INDU 6331

ADVANCED QUALITY CONTROL

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Lecture 2: Modeling process quality
 Additional Readings

Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 3

Copyright (c) 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Preliminaries
No two units of product produced by a process
are identical. Some variation is inevitable.
Statistics is the science of analyzing data and
drawing conclusions, taking variation in the data
into account.
There are several graphical methods that are very
useful for summarizing and presenting data. One
of the most useful graphical techniques is the
stem-and-leaf display.
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 Describing Variation
Stem-and-Leaf Display

For explanations; see the next display. Easy to

find percentiles of the data; see page 69

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 Stem-and-Leaf Display
• To construct the stem-and-leaf plot, we could select the values1, 2, 3, 4,
and 5 as the stems. However, this would result in all 40 data values being
compacted into only five stems, the minimum number that is usually
recommended.
• An alternative would be to split each stem into a lower and an upper half,
with the leaves 0–4 being assigned to the lower portion of the stem and the
leaves 5–9 being assigned to the upper portion.
Number of
Days cumulative steam leaf
leaf
16
17 3 1 677
17
22
22
22 3 + 5 =8 2 22234
23
24
26
26
27 8 + 5 =13 2 6 6 77 8
27
28

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• The column to the left of the stems gives a cumulative count of the number of observations that
are at or below that stem for the smaller stems, and at or above that stem for the larger stems.
• For the middle stem, the number in parentheses indicates the number of observations included in
that stem.
Inspection of the plot reveals that the distribution of the number of days to process and pay an
employee health insurance claim has an approximately symmetric shape, with a single peak.
The stem-and-leaf display allows us to quickly determine some important features of the data that are
not obvious from the data table.

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 Time Series Plot
Although the stem-and-leaf display is an
excellent way to visually show the variability in
data, it does not take the time order of the
observations into account. Time is often a very
important factor that contributes to variability in
quality improvement problems. We could, of
course, simply plot the data values versus time;
such a graph is called a time series plot or a run
chart.
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 Plot of Data in Time Order
Marginal plot
produced by
MINITAB

Also called a run chart

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Histograms – Useful for large data sets

Group values of the variable into bins, then count the number
of observations that fall into each bin
Plot frequency (or relative frequency) versus the values of
the variable
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Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 11
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Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 12
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 Numerical Summary of Data
Sample average:

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 The Standard Deviation

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 Percentile and quartile
Percentile and quartile are frequently used to
identify the position of the observation in the
data set.
Quartiles , are
the values under which 25%, 50%, and 75% of
data fall.

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 Percentile and quartile
• Time between failures (in hours) of a wire cutter used in a cookie
manufacturing oven is given in Table. The function of the wire-cut is to cut
the dough into cookies of desired size

a) Calculate the mean, median of time between failures of wire-cuts

b) Calculate the values of P25 and P75

Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 16

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 Example solution

a) Calculate the mean, median of time between failures of wire-cuts

Mean = 57.64, median = 56
b) Calculate the values of P25 and P75

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 Interquartile Range
• In descriptive statistics, the interquartile range (IQR), also
called the midspread or middle 50%, or technically H-
spread, is a measure of statistical dispersion, being equal to
the difference between 75th and 25th percentiles.

-
• IQR helps figure out how precise data is. It
eliminates outliers.

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 Detection of Outliers

• An outlier is an observation that appears to deviate

significantly from the other members of the time series.
• In some cases, this method can be used to detect outliers:
• The first and third quartile, and , respectively, are
identified and the data entries outside interval are tagged as
outliers.

- 1.5 ( - ), + 1.5 ( - )]

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 The Box Plot
(or Box-and-Whisker Plot)
• Box-and-Whisker Plots enclose the
interquartile range of the data that has the
median* displayed within. It also displays
“whiskers”; showing the extreme observations
in the sample.

*The fiftieth percentile of the data distribution is called the sample median.
The median can be thought of as the data value that exactly divides the sample
in half, with half of the observations smaller than the median and half of them
larger.

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 The Box Plot
(or Box-and-Whisker Plot)

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 Comparative Box Plots

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 Probability Distributions
The histogram (or stem-and-leaf plot, or box plot) is used to describe sample data. A sample is a
collection of measurements selected from some larger source or population. For example, the
measurements on layer thickness in Table 3.2 are obtained from a sample of wafers selected
from the manufacturing process. The population in this example is the collection of all layer
thicknesses produced by that process.
By using statistical methods, we may be able to analyze the sample layer thickness data
and draw certain conclusions about the process that manufactures the wafers.

A probability distribution is a mathematical model that relates the value of the variable with
the probability of occurrence of that value in the population. In other words, we might
visualize layer thickness as a random variable because it takes on different values in the
population according to some random mechanism, and then the probability distribution of layer
thickness describes the probability of occurrence of any value of layer thickness in the
population. There are two types of probability distributions.

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Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 24
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 Sometimes called a Sometimes called a
probability mass function probability density function

Will see many examples in the text

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 The mean is the point at which the distribution exactly “balances”.

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 The mean is not necessarily the 50th percentile of the distribution (that’s the
median)
The mean is not necessarily the most likely value of the random variable
(that’s the mode)

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Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 28
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 Important Discrete Distributions
The Hypergeometric Distribution

A sample with size N, had D

parts with special characteristics
(ex. Defective), if we take out n
parts (without replacement), and
x is the number of defectives we
will get, the probability of x has
a hypergeometric distribution.

review

Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 29

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For example, suppose that a lot contains 100 items, 5 of which do not conform
to requirements. If 10 items are selected at random without replacement, then
the probability of finding one or fewer nonconforming items in the sample is:

Discrete distributions are used frequently in designing acceptance sampling plans

– see Chapter 15

Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 30

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Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 31
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Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 32
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The Binomial Distribution

Basis is in Bernoulli trials

The random variable x is the number of successes out of n

Bernoulli trials with constant probability of success p on each trial
Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 33
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Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 34
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 Binomial Distributions

Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 35

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Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 37
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The Poisson Distribution

Frequently used as a model for count data

Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 38

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Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 39
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A typical application of the Poisson distribution in quality control is as a model of the
number of defects or nonconformities that occur in a unit of product.

In fact, any random phenomenon that occurs on a per unit (or per unit area, per unit
volume, per unit time, etc.) basis is often well approximated by the Poisson distribution.

Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 40

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 Geometric Distribution

The probability distribution of the number x of Bernoulli trials needed to get one success.

Because the sequence of Bernoulli trials are independent, the count of the number of
trials until the next success can be started from anywhere without changing the
probability distribution.

Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 41

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 Geometric Distribution

For example, suppose we are examining a series of medical records searching for
missing information. If, for example, 100 records have been examined, the probability
that the first error occurs on record number 105 is just the probability that the next five
records are GGGGB, where G denotes good and B denotes an error.

If the probability of finding a bad record is 0.05, the probability of finding a bad record on
the fifth record examined is :

This is identical to the probability that the first bad record occurs on
record 5. This is called the lack of memory property of the geometric
distribution.

Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 42

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 Important Continuous Distributions
The Normal Distribution

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Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 46
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1 – 0.9937 =
0.0063

Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 47

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 or

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Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 49
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 The Central Limit Theorem
→ Let S1, S2, …, Sk be samples of size n drawn from an
independent and identically distributed population with mean
and standard deviation .
→ Let , , …, be the sample means.
→ According to the CLT, the distribution of , , …,
follows a normal distribution with mean and standard
deviation for large value of n.

Practical interpretation – the sum of independent random

variables is approximately normally distributed regardless of
the distribution of each individual random variable in the sum

Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 50

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 The Central Limit Theorem

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 Exercise
It is believed that college students in Bangalore spend on average 80 minutes
daily on texting using their mobile phones and the corresponding standard
deviation is 25 minutes. Data from a sample of 100 students were collected for
calculating the amount of time spent in texting. Calculate the probability that
the average time spent by this sample of students will exceed 84 minutes.

Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 52

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 Approximation using Normal Distribution

If the number of trials (n) in a binomial distribution is large, and

then it can be approximated by normal distribution with mean np

and variance npq, where q = 1 - p.

If x has a Poisson distribution with parameter

then it can be approximated by normal distribution with
and

Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 53

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The Exponential Distribution

Chapter 3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 7th Edition by Douglas C. Montgomery. 54

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