ĐIỀU KHIỂN TỰ ĐỘNG

Automatic Control
ECE 306
Nguyen Thi My Thanh
Room 320.B11 (office hours)
Phone: 0907599993
Email: [email protected]
1
 Chapter 2 The stability of linear systems
2.1 Definition
2.2 Algebraic stability criteria
• Necessary condition
• Routh’s stability criterion
2.3 Frequency stability criteria
• Frequency response
• Nyquist criteria
• Gain margin and phase margin
2.4 Root locus

2
 2.1 Definition
Bounded-Input Bounded-Output (BIBO) stability criterion
➢A stable system produces a bounded output for a given bounded input.

3
 2.1 Definition
Poles and Zeros
U(s) Y(s)
G(s)

➢ Transfer function

➢ Pole: roots of the equation A(s)=0

➢ Zero: roots of the equation B(s)=0

➢ System order: order of A(s) => n

➢ Strictly proper system: order of A(s) > order of B(s)

➢ Proper system: order of A(s) = order of B(s)

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 2.1 Definition
➢A necessary and sufficient condition for a system to be stable is that all the
poles of the system have negative real parts.

5
 2.1 Definition
Example

1 1 1
𝑎) 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑏) 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑐) 𝐺 𝑠 = 2
𝑠+1 𝑠−1 𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 5
Pole: -1 Pole: 1 Pole: −1 ∓ 2𝑗

Stable Unstable Stable

6
 2.2 Algebraic stability criteria
➢Consider the transfer function of the system:

Necessary condition
➢All the system’s characteristic equation coefficients must be positive and non-zero.
(If all coefficients are negative, they can be made positive by multiplying both sides of the equation by –1).

Examples:
1
a. 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑠3 +3𝑠2 −3𝑠−1 => Unstable
1
b. 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑠 4 +4𝑠 3 +2𝑠+5
=> Unstable
1
c. 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑠 4 +4𝑠 3 +3𝑠 2 +2𝑠+5
=> Move to sufficient condition
7
 2.2 Algebraic stability criteria
Routh’s stability criterion

➢The necessary and sufficient condition of stability is that all roots of equation

A(s)=0 lie in the left-half s plane. This means that

✓All the coefficients of A(s)=0 be positive

✓All terms in the first column of the Routh’s array have positive signs.

➢The number of roots of A(s)=0 with positive real parts is equal to the number of

changes in sign of the first column of the Routh array.

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 2.2 Algebraic stability criteria
Routh’s stability criterion

Consider the following polynomial: 𝐴 𝑠 = 𝑎0 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 s + 𝑎𝑛 = 0

Routh array

▪ If any coefficients are missing, they may be replaced by

zeros in the array.

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 2.2 Algebraic stability criteria
Routh’s stability criterion
Example Consider the following polynomial:

The Routh array:

𝑠3 1 4 4∗2−1∗2
=3
𝑠2 2 2 2
0∗2−1∗0
𝑠1 3 0 2
=0

𝑠0 2 3∗2−2∗0
=2
3

There is no change in sign of the first column ⇒ All 3 roots of A(s) have negative real parts.
All terms in the first column of the Routh array have positive signs => The system is stable.

10
 2.2 Algebraic stability criteria
Routh’s stability criterion
Example Consider the following polynomial:

The Routh array:

𝑠4 1 3 5
𝑠3 2 4 0
𝑠2 1 5
𝑠1 -6
𝑠0 5
The number of changes in sign of the coefficients in the first column is 2.
⇒ 2 roots with positive real parts.
⇒ The system is unstable.
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 2.2 Algebraic stability criteria
Routh’s stability criterion
Special case 1:
➢ All elements of a row are 0 ⇒ The system has imaginary poles
✓ Forming an auxiliary polynomial P(s) with the coefficients of the last row. The roots of P(s) is
the roots of the characteristic equation.
𝑑𝑃(𝑠)
✓ Using the coefficients of in the next row.
𝑑𝑠

Example:

The Routh array:

=> Unstable
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 2.2 Algebraic stability criteria
Routh’s stability criterion
Special case 2:
➢ First-column term in any row is zero =>a very small positive number replaces the zero termr 𝜀

Example:

The Routh array:

In both cases: ε > 0 and ε < 0, there are 2 changes in sign of the first column
⇒ A(s) has two roots in the right-hand plane.
⇒ The system is unstable. 13
 2.2 Algebraic stability criteria
Application of Routh’s Stability Criterion to Control-System Analysis

➢ Consider the system:

➢ The closed-loop transfer function is

➢ The characteristic equation is

➢ The array of coefficients becomes:

➢ For stability, K must be positive, and all coefficients in the

first column must be positive. Therefore,

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 2.2 Algebraic stability criteria
Exercises

Exercise 1: Determine the range of K for stability of a unity feedback control system whose open-

loop transfer function is

Exercise 2: Consider the following characteristic equation. Using the Routh stability criterion,

determine the range of K for stability.

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 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Frequency response
➢Frequency response is the response of a linear system at a steady state when the input
is a sinusoidal signal.

➢The output is also a sinusoidal signal with the same frequency as the input, but a
difference in the amplitude and phase.

➢Frequency response is the ratio between the steady-state output and the input.

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 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Graphical Forms

➢The sinusoidal transfer function, a complex function of the frequency ω, is characterized

by its magnitude and phase angle, with frequency as the parameter.

➢ There are 2 commonly used representations of frequency response:

▪ Nyquist plot: consists the magnitude of G(jω) versus the phase angle of G(jω)
on polar coordinates as ω is varied from zero to infinity.

▪ Bode diagram: consists of two graphs: a plot of the logarithm of the magnitude;
and a plot of the phase angle. Both are plotted on a logarithmic scale.

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 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Nyquist plot
➢The Nyquist plot is the locus of vectors as 𝐺(𝑗𝜔) ∠G(jω) is varied from zero to infinity.

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 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Nyquist plot Im
1
Example Draw a Nyquist plot of 𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠+1

1 1
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = = ∠ − arctg(ω) 𝜔 = +∞ 1/2 𝜔=0
𝑗𝜔 + 1 1+𝜔 2
Re
1
1 1 − 𝑗𝜔 1 −𝜔
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = . = 2
+j
𝑗𝜔 + 1 1 − 𝑗𝜔 1 + 𝜔 1 + 𝜔2
1
-2
𝜔=1
𝜔 = 0: 𝐺 𝑗0 = 1
1 1 1
𝜔 = 1: 𝐺 𝑗 = − 𝑗 = − ∠ − 45𝑜
2 2 2
𝜔 → +∞: 𝐺 𝑗∞ = 0∠ −90°

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 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Nyquist plot Im
1
Example Draw a Nyquist plot of 𝐺 𝑠 =
(𝑠 + 1)2

1 1
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = = ∠ − 2arctg(ω) 𝜔=0
(𝑗𝜔 + 1)2 1 + 𝜔 2 𝜔 = +∞
1
Re
1 (1 − 𝑗𝜔)2 1 − 𝜔2 −2𝜔
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = . = +j
(𝑗𝜔 + 1)2 (1 − 𝑗𝜔)2 (1 + 𝜔 2 )2 (1 + 𝜔 2 )2
𝜔=1
1
2
𝜔 = 0: 𝐺 𝑗0 = 1
𝜔 → +∞: 𝐺 𝑗∞ = 0∠ −180°
Crossover point: 𝜔 = 1 (real part = 0)
1
=> 𝐺 𝑗1 = −𝑗
2

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 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Nyquist plot Im
1 𝜔 → 0−
Example Draw a Nyquist plot of 𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)2

1 1 ° − 2arctg(ω)
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = = ∠ − 90
𝑗𝜔(𝑗𝜔 + 1)2 𝜔(1 + 𝜔)2

1 (1 − 𝑗𝜔)2 1 − 𝜔2 − 2𝑗𝜔 −2
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = 2
. 2
= 𝜔 = +∞
Re
𝑗𝜔(𝑗𝜔 + 1) (1 − 𝑗𝜔) 𝑗𝜔(1 + 𝜔 2 )2 1 𝜔 = −∞
−
2

−2 −1 + 𝜔2
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = +j
(1 + 𝜔 2 )2 𝜔(1 + 𝜔 2 )2

𝜔 → 0: 𝐺 𝑗0 = −2 − 𝑗
𝜔 → +∞: 𝐺 𝑗∞ = 0∠ −270° 𝜔 → 0+
1
Crossover point: 𝜔 = 1 => 𝐺 𝑗1 = −
2
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 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Nyquist plot
Exercise: Draw the Nyquist plot of the following transfer functions

a) b)

c) d)

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 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Nyquist criteria
R(s) U(s) Y(s)
+
-
G(s)

➢For a closed-loop system to be stable, the G(j𝜔) plot must encircle the (-1, j0)
point m times the clockwise direction when 𝜔 changes from −∞ 𝑡𝑜 + ∞. (m is the
number of poles with the positive real part of G(s)).
➢If G(s) is stable then H(s) is stable <=> G(j 𝜔) doesn’t encircle the point -1 as
𝜔 = −∞ to +∞.

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 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Nyquist criteria Im
𝐺𝑜
Example 𝐺 𝑠 = , 𝐺𝑜 > 0
𝑠(𝑠+1)2

𝐺𝑜 𝐺𝑜
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = = ∠ −90° − 2𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑔(𝜔)
𝑗𝜔(𝑗𝜔+1)2 𝜔(1+𝜔)2 -1 𝜔 = +∞ Re
𝐺𝑜 (1−𝑗𝜔)2 −𝐺𝑜
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = . 2
𝑗𝜔(𝑗𝜔+1)2 (1−𝑗𝜔)2
(1−𝜔2 −2𝑗𝜔) −2𝐺𝑜 (−1+𝜔2 )𝐺𝑜
= 𝐺𝑜 = + j
𝑗𝜔(1+𝜔2 )2 (1+𝜔2 )2 𝜔(1+𝜔)2

𝜔 = 0+ : 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 → (−2 − 𝑗∞)𝐺𝑜
𝜔 → +∞: 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 →0 ∠ −2700
Pole of G(s): -1, 0
𝜔 → 0+
H(s) is stable if G(s) does not encircle the point (-1,j0)
−𝐺𝑜
−1 < => 𝐺𝑜 < 2 24
2
 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Nyquist criteria
Compare to the Routh’s crierion
Routh’s Stability Criterion
𝐺(𝑠) 𝐺𝑜 𝐺𝑜
𝐻 𝑠 = = =
1+𝐺(𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠+1)2 +𝐺𝑜 𝑠 3 +2𝑠 2 +𝑠+𝐺𝑜

𝑠3 1 1
𝑠2 2 𝐺𝑜
2 − 𝐺𝑜
𝑠1 0
2
𝑠0 𝐺𝑜
2−𝐺𝑜
>0
H(s) is stable =>ቐ 2 ⇒ 0 < 𝐺𝑜 < 2
𝐺𝑜 > 0

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 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Bode diagram

➢ Bode diagram is a graph of frequency response consisting of two graphs:

▪ Bode magnitude plot: The logarithm of the magnitude of a sinusoidal transfer

function G(j𝜔)

(in decibels - dB)

▪ Bode phase plot: The phase angle

(in degrees)

➢ The curves use the log scale for frequency and the linear scale for either
magnitude (but in decibels) or phase angle (in degrees).
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 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Bode diagram

Gian K: 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = K

L ω = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐾
⇒ቐ
𝜑 𝜔 = 0

27
 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Bode diagram
Integral factors: Derivative factors:
1 1
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = = −j 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑗𝜔
𝑗𝜔 𝜔
1
L ω = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 = −20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜔
⇒൞ 𝑗𝜔 L ω = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑗𝜔 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜔
𝜑 𝜔 = −90° ⇒൝
𝜑 𝜔 = 90°

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 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Bode diagram
1
➢First-order factors : G jω =
Tjω+1

1
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = ⇒ L ω = −20𝑙𝑜𝑔 1 + 𝑇 2 𝜔 2
1+𝑇 2 𝜔2

1
▪ 𝜔< ⇒ L ω = −20𝑙𝑜𝑔1 = 0
𝑇

1
▪ 𝜔> ⇒ L ω = −20𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜔𝑇
𝑇

𝜑 𝜔 = −𝑡𝑔−1 (𝑇𝜔) => 𝜑 𝜔 = −90°

1
▪ Break (Corner) frequency: 𝜔 =
𝑇

(two asymptotes have the same value)

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 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Bode diagram
➢Quadratic factors:

30
 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Bode diagram

➢Time delay factors: 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑇

𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑇 − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑇 = 1 ⇒ L ω = 0

𝜑 𝜔 = −ω𝑇

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 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Procedure for Plotting Bode Diagrams

➢Step 1 Rewrite the sinusoidal transfer function G(jω) as a product of basic factors.

➢Step 2 Identify the corner frequencies associated with these basic factors
1
𝜔𝑖 =
𝑇𝑖

➢Step 3 Draw the asymptotic log-magnitude curves with proper slopes between the corner
frequencies. The phase-angle curve of G(jω) can be drawn by adding the phase-angle
curves of individual factors.

32
 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Bode diagram
100(0.1𝑠 + 1)
Exercise 1: Plot the Bode diagram of the following transfer funtion 𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠(0.01𝑠 + 1)

Solution:
𝐿 𝜔
100(0.1𝑗𝜔 + 1) 60 -20dB
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = 40
𝑗𝜔(0.01𝑗𝜔 + 1) 20
0dB
-20dB

Corner frequency: 10, 100 (rad/s) -20

0.1 1 10 100 1000 𝜔

100 𝜑 𝜔
, 𝜔 < 10
𝑗𝜔
10, 10 < 𝜔 < 100
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 ≈ 1 𝜔
10 0.1 10 100 1000
, 100 < 𝜔 -45
𝑗𝜔
-90

33
 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Bode diagram
10(0.01𝑠 + 1)
Example2 : Plot the block diagram for the transfer function 𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(0.1𝑠 + 1)2
Solution: 𝐿 𝜔
40 -20dB
20
10(0.01𝑗𝜔 + 1) 0.1 1
-40dB
10 100 1000 𝜔
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = -20
𝑗𝜔(𝑗𝜔 + 1)(0.1𝑗𝜔 + 1)2 -80dB

-100
Corner frequencies: 1, 10 (double), 100 -60dB

-160
10
, 𝜔<1 𝜑 𝜔
𝑗𝜔
10
, 1 < 𝜔 < 10 0.1 1 10 100 1000 𝜔
(𝑗𝜔)2
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 ≈ -90
10
, 10 < 𝜔 < 100 -180
(𝑗𝜔)4
10 -270
, 100 < 𝜔
(𝑗𝜔)3 -360
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 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Margin of stability

35
 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Gain margin and Phase margin

Bode diagram Nyquist plot

36
 4.5 Design controllers by Bode diagram
Gain margin
➢ Gain margin: The gain margin is the reciprocal of the magnitude 𝐺(𝑗𝜔) at the frequency at
which the phase angle is –180°. Defining the phase crossover frequency 𝜔1 to be the
frequency at which the phase angle of the open-loop transfer function equals –180° gives the
gain margin Kg.

37
 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Gain margin
➢Positive gain margin (dB) Stable. ➢Negative gain margin (dB) Unstable

38
 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Phase margin
➢Phase margin is the difference between the actual phase angle 𝜑 and –180°.
Փ = 180° + 𝜑
➢For a minimum phase system to be stable, the phase margin must be positive.

39
 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Gain margin and Phase margin 1 Im
𝐾𝑔
𝐺𝑜
Example 𝐺 𝑠 = , 𝐺𝑜 > 0
𝑠(𝑠+1)2
−𝐺𝑜
2 Re
Gain margin:
1 2 −1 Փ
𝐾𝑔 = =
𝐺(𝑗𝜔−𝜋 ) 𝐺𝑜

Phase margin:
Փ = 180° + 𝜑 = 180° − 90° − 2𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔(𝜔)
Փ = 90° − 2𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔(𝜔)

𝜔 → 0+

40
 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
𝐼𝑚
Gain margin and Phase margin
1
𝐺𝑜 𝐾𝑔
Example 𝐺 𝑠 = , 𝐺𝑜 > 0
(𝑠+1)3

𝐺𝑜
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 =
(𝑗𝜔 + 1)3
𝜔 = 0 ⇒ 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = 𝐺𝑜 𝜔= 3 𝜔 = +∞ 𝜔=0
𝑅𝑒
𝐺𝑜 𝐺𝑜 𝐺𝑜 𝐺𝑜
𝜔 = 0 ⇒ 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 → = ∠ −270° −
8
𝑗𝜔3 𝜔3

Crossover point: −3 arctg 𝜔 = −180°

𝜔 = 𝑡𝑔 60° = 3
𝐺𝑜 𝐺𝑜
𝐺 𝑗 3 = ∠ −180° = −
8 8

Pole of G(s): -1 (Multiple root)

H(s) is stable  𝐺 𝑗𝜔 does not encircle the critical point (-1,j0)
𝐺𝑜
 −1 < ⇒ 𝐺𝑜 <8
8 41
 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
𝐼𝑚
Gain margin and Phase margin
1
𝐺𝑜 𝐾𝑔
Example 𝐺 𝑠 = , 𝐺𝑜 > 0
(𝑠+1)3

Gian margin
1 𝐺𝑜 8 𝜔= 3
= ⇒ 𝐾𝑔 = 𝜔 = +∞ 𝜔=0
𝑅𝑒
𝐾𝑔 8 𝐺𝑜 𝐺𝑜 𝐺𝑜
−
8
Phase margin
Փ = 180° + 𝜑 = 180° − 3𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔(𝜔)
To be stable Փ= 60°
⇒ 60° = 180° − 3𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑔 𝜔 ⇒ 𝜔 = 𝑡𝑔40°

42
 2.3 Frequency stability criteria
Gain margin and Phase margin
Exercises

Determine Go such that the closed-loop systems are stable.

𝐺𝑜
𝑎) 𝐺 𝑠 = , 𝐺𝑜 > 0
(𝑠+1)3
𝐺𝑜
b) 𝐺 𝑠 = , 𝐺𝑜 > 0
𝑠(𝑠+1)2

43
 2.4 Root locus
➢The root locus is the path of the roots of the characteristic equation traced out in the s-
plane as a system parameter is changed.

➢The root loci for the system are the loci of the closed-loop poles as the gain K is varied
from zero to infinity

▪ Open-loop system ▪ Characteristic polynomial

▪ Closed-loop system

44
 2.4 Root locus
The root locus procedure

1. The number of root Luci is the order of the equation P(s)=0.

2. K=0: P(s)=A(s)

The root Luci begins at poles of G(s) (The roots of A(s))

3. 𝐾 → ∞: P(s) = A(s)+kB(s) =kB(s)

The root Loci end at the zeros of G(s) (The roots of B(s))

4. The root loci are symmetrical with respect to the real axis of the s-plane.

45
 2.4 Root locus
The root locus procedure
5. The angles of the asymptotes

6. The intersection of the 2 𝑛 − 𝑚 asymptotes lies on the real axis of the s-plane, at

σ 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐺 𝑠 − σ 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐺 𝑠
𝜎=
𝑛−𝑚
The intersection of the asymptotes represents the center of gravity of the root loci, and
is always a real number.

46
 2.4 Root locus
Example:

Characteristic equation:

1. 𝐾 = 0, Poles of G(s): 0, −4, −1 ± 𝑗

2. 𝐾 = ±∞, zeros of G(s): −1, ∞
3. Number of root loci branches: 4 (order of G(s) n=4)
4. The root loci are symmetrical to the real axis
5. The angles of the asymptotes:
𝐾 ≥ 0: 𝜃0 = 60° , 𝜃1 = 180° , 𝜃2 = 300°
𝐾 ≤ 0: 𝜃0 = 0° , 𝜃1 = 120° , 𝜃2 = 240°
6. The intersection of the asymptotes:
47