INTERNAL ASSIGNMENT

SESSION NOV-DEC 2023

PROGRAM BCA
SEMESTER III
COURSE CODE & NAME DCA2104 & BASIC OF DATA COMMUNICATION
CREDITS 4
NUMBER OF ASSIGNMENTS 02
& MARKS 30

Q1 Explain different layers of OSI model?

Ans
Comprehensive Overview of the OSI Model and Its Layers
A conceptual framework known as the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model divides
the operations of a communication system or network into seven separate levels. Together,
the distinct roles played by each layer help a network's devices communicate with one
another. Now let's explore the details of each OSI model layer.

1. Layer 1 (Physical Layer): - The lowest layer, known as the physical layer, handles the
actual physical connections between devices. It outlines the standards for hardware, including
connections, cables, and communication techniques. The raw binary data transmission and
reception across a physical media is the main emphasis of this layer.

2. Layer 2: Data Link Layer - This layer offers error repair and detection inside the raw
bitstream of the physical layer. It oversees defining, allocating, and managing who has access
to the tangible medium. Within this layer, there are two sublayers: Media Access Control
(MAC) and Logical Link Control (LLC).

3. Layer 3 (Network Layer): - The data packet routing between devices in various networks is
controlled by the network layer. It covers packet forwarding, routing, and logical addressing.
At this layer, Internet Protocol (IP) functions, giving every device on the network a distinct
IP address.

Layer 4: Transport Layer (Layer 4): - This layer guarantees flow control, error recovery, and
end-to-end communication. Large communications are divided into manageable chunks, their
sequencing is controlled, and they are assembled again at the destination. User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) and Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) function at this stratum.
The session layer, also known as Layer 5, is responsible for creating, sustaining, and ending
device communication sessions. It oversees coordination of data interchange,
synchronization, and dialog control. This layer makes ensuring that information is sent
effectively and safely.

6. Layer 6 (Presentation Layer): - Data translation is the main function of the presentation
layer, which makes sure that data given by one program may be correctly read by another. It
covers formatting, compression, and data encryption. This layer makes sure the information
is shown in a way that is easy to understand.

7. Layer 7: Application Layer: - The uppermost layer, known as the application layer, has
direct communication with end-user applications. It gives application operations and end
users direct access to network services. At this layer, protocols such as HTTP, SMTP, and
FTP function, allowing users to communicate with the network.

Relationships Among Layers: - By use of well specified interfaces, any layer may
communicate with every other layer. Higher layers handle more abstract and application-
specific functions, whereas lower levels concentrate on the technical requirements of data
transmission.

Result:
The layered design of the OSI model offers a methodical and thorough way to comprehend
network communication. Each layer provides a defined foundation for the design and
debugging of communication systems, and it is essential to the effective and reliable
transmission of data across networks.

Q2 Write about Line coding Techniques?

Ans
Line Coding Methods: Guaranteeing Efficient Digital Data Transfer

In digital communication systems, line coding is a basic technique that transforms digital data
into a digital signal for transmission across a communication channel. It entails utilizing
coding patterns to express binary data such that it is easily interpretable by the recipient.
There are several line coding methods available, each with unique features and uses.

1. Parallel Encoding: A straightforward line coding method known as unipolar encoding uses
zero voltage to represent binary 0s and a positive voltage level, usually higher, to represent
all binary 1s. This simple method guarantees simplicity of implementation, but it lacks a
defined zero-crossing point and is prone to baseline drift.

2. Polar Encoding: – This method makes advantage of both positive and negative voltage
levels to symbolize binary numbers (0s and 1s). In addition to offering a distinct zero-
crossing point, the change from positive to negative levels reduces baseline drift. Polar
return-to-zero (RZ), in which the signal returns to zero at each bit period, and polar non-
return-to-zero (NRZ), in which each bit keeps its polarity throughout, are two examples of
polar encoding.

3. NRZ Encoding: Constant voltage level throughout bit length is a characteristic of non-
return-to-zero (NRZ) encoding. Binary numbers signify 1 or 0, depending on the voltage
level. Even though NRZ is straightforward and simple to use, synchronization issues and
perhaps lengthy sequences of consecutive identical bits might be problems.

4. RZ Encoding: - Return-to-zero (RZ) encoding creates transitions at every bit interval to

guarantee a distinct zero-crossing point. RZ reduces NRZ's synchronization problems, but
because it makes more transitions, it needs more bandwidth. A particular kind of RZ
encoding called Manchester encoding has a transition in the middle of each bit period to help
with clock recovery.

5. Manchester Encoding: - Manchester encoding ensures a transition in the middle of each bit
period by combining polar NRZ with RZ. This provides a distinct zero-crossing point and
speeds up clock recovery. Ethernet communication frequently uses Manchester encoding.

6. Differential Encoding: - Instead of representing data based on absolute values, differential

encoding encodes data based on changes (differences) between successive signal levels. In
the widely used variant of differential Manchester encoding, binary 0 is represented by a
transition at the start of the bit period, whereas the lack of Binary 1 is represented by a
transition.

7. Bipolar Encoding: - Three voltage levels are used in bipolar encoding, such as alternative
mark inversion (AMI): positive, negative, and zero. Binary 1 alternate between positive and
negative voltage levels, while binary 0 is represented by a zero voltage level. AMI lessens
baseline drift and aids with DC balancing.

Considerations and Trade-offs: - The simplicity, bandwidth efficiency, and recoverability of

clock and data synchronization are trade-offs associated with line coding schemes. The
transmission medium, desired data rate, and noise sensitivity are some of the elements that
must be taken into consideration while selecting the right line coding scheme.

Result: - Line coding methods are essential for digital data transmission because they convert
binary data into signals that can be sent via communication channels.
Q3 Explain different type of errors in data transmission?
Ans
Knowing the Various Kinds of Data Transmission Errors
In the field of data transmission, mistakes might happen when information is being sent and
received. These mistakes may be caused by a few things, such as interference, noise, or
problems with the transmission medium. It is essential to comprehend the many kinds of
mistakes that might happen when creating dependable communication systems. The
following are a few typical categories of data transmission errors:

1. Errors with a Single Bit: - When a single bit in a data packet changes while being sent, it is
known as a single-bit error. Numerous things, such electrical noise, interference, or a
communication channel fault, might cause this. Although single-bit mistakes are frequent,
they are frequently fixable with the use of error-detection and repair methods.
2. Errors in Bursting - Burst errors, as contrast to single-bit mistakes, occur when many
consecutive bits in a data packet are altered simultaneously. Electromagnetic interference,
signal fading, or a brief breakdown in the transmission channel are a few possible causes of
these mistakes. Error correction is more difficult to remedy burst faults and may require more
complex coding methods.

3. Random mistakes: - During data transfer, random mistakes might happen sometimes and
without warning. They may be caused by external variables, heat noise, or other brief
disruptions in the communication line. Even if random mistakes can be found by error-
detection systems, fixing them could need sending the impacted data again.

4. Systematic Errors: - Systematic errors are recurrent, consistent faults that arise from
communication system design or configuration problems. These flaws may necessitate
system calibration or changes to lessen their consistent influence on sent data correctness.

5. Dropped Packets: - When a whole data packet is dropped, it means that it did not make it
to its intended location. Equipment failure, buffer overflow, or network congestion can all
cause this. Data loss may result from dropped packets, and retransmission may be necessary
to preserve data integrity.
6. Delay Skew: - The term "delay skew" describes the variance in the times at which certain
bits within a data packet arrive. When various bits in a packet move over the communication
channel at varying rates, this can happen. In situations where timing is crucial, delay skew
can be problematic and necessitates taking precautions to lessen its effects.

7. Shake: - Jitter is the variance in the timing of data packets or signal pulses that causes
anomalies in the temporal pattern of the transmission. Signal interference, network
congestion, and changes in signal propagation periods can all cause jitter. It could necessitate
buffering or synchronization techniques and have an impact on how transmitted data is
synchronized.

Identifying and Fixing Errors: - Systems for detecting and correcting faults are used in
communication networks to handle these different kinds of problems. Checksums, parity
checks, cyclic redundancy checks (CRC), and forward error correction (FEC) codes are
examples of common techniques. By locating and, in some situations, fixing faults, these
methods contribute to the dependability of data transfer.

Q4 What are the major criteria for an efficient and efficient network?
Ans
Key Elements of an Effective and Efficient Network Infrastructure
Organizations that want to achieve maximum performance, smooth connectivity, and
efficient data transmission must have a well-designed and implemented network architecture.
An efficient and effective network is one that satisfies user demands and advances
organizational goals by meeting several critical requirements.

1. Sturdiness: - A network's efficacy is largely determined by its reliability. Since downtime

is reduced with a dependable network, users may regularly access resources and services. The
key elements to improving network resilience are redundancy, failover methods, and
proactive maintenance.

2. Performance: - Both user satisfaction and total productivity are strongly influenced by
network performance. Reliability, speed, and minimal latency are all made possible by high-
performance networks. variables include network structure, bandwidth capacity, and service
quality (QoS) systems aid in improving performance.

3. Scalability: - To meet the expanding needs of a company, an effective network must be

scalable. Scalability guarantees that the network can grow to accommodate more users, more
data traffic, and more applications without experiencing performance issues. Networks that
are scalable may change to meet evolving business needs.

4. Security: - Ensuring the integrity and confidentiality of data transferred over a network is
contingent upon security measures. To guard against unauthorized access, data breaches, and
cyber threats, strong security measures are crucial. These include firewalls, intrusion
detection and prevention systems, encryption, and access restrictions.

5. Manageability: - An efficiently run network lowers complexity, streamlines administration

duties, and boosts productivity all around. Network manageability is enhanced by
automation, monitoring systems, and centralized management tools, which enable
administrators to address problems, implement upgrades, and smoothly enhance performance.

6. Flexibility: – Organizations can adjust to evolving business requirements and technological

advancements thanks to network flexibility. Network flexibility is increased by virtualization,
software-defined networking (SDN), and cloud integration. These technologies enable the
introduction of new services and dynamic resource allocation without requiring major
infrastructure upgrades.

7. Cost-Effectiveness: - One of the most important factors in determining a network's

efficiency is its cost. A network that is well-designed maximizes resource usage, reduces
operating expenses, and offers a good return on investment (ROI). To create a network
architecture that is affordable, organizations frequently strike a compromise between
implementing cutting-edge technology and financial concerns.

8. Quality of Service (QoS): - QoS techniques control and prioritize network traffic to make
sure that essential applications have enough bandwidth and don't lag. Quality of Service
(QoS) is crucial for businesses that depend on real-time applications, such as phone and video
conferencing, where constant performance is critical.

9. Support for Cooperation and Communication: - Collaboration and communication

technologies are essential to productivity in today's businesses. These technologies are
supported by an effective network, which offers dependable connectivity for file sharing,
video conferencing, and other cooperative applications.

10. Environmental Considerations: - Ecologically friendly and sustainable network

procedures enhance productivity. Power management functions, eco-friendly programs, and
energy-efficient gear all support an organization's environmental responsibility pledges.
Q5 Compare and contrast datagram networks and virtual circuit networks.?
Ans
Difference Between Virtual Circuit Networks and Datagram Networks

In computer networking, datagram networks and virtual circuit networks are two opposing
paradigms. Each has unique properties that influence which applications they are appropriate
for.

1. Communication approach: - Datagram Networks: Utilize a connectionless approach of

communication, handling individual packets without creating a predetermined path. Although
this flexibility enables scalability, it may lead to unpredictable packet loss and inconsistent
delivery times.
- Virtual Circuit Networks: Create a virtual circuit or dedicated channel before data transfer
starts, adhering to a connection-oriented approach. This method includes overhead in path
preparation but guarantees consistent performance.

2. Datagram Networks: - Routing Mechanism: Make use of packet switching, in which

routers independently decide which packets to forward based on the state of the network at
the time, and each packet carries destination information. This dispersed strategy helps to the
ability to scale.
- Digital Circuit Systems: Utilize circuit switching and set aside a certain channel for the
duration of the conversation. Although it guarantees consistent performance, this might result
in underuse of resources when there is little activity.

3. Scalability: - Datagram Networks: Naturally scalable because they don't have pre-
established pathways, they can efficiently handle dynamic changes in the network and
fluctuating traffic loads.
- Digital Circuit Systems: Scalability issues might arise from having to create and destroy
specific pathways for every communication session, which could lead to underuse of
resources.

4. Resource Efficiency: - Datagram Networks: - These networks are resource-efficient as they

don't need dedicated channels to be set up, which makes them appropriate for situations
where communication patterns change.
 - Digital Circuit Systems: Underutilization of resources can result from dedicated pathways,
particularly for transient connections. Still, Resource use is optimized during data transport
after it is established.

5. Predictable Performance: - Datagram Networks: Depending on how independently each

packet travels, delivery delays and packet loss may fluctuate.
Virtual circuit networks (VCNs): Provide a constant quality of service by reserving a
dedicated path, which guarantees predictable performance throughout the communication
session.

6. Overhead and Setup Time: - Datagram Networks: Little overhead and setup time, which
helps the network respond quickly to shifting situations.
- Virtual Circuit Networks: incur costs and setup time when a dedicated path is established.
For transient connections, this procedure may cause delays while maintaining optimal
performance.

The suitability of the application: 7. Datagram Networks: Perfect for dynamic, scalable
situations where adaptability is essential, like the internet, where communication patterns are
varied.
- Digital Circuit Systems: Perfect for applications where low latency is crucial and constant
and predictable performance is required, such real-time audio or video transmission.

Result: - Datagram networks and virtual circuit networks are two different methods of
transmitting data; the former offer scalability and flexibility, while the latter offers
predictability and dependability. The selection of these models is contingent upon application
needs, traffic trends, and the intended balance between performance predictability and
adaptability.

Q6 Discuss the different type of mode for propagation of light along optical channels?
Ans
There are several modes involved in the propagation of light over optical channels, and each
has unique characteristics and behaviors. Understanding how light moves through optical
fibers and other waveguides requires an understanding of these modes. The primary forms of
light propagation modes are as follows:
1. Single Mode (SM) Propagation: - Characteristics: In single-mode propagation, an optical
channel is used to carry just one mode, or light beam. This happens when an optical fiber
with a tiny core diameter—typically 8–10 micrometers—occurs.
- Benefits: Single-mode propagation ensures high bandwidth and longer transmission
distances by minimizing modal dispersion, a phenomenon in which various modes move at
different rates.
Uses: High-speed data transfer, long-distance telephony, and applications needing minimal
signal distortion.

2. Multimode (MM) Transmission: - Features: When using numerous modes for propagation,
of Light beams pass via the optical channel at the same time. When the core diameter is
greater—usually between 50 and 100 micrometers—this happens.
- Benefits: Compared to single-mode fibers, multimode fibers are often less costly and
easier to produce. They work well for transmissions over short distances.
- Uses: Short-distance data transfer, local area networks (LANs), and applications with
looser bandwidth needs.

3. Step-Index Fibers: - Characteristics: The refractive index of step-index fibers varies

sharply between the cladding and the core. In doing so, a clear barrier that directs light is
created.
- Properties: Easy to develop and manufacture, which lowers costs.
Restrictions: Differences in the travel lengths of various modes can lead to modal
dispersion.

4. Graded-Index Fibers: - Characteristics: A core with a gradually altering grade refractive

index in the outermost layers compared to the core. Modal dispersion is reduced with the aid
of this progressive alteration.
- Benefits: Compared to step-index fibers, reduced modal dispersion permits higher
bandwidth and longer transmission lengths.
Longer-distance transmissions and increased bandwidth requirements are the applications.

5. Optical Waveguide Propagation Modes: - Characteristics: Optical waveguides, like optical

fibers, enable several modes of propagation, each with a distinct electric field spatial
distribution.
- Mode Categories: Modal dispersion is influenced by the more complex electric field
patterns of higher-order modes. It is preferable to use lower-order modes to reduce signal
distortion.
6. Polarization Modes: - Characteristics: Various polarization states of light are possible, and
certain optical channels can support more than one polarization mode.
Uses: Preserving polarization in particular optical systems, particularly those that are
susceptible to polarization effects.
Comprehending these modes is essential for developing optical communication systems that
satisfy certain performance standards, considering aspects like transmission range,
bandwidth, and economic viability. The requirements of the application and the properties of
the optical channel determine whether single-mode or multimode propagation is best.