

The number of elements in the set Cd

= number of positive integer ::; ~ and relatively prime to it.

Since there is a set corresponding to every divisor d of n and every integer m belongs
to exactly one such set Cd• these sets partition S. s
5.22 • Algebra and Number Theory

The sum of elements in the various sets = the total number of elements in S.

l<t>(!!..)= n
din d

But d runs over the set of divisors of n, so does !!..

d

l<t>(~)= l<t><d)
din din

Hence l<t><d)=
din
n
•
EXAMPLE 9
Verify the theorem L </>(d) = n for n = 28.
din
Solution.
Givenn = 28
The positive divisors of28 are 1, 2, 4, 7, 14, 28
l<t><d) = <1><1) + </>(2)+ </>(4)+ <1><1) + <t>(l4)+ <1>(28)
din
But </>(l) = 1, </>(2) = 1,

</>(4) = </>(22) = 22 (1-i) =2

</>(7) = T- 1 = 6,
</>(14) = </>(2. 7) = </>(2). </>(7) = 1 .6=6

</>(28) = </>(22 . 7) = </>(22) . </>(7)

= 22 (1-i}6 = 2·6 ::;:12

l<t><d) = 1+ 1+ 2+6+6+12
din
= 28
EXAMPLE 10
For n = 113 · 5 verify that L <f>(d) = n, [AU 2013]
din
Solution.
Given n = 113 · 5 = 6655.
The divisors of n are 1, 5, 11, 5 · 11, 112, 5 · 112, 113, 5 . 113
Thus there are 8 divisors.
"L</><d) = <1><1)+ <t><5)+ <1>01)+ <t><5 .11)+ <1>012)+ </>(5 .112)+ </>(113) + <1><5.113)
din
 Classical Theorems and Multiplicative Functions • 5.23

But </>(1) = 1
</>(5) = 5-1=4
<f>(l l) = 11-1 = 10
</>(5·11) = </>(5). </>(11) = 4·10 = 40

</>(112)=112(1-1\)=11·10=110

</>(5· 112) = </>(5). </>(112) = 4· 110 = 440

</>(113) = 113 ( 1- 1\) = 112·10 = 1210

</>(5·113) = </>(5). <f>(l 13) = 4· 1210 = 4840

L<f>(d) = 1+4+10+40+ 110+440+ 1210+4840
din
= 6655 = n.

5.4 THE TAU AND SIGMA FUNCTIONS

We have seen the number theoretic function </> and its properties. We will now see two more number
theoretic functions -r (tau) and a (sigma) which will give the number of positive divisors of n
and the sum of divisors of n, using the canonical decomposition of n.

Definition 5.4 The i- function

For a positive integer n, -r(n) denotes the number of positive divisors of n.

That is -r<n) = rdo r1

din
=
din

Definition 5.5 The a function

For a positive integer n, a(n) denotes the sum of the positive divisors of n.

That is a(n)= Ld
din

WORKED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1
Find 1'(12) and i-(19).

Solution.
The positive divisors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12.
So, there are 6 divisors.
i-(12) =the number of positive divisors of 12

=6
5.24 • Algebra and Number Theory

The positive divisors of 19 are 1, 19

-r(l9) =the number of positive divisors of 19

=2
* Since for any prime p, the positive divisors are 1 and p

-r(p) = 2 for any prime p.

EXAMPLE 2
Find 0'(12) and 0'(19).

Solution.
The positive divisors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12

0'(12) = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 + 12 = 28

The positive divisors of 19 are 1 and 19

0'(19)= 1+19=20

* For any prime p, a(p) = 1 + p

Conversely if n is a positive integer such that a( n) = n + 1, then n must be a prime because the only
factors of n are n and 1.

EXAMPLE 3
Compute the value of the sigma function for n = 28. [AU 2017]

Solution.
Givenn=28
The positive divisors of28 are 1, 2, 4, 7, 14, 28

a(28) = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14 + 28 = 56

Next our aim is to prove that r and a functions are multiplicative.

For this purpose we first prove a more general result.

Theorem 5.10 If/is a number theoretic function which is multiplicative and for any positive
integer n the function F given by F(n) = L
f(d) is also multiplicative.
din

Proof Given/is a multiplicative function

: . for any two positive integers m and n which are relatively prime,

f(m· n) = f(m)·(n) (1)

Given F(n)= Lf(d)

din

F(mn) = L f(d)
dlmn
 Classical Theorems and Multiplicative F .
unctions • 5.25

Since (m, n) = 1, every positive divisor d of mn is a the product of a uniq . f itive

. . · ue pair o post 1
divisors d1 of m and d2 of n, where (di' d2) = 1.

F(mn) = L f(d1d2)
ddm
d2ln

=I J<d1)f<d2) [using (l)]

ddm
d2ln

[Being finite sum]

= L [F(m)]f(d2)
dzln

= F(m) L f(d2)
dzln

F(mn) = F(m) · F(n)

Hence Fis multiplicative.

As a particular case of this theorem we will prove that r and a are multiplicative.
•
Theorem5.11 Prove that 'Z' and a are multiplicative functions.

Proof By Theorem 5.9

F(n) = Lf(d) is multiplicative if/is multiplicative.

din

1. If ft d) = d0 = l, is the constant for each d I n

If di' d2 are two divisors (di' d2) = 1.

Then ftd1d2)=1,
ftd1) = 1,
ftd2) =l
ftd1 d2) =ftd1)ftd2)
So, constant function is multiplicative.

Then F(n) = _L1 = -r(n)

din

If(m, n) = l, then F(mn) = F(m) F(n) [by Theorem 5.9]

~ -r(mn) := -r(m) -r(n).
So, t is multiplication.
5.26 • Algebra and Number Theory

2. To prove a is multiplicative
Take j{d) = d, identity function
If d1 and d2 are two divisors and (dp d2) =1
Then f{d1 dz)= d1 dz
= fid1)fidz)
f is multiplicative.
Hence F(n) = 'L,d = a(n)
din

For (m, n) = 1, F(m n) =F(m)F(n)

=> a(mn) = a(m) a(n)
a is multiplicative.
•
Theorem 5.12 If n = pa, where p is a prime and a is a positive integer,
pa+i _1
then i-( pa) = a+ 1, a (pa) = p -1 .

Proof Given n =r"

:. the factors of pa are l,p,pz,p3, ... ,pa-I ,pa
So, there are a + 1 factors
Hence i-( pa} = number of factors of pa
=a+ 1
and a (Pa) = sum of all the factors of pa

= 1 + P + PZ + ... +r"
pa+i _1
p-1
[·: it is a G.P with C.R= p)
•
Theorem 5.13 If n is a positive integer with canonical decomposition n = p~1 · pf 2 ••• p:k, then

i-(n) = (a1+1)(a2+1) ... (ak + 1)

. a1 a2 ak
P roof G rven n = p1 Pz ... Pk ,
where Pv P» ... ,pk are distinct primes and al' £Xi, ... , ak are positive integers.
Since i- and a are multiplicative functions,

i-(n) = i-(pf1) i-(pf2 ) i-(p:k)

= (a1+l){az+1) (ak + 1) [by Theorem 5.11]
 Classical Theorems and Multiplicative Functions • 5.27

and

= P1
a1+1 l a2+1 l
- P2
P1-l
-
P2-l
Pk
ak+l

Pk-1
-
l
•
EXAMPLE 4
If n = p1 · Pt ... pk be a productof k primes,then find 1'(n) and CT(n).

Solution.
Given n = p1 p2 ... p"' where each P; is a prime.
·:.Each pi has 2 factors 1 and pi.
But 'f and a are multiplicative functions.
Since (p;,P) = 1, for all i:;:. j

'Z'( n) = 'f(P1) · 'f(P2 ) . ..'f(Pk)

=2·2 ... 2
=2k
and a(n) = a(p1)a(p2) ... a(Pk)

= (P1 +1)(P2 +1) ... (Pk +1)

EXAMPLE 5
If n = 2187 find 't'(n) and a(n). 3 2187
3 729
Solution. 3 243
Given n = 2187 = 37
3 81
So the positive factors are 1, 3, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37.
27
-r(n) =number of factors= 8 =33

a(n) =sum of factors

38 -1
= 1 + 3 + 32 + 33 + 34 + 35 + 36 + 37 = -- = 3 280
3-1 '
AJiter: Using Theorem 5.12

-r(n) = i-(37) = 7 + 1=8

37+1 _1 38 _1
and a(n) = a(37) = ~ = -2- = 3,280
5.28 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 6
For any prime p, prove that
(i) CT ( p + 2) = <T(p) + 2
(ii) CT(p) is odd.

Solution.
Since p is a prime p + 2 is also a prime.
So the factors of p + 2 are 1 and p + 2.
(i) :. otp + 2) =sum of factors
=p+2+ 1=(p+1)+2
=a(p)+2
(ii) a(p) = sum of factors of p
= p + 1, which is odd.

EXAMPLE 7
Compute 1'(28) and 0'(28).

Solution.
Since 28 = 4 · 7 and (4, 7) = 1
-r(28) = -r(4) · -r(7) and a(28) = a(4) · a(7))
But the positive divisors of 4 are 1, 2, 4 and positive divisors of7 are 1, 7
't'(28) = 3 . 2 = 6

a(28) = 7 · 8 = 56

EXAMPLE 8
If n = 6120 compute 't'(n), CT(n).

Solution.
Given n = 6120 = 23 · 32 · 5 · 17
2 6120
By Theorem 5 .12
2 3060
-r(n) = -r(23) · -r(32) · -r(5) · -r(l 7)
2 1530
= (3 + 1) (2 + 1). (1+1) (1+1) 3 765
= 4 . 3 . 2 . 2 = 48 3 255
and a( n) = a(23) · a(32) · a( 5) · a(l 7) 5 85
17
24 -1 33 -1 52 -1 172 -1
= --·--·--·--
2-1 3-1 5-1 17-1
= 15. 13 . 6. 18
= 21,060
 Classical Theorems and Multiplicative Functions • 5.29

ASSORTED EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE1
Prove that the cube of an integer has one of the forms 9m, 9m + 1, 9m + 8.

Solutlons.
When an integer a is divided by 9 then the remainder is one of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
:. the number a is of the form.

a = 9q or 9q + 1, 9q + 2, . .. or 9q + 8

When a=9q form

When a= 9q + 1 then a3 = 93q3 + 3 · 92q2 + 3 · 9q + 1

= 9(92q3 + 27q2 + 3q) + 1

= 9m + 1 form

When a= 9q+2, then a3 = 9m + 8

When a= 9q + 3 =,3(3q + 1), then a3 = 27(3q + 1)3 = 9m form

When a=9q+4, then a3=(9q+4)3

= 93 q3 + 392 q2 . 4 + 3 . 9q . 42 + 43
= 93 . q3 + 3 . 92 q2 • 4 + 3 . 9 . q . 42 + 64

= 9(92q3 + 3 . 9 . q2 • 4 + 3 . q . 42 + 7) + 1

=9m+ 1 form

When a= 9q + 5, then a3 = (9q + 5)3

= a3 = 93 q3 + 3 · 92 · q2 • 5 + 3 · 9q · 52 + 53
= 93q3 + 3 . 92 . q2 . 5 + 3 . 9 . q . 52 + 125

= 93q3 + 392q2 . 5 + 3 . 9. q . 52 + 117 + 8

:;::: 9 (92q3 + 3 . 9q2 . 5 + 3 . q . 52 + 13) + 8

=9m+8 form

Similarly, a= 9q + 6, a= 9q + 7, 9q + 8, then a3 will be of the form 9m, 9;,, + 1, 9m + 8.

: . the cube of an integer is in one of the forms

9m, 9m + 1, 9m + 8.
5.30 • Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 2
Prove that 32n + 1 + 2n + 2 = 0( mod 7) for all positive integers n,

Solution.

We have 32 = 9 = 2 (mod 7)
32n = 2n (mod 7)
32n +1 = 3 · 2n (mod 7) (1)
Now 2 = 2 (mod 7)
2n + 2 = 2n + 2 (mod 7)

=4 · 2n (mod 7) (2)
(1) + (2) => 32n + I + 2n + 2 = 3 · 2n + 4 · 2n (mod 7)
= 7 · 2n (mod 7)

= 0 (mod 7) ( ·: 7 · 2n is divisible by 7)

EXAMPLE 3
If pis a prime and a and bare integers prove that (a+ b'f = aP +/JP (mod p).
Solution.
Given p is prime, a and b are integers.
: . p is a positive integer.
Using binomial expansion for positive integer index, we have

(a+bY = aP+ Pc,ap-1 -b+ Pc2ap-2 ·b2 + ... + Pc,.ap-r -b"

+ ... +Pc a·bp-1 +bP

p-l

p(p-1) ... l(p-r+l) I

Since Pc,.= I ' p Pc,. forr=l,2, ... ,n-1
r.
Pc r = O(modp)
(a+b)P = aP +0+0 ... +0+bP (modp)

= aP +bP (modp)
EXAMPLE 4
Show that 7211+1 + 1 = 0 (mod 8).
Solution.
Consider 72n = (72)n

=49n
= (1+48)n
 Classical Theorems and Multiplicative Functions • 5.31

= 1+8(nc, ·6+nc2 ·8·62 + ... )

= 1+8m form
72n = 1 (mod 8)
72n ·7 = 7(mod8)
12n+ 1 ~-1(mod8)

72n +1 +1 = 0 (mod 8)
EXAMPLE 5
Show that for any integern, n5 - n is divisible by 30.

Solutlon.
We have to prove ns - n = 0 (mod 30)
n5 = n (mod 30)
We have 30 = 2. 3. 5

<P(30) = <P(2) . <P(3)fl5)

=1·2·4=8
If (n, 30) = 1, then n8 = 1 (mod 30) [By Euler's theorem]
ns - 1 = 0 (mod 30)
(n4- l)(n4 + 1) = 0 (mod 30)

n4 - 1 = 0 (mod 30) [': n4 +1 ';f= Omod30 J

n4 = 1 (mod 30)
n5 = n (mod 30) =:> n 5 - n = 0 (mod 5)
n5 - n is divisible by 30.

EXERCISE 5.1
1. Define Euler </>function and prove that it is multiplicative. [AU 2018]
2. If p is a prime and e a positive integer then prove that <f>(pe) = pe - v=.
Hence find <P(81). [AU 2017)
=
3. If a is a solution of the congruence x2 1 (mod n) show that m - a is also a solution.
= =
[Hint: a2 1 (mod n). Now (n - a)2 = n2 - 2an + a2 a2 (mod n) 1 (mod n). =
Son - a is also a solution]
4. If n = nknk_1 ... n2n1 n0 then prove that n is divisible by 8 if n0 + 2n1 + 4n2 is divisible by 8.
5. Show that 712 ! + 1 = 0 (mod 719).
5.32 • Algebra and Number Theory

6. Show that 18! - 22 is divisible by 46.

7. If p is a prime, show that
lp-l + 2p-l + 3P-I + ... + (p- l)p-l + 1 is divisible by p.
8. If n is prime to a, show that
an-2 +an-3+ ... +a+1 = O(modn).
9. Find </>(600). [Ans: 48,000]
10. Find the remainder when 223 is divided by 47. [Ans: 1]
11. Find the remainder when 3100 is divided by 101. [Ans: l]
12. Prove that 32nt4 - 22n is divisible by 5.

PART A QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Compute the remainder when 3302 is divided by 5.
Ans. We have 34 = 81=1(mod5) 75

(34)75 = 175 (mod 5) 4~

28
=> 33oo = 1 (mod 5) 22
3302 = 3300+2 = 3300 . 32 20
2
But 32 = 9 = 4 (mod 5)

3302 = 1 · 4 (mod 5)

=4(mod5)
So, the remainder is 4.

2. Find the remainder when 100! Is divided by 101. [AU 2013, 2017]
Ans. We know 101 is a prime.
:. by Wilson's theorem

(101-1)! =-1(mod101)

=> 100! = 100 (mod 101) [·: -1=100 (mod 101)]

:. the remainder is 100.

3. Find the remainder when 18! Is divided by 19. [AU 2018]

Ans. We know 19 is a prime.
:. by Wilson's theorem

(19-1)! =-1(mod19)

18! = -:-1 (mod 19)

= 18 (mod 19)
:. The remainder is 18.
 Classical Theorems and Multiplicative Functions • 5.33

4. State Euler's theorem. [AU2013]

Ans. Refer Euler's theorem Page 5.14.
5. Define a multiplicative function with an example. [AU 2017)
Ans. A number theoretic functions f is multiplicative if f is not identically zero, and if
f(mn) = f(m) ·f(n) whenever (m, n) = 1

For example, number theoretic constant functionf{n) = 1 is multiplicative.

lf(m, n) = 1, thenf{m) = l,f(n) = 1 andf{m n) = 1
f(mn) =f(m)f(n).

6. Compute the value of sigma function if n = 28.

Ans. n = 28 = 4 · 7 and (4, 7) = 1
The factors of 4 are 1, 2, 4 : . a(4) = 1 + 2 + 4 = 7
The factors of7 are 1, 7 :. a(7) = 1+7 = 8
a(n) = a(4 · 7) = a(4) · a(7)
= 7. 8 = 56.

7. Verify Wilson's theorem (p-1)! =-1 (modp) ifp = 7. 103

Ans. Given p = 7 1J?j0
7
(p-1)!=6!=720 20
But 720 =-1(mod7) 21
(p-1)! =-1 (modp)whenp=7. -1

8. Compute the value of sigma function for n = 36. [AU 2018]

Ans. We have n = 36 = 4 · 9 and (4, 9) = 1.
a(36) = a(4) · a(9)
But a(4) = 1+2 + 4 = 7
a(9) = 1 + 3 + 9 = 13
a(36) = 7 · 13 = 91
Aliter: The factors of36 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36
a(36) = Sum of the factors
= 1+2.+ 3 + 4 + 6 + 9 + 12 + 18 + 36 = 91.

9. When n = 2k prove that </> ( n) = i· [AU 2018]

Ans. (/J(n)=f/>(2 )=2

k k( 1-2)=2
1) k ·2=2·
1 n
5.34 • Algebra and Number Theory

10. If p is a prime and a is any integer such that p i a. Then prove that aP-2 is an inverse of a
modp.
Ans. Since pis a prime and p /a, by Fermats theorem aP-1=1 (modp)
~ a. aP-2 = 1 (modp)
aP-2 is an inverse of a mod p.
11. If p and q are different primes than find the remainder when pq-l + qP-l is divided by pq.
Ans. Givenp and q are different primes, then (p, q) = 1
By Fermats theorem
pq-l = l(modq) and qp-l = l(modp)
Further p = 0 (modp)
pq-l = 0 (mod p) and q = 0 (mod q)
qP-1=0 (mod q)

pq-1+qp-l =l+O(modq)
= l(modq)

and pq-l +qp-l = 0+1 (modp)

= O+l (modp)
=l(modp)
pq-l + qp-l = l(mod(lcm[p,qJ))

= l(modpq) ·: (p,q) = 1
12. Given two different numbers m and n for which -r(m) = -r(n).
Ans. 't'(m) =the number of different factors.
We know for any prime number there are only 2 factors.
:. If m = 13, n = 17, then i-(13) = 2, r(l 7) = 2
i-(13) = r(l 7).

13. Ifp is a prime such that O'(p) is odd, then findp.

Ans. Since p is a prime, its only factors are 1 and p.
a(p) = 1 + p.
For 1 + p to be odd, p must be even.
p =2 (we known 2 is the only even prime).
14. Prove that for a prime p, tf>(p) + O'(p) is always even.
Ans. Since p is a prime, tf>(p) = p - 1
 Classical Theorems and Multiplicative Functions • 5.35

and a(p) = p + 1
</)(p) + a(p) =p - 1+p+1 = 2p, which is always even.

15. If n is a power of 2, then prove that O'(n)is always odd.

Ans. Let n = 2k, k is a positive integer.
Then a(n) = a(2k) = 2k+ I - 1

Since 2k+I is always even, 2k+ 1 - 1 is always odd.

a(2k) is always odd.

16. Letp be a positive integer such that </)(p) = p -1, prove thatp is a prime.
Ans. Given p is a positive integer.
Suppose p is not a prime, then p is a composite number and it has a factor.

Let d Ip, where 1 < d <p.

Given there are exactly p - 1 positive intcgers s and relatively prime top, dis not relatively prime
top.
So, </)(p) <p- 1, a contradiction.
:. pis a prime.

17. Find the self invertible least residue modulo 7.

Ans. Let x be self invertible mod 7.
Then xx= 1 (mod 7) ::::} x2 = 1 (mod 7)
x2 - 1 = 0 (mod 7)
7 lx2-1::::} 71 (x- l)(x+ 1)
7 I x - 1 or 7 I x + 1

x - 1 = 0 or x + 1 = 0 (mod 7)
x = 1 or -1 (mod 7)
x = 1 or 6 (mod 7), since -1 = 6 (mod 7)
So, the self invertible numbers are 1, 6 (mod 7).
1
-(p-1)
18. If pis an odd primeand (a,p) = 1 show that a2 ± 1 is divisible by p.
Ans. Given p is an odd prime (p :;t: 2) and p a f
:. by Fermats theorem ap-l = l(mod p)::::} ap-l -1 = 0 (mod p)
Since p is odd, p - 1 is even
p-1 . .
-2- ts an mteger
5.36 • Algebra and Number Theory

ap-I -1 = a
( p-1)
2
2
-1 =
( p-I
a2 -1
) ( p-I
a2 +1
)

p-I p-I
SinceplaP-1-1,weget pla 2 -1 or a 2 +1
I

=> a2(p-l) ± 1 IS
. dilVlSl
. "ble by p.

19. Prove that <P(n) is even if n ~ 3.

Ans. <P(n) is the number of numbers s n and relatively prime ton.
Let a be an integer less than n and relatively prime to n.
Then n - a < n and n - a is prime to n.
Hence all the numbers ~ n can be grouped into pairs as a, n - a whose sum is n.
Hence <P(n) is even.
20. Find the incongruent solutions of 12.x = 8 (mod 14).
Ans. Given 12.x = 8 (mod 14)
Here a= 12, b = 8, m = 14.
(a, m) = (12, 14) = 2
d=2 and di b 2
So, the equation has 2 incongruent solutions. 14JY
Since 12 · 3 = 36 = 8 (mod 14), x0=3.
28
8
So, the incongruent solutions are
14
x=x0+-t, O~t<2
2
=3 + 7t, t = 0 or L
x= 3, 3+7=10
3, 10 are the two incongruent solutions (mod 14).
21. Show that n2 + n = 0 (mod 2) for any positive integer n, [AU 2018]
Ans. For any integer n, n2 + n = n(n + 1) is a product two consecutive integers and hence it is even.
:. n(n + 1) is divisible by 2

=> n(n + 1) = 0 (mod 2) => n2 + n = 0 (mod 2)

 SOLUTION TO ANNA UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPER

APRIL 2018

MA8351 -ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

TIME: THREE HOURS MAXIMUM MARKS: 100

Answer ALL Questions

Part-A (10 x 2 = 20 marks)

1. Find the identity element under * defined

by a * b = ab for all a, b e R - {O}.
2
Solution: Refer example 4, page 1.11 text book.

2. Prove that a group is abelian if and only if(a b)-1 = b-1a-1•

Solution: Refer theorem 1.4 (ii), page 1.6.

3. What is the remainder whenj{x) = 2x3 + x2 + 2x + 3 e Z5 [x] is divided by x - 2?

Solution: Refer worked example 2, page 2.18.

4. Define a left coset with an example.

Solution: Let (H, *) be a subgroup of ( G, *) and let a e G then the set a H = {a * h I h e H} is
a left coset of Hin G.
For example, if H = 3Z then (H, +) is a subgroup of (Z, +).
The different left coset of Hin Z are
O+H=H= {3xlxe Z}
1 + H = { 1 + 3x I x e Z}
2 + H = {2 + 3x Ix e Z}

5. State the pigeon hole principle.

Solution: Refer 3.1.2, page 3.2.

6. Find the gcd of a+ b, a2 - b2.

Solution: a2 - b2 =(a - b)(a + b)
the gcd (a+ b, a2 - b2) =a + b.

7. Determine whether the LDE 6x +Sy= 25 is solvable.

Solution: Given LDE is 6x + 8y = 25.
Here a= 6, b = 8, c = 25
d= (a, b) = (6, 8) 2 =
2 I 25
d/c
:. the LDE is not solvable.
Q-2 • Algebra and Number Theory

8. Give an example of a linear congruence equation that has an unique solution.

Solution: The congruence equation 3x = 1 (mod 5) has unique solution x = 2.
9. Find the remainder when 18! is divided by 19.
Solution: Refer problem 3, part A questions and answer, page 5 .31.

10. Compute the value of sigma function for n = 36.

Solution: Refer problem 8, part A, page 5.32.

Part - B (5 x 16 = 80 marks)

11.. (i) Ifj{x) = xlOO + x90 + x80 + x50 + 1, g(x) = x - 1 andj{x), g(x) e Z2 [x], find the remainder
when.l{x) is divided by g(x).
Solution: Refer worked example 3, page 2.18.

11. (ii) Prove that a finite field has order p1, Where pis a prime and t e z+,
Solution: Refer theorem 2.10, page 2.27.

12. (a) Show that(M, •) is an abelian group, where M = {A, A2, A3, A4} with A = [ ~l ~] and

• is the ordinary matrix multiplication.Further prove that (M, •)is isomorphicto the abelian
group (G, •)where G = {1, -1, i, -i} and- is the ordinary multiplication. (16)
Solution: Refer worked example 11, page 1.91.
OR

12. (b) (i) Prove that in Zn' [a] is a unit if and only if gcd (a, n) = 1. (8)
Solution: Refer theorem 1.33, page 1.100.

12. (b) (ii) Find [tooi-1 in Z1009. (8)

Solution: Refer worked example 8 (ii), page 1.107.

13. (a) (i) Find the number of positive integers S: 3000 and divisible by 3, 5 or 7. (8)
Solution: Refer worked example 3, page 3.8.

13. (a) (ii) Prove that there are infinitely many primes of the form 4n + 3.
Solu'tion: Refer theorem 3.16, page 3.48.
OR

13. (b) (i) State and prove Fundamental theorem of arithmetic.

Solution: Refer theorem 3.13, page 3.38.

13. (b) (ii)Apply Euelidean algorithm to compute (2076, 1776).

Solution: Refer worked example 2, page 3.46.
 Solved Question Paper-April 2018 • Q-3

14. (a) (i) Show that n2 + n = 0 (mod 2) for any positive integer n.
(8)
Solution: Refer problem 21, part A, page 5.35.

14. (a) (ii) Find the general solution of the LDE 15x + 21y = 39. · (8)
Solution: Refer worked example 3, page 4.4.

OR

14. (b) (i) Compute the remainder when 3181 is divided by 17. (8)
Solution: Refer worked example 4, page 4.14.

14. (b) (ii) Solve the linear system x = 3 (mod 7), x = 4 (mod 9), x = 8 (mod 11). (8)
Solution: Refer worked example 3, page 4.30.

15. (a) (i) Find the remainder when 241947 is divided 17.
Solution: Refer worked example 3, page 5.8.

15. (a) (ii) Define Euler's phi function and prove that it is multiplicative. (8)
Solution: Refer theorem 5.6, page 5.14.

OR

15. (b) (i) State and prove Fermat's little theorem. (8)
Solution: Refer theorem 5.2, page 5.6.

15. (b) (ii) If p is a prime and e any positive integer then prove that f(.p') = pe - pe -1• Also show
n
thatfln) = - , when n = 2K. (8)
2
Solution: Refer theorem 5. 7, page 5 .15 and worked example 4, page 5 .17.
 Index

A Divisibility test for 2, 22, 23, ... , 4.25

Abelian group, 1.4 Divisibility test for 3 and 9, 4.25
Divisibility test for 5, 4.25
Arithmetical function, 5. l 4
Associative property, l .3 Divisibility test for 10, 4.25
Assorted examples, 5.29 Divisibility tests, 4.25
Automorphism, 1.78 Divisibility theory and division algorithm, 3.2
Division algorithm, 2.12
B Divisor of a polynomial, 2.11
Base - b representations, 3.14
E
Base conversion algorithm- decimal to base b, 3.16
Base conversion from binary to hexadecimal, 3.20 Elementary properties of a group, 1.4
Base conversion from binary to octal, 3 .19 Elementary properties of a ring, 1.94
Binary expansions, 3.14 Endomorphism, 1. 78
Binary operation, 1.1 Epimorphism, 1.78
Equal polynomials, 2.1
c Euclid, 3.30
Canonical decomposition, 3.40 Euclidean division algorithm, 1.24
Cayley table, 1.2 Euler function l/J is multiplicative, 5.16
Characteristic of a ring, 2.27 Euler's l/J-function,5.14
Chinese remainder theorem, 4.27, 4.28 Euler's theorem, 5.14
Closure property, 1.3 ·Existence of identity, 1.3
Commutative property, 1.3 Existence of inverse, 1.3
Congruence mod n, 1.24
Congruence modulo m, 4.10. F
Congruence relation in F[x ], 2.31 Factor group, 1. 73
Congruences, 4.9 Factor ring, 2.32
Constant polynomial, 2.2 Factor theorem, 2.17
Cosets, 1.63 Fermat's little theorem, 5.6
Criterion for subgroup, 1.48 Fields, 1.93
Cycles and transpositions, 1.60 First principle of induction, 3.1
Cyclic group, 1.56 Fundamental theorem of arithmetic, 3.38
Cyclic subgroup, 1.56
G
D Greatest common divisor (g. c. d), 2.25
Dihedral group, 1.33 Group homomorphism, 1.76
Direct product of two groups, 1.74 Group of residue classes mod n, 1.24
Divisibility, 3.2 Groups, 1.4
 H R
Hexadecimal expansion, 3 .15 Reducibility test, 2.24
Reflexive property, 4.10
I Reflexivity, 1.25
Ideal of a' ring, 2.32 Remark, 4.5
Inclusion - exclusion principle, 3.6 Residue classes mod n, 1.26
Irreducible polynomials, 2.21 Ring homomorphism, 1.114
Isomorphism, 1.78 Rings, 1.93
Root ofa polynomial, 2.7
L
Lagrange's theorem, 1.63 s
Leading coefficient, 2.1 Second principle of induction; 3. l
Least common multiple, 3.51 Some special rings, 1.95
Linear congruence, 4.19 Strong principle of induction, 3 .1
Linear diophantine equations, 4.1 Subgroup, 1.48
Linear systems,4.33 Symmetric, 1.25
Symmetric property, 4.10
M System of linear congruences, 4.26
Modular arithmetic, 1.24
Monie polynomial, 2.2 T
Monomorphism, 1.78 The division algorithm, 3.3
Multiplicative function, 5 .15 The Euclidean algorithm, 3.44, 3.45
The GCD, 3 .44
N The principle of mathematical induction, 3.1
Natural, 3.1 The remainder theorem, 2.17
. Normal subgroups, 1.69 The er function, 5.23
Number patterns, 3.25 The tau and sigma functions, 5.23
Number theoretic function, 5 .14 The r function, 5.23
The well-ordering principle, 3.2
0 Transitive, 1.25
Order of a group, 1.4 Transitive property, 4.10
Order of an element, 1.58
u
p Usual notations, 3.1
Permutation group, 1.32
Pigeon hole principle, 3.2
w
uolynomial over R, 2.1 Wilson's theorem, 5.1
Polynomials, 2.1
Prime and composite numbers, 3.30 z
Prime number theorem, 3.34 Zahlen, 3.1
Principal ideal, 2.32 Zero polynomial, 2.1
Properties of binary operations, 1.3

Q
Quotient groups, 1.69