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Fluid Transport
 There are no such things as applied sciences,
only applications of science.
Louis Pasteur (11 September 1871)

Dedicated to my wife, Anne, without whose unwavering support, none of this

would have been possible.
Industrial Equipment for Chemical Engineering Set
coordinated by
Jean-Paul Duroudier

Fluid Transport

Pipes

Jean-Paul Duroudier
First published 2016 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Press Ltd and Elsevier Ltd

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced,
stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers,
or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the
CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the
undermentioned address:

ISTE Press Ltd Elsevier Ltd

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London SW19 4EU Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB
UK UK
www.iste.co.uk www.elsevier.com

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment
may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information
or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for
whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any
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© ISTE Press Ltd 2016

The rights of Jean-Paul Duroudier to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in
accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN 978-1-78548-184-0

Printed and bound in the UK and US

 Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

Chapter 1. Fluid Ejectors and Gas Ejectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1. Principle of an ejector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2. Liquid–liquid or gas–gas ejectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1. Parameters of the problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2. Finding the characteristic equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3. Gas ejectors and thermocompressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1. Parameters of the problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2. Flow and velocity of driving fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.3. Flow and velocity of the suction fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.4. Specific consumption σ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.5. Study of the mixing of two gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.6. Global compression ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4. Practical applications of ejectors
and thermocompressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.1. Value of these devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.2. Compression ratio and mounting ejectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.3. Similarity between suction gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.4. Stability and stall point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.5. Ice formation at the exit of the ejection nozzle. . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.6. Regulation of ejectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.7. Simplified calculation of specific
consumption of an ejector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4.8. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
vi Fluid Transport

Chapter 2. Pipe Dimensions, Non-Newtonian

Fluids, Liquid Hammer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1. Establishing pipe diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.1. Exterior diameter of metallic piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.2. Choice of pipe velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.3. Available pressure drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1.4. Pressure drop calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.1.5. Expression in practical units (fluids) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.1.6. Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.7. Newtonian viscous fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1.8. Non-Newtonian fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2. Establishing pipe thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2.1. Mechanical calculation conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2.2. Pressure resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2.3. Vacuum resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2.4. Corrosion allowance and final thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3. Flanges, seals and accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.1. Flanges and mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.2. The choice of flanges and seals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.3. Two types of pipe accessory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.4. Sound waves in pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4.1. Wave celerity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4.2. Natural damping of sound waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.5. Mechanism of liquid hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.5.1. Closure of a valve, pressure equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.5.2. Integrated pressure equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.5.3. The complete equations of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.6. Approximate simulation method for simple
pipes (without intermediate accessories and fittings) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.6.1. Assumption of mean values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.6.2. Physical interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.6.3. Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.6.4. Propagation diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.6.5. Calculation procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.7. Simplified graphic method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.7.1. Preliminary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.7.2. Practical procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.8. Anti-liquid hammer chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.8.1. Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.8.2. Influence of the chamber on over-pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
 Contents vii

2.8.3. Fluid-level oscillations inside the tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

2.8.4. Pipe friction equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.8.5. Resolution of the damping equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.8.6. Weakening of a sound wave along
a pipe for a single trip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Chapter 3. Block or Stop Valves and

Control Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.1. On valves in general. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.1.1. Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.1.2. The essential parts of a valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.1.3. Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.1.4. Protection against corrosion and abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.1.5. Protection against pressure and temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2. Different types of valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.2.1. Valve categorization and study design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.2.2. Plug valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.2.3. Angle valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2.4. Other plug valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.2.5. Eccentric shut-off control valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.2.6. Ball valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.2.7. Membrane valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.2.8. Pinch valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.2.9. Butterfly valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.2.10. Gate valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.2.11. Knife valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.2.12. Cage valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.2.13. Multipath valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.3. Control valve choice and calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.3.1. Purpose of control valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.3.2. Flow in a valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.3.3. Thermodynamic approach and
calculation principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.3.4. Calculation of CV with flow in volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.3.5. The KV in the international system of units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.3.6. Calculation of CV with flow in mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.3.7. Laminar flow of a liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.3.8. The meaning of CV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.3.9. Cavitation of a fluid in a liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.3.10. Limiting flowrate of a liquid
entering at its boiling point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
viii Fluid Transport

3.3.11. Conclusion for liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

3.3.12. Relaxation coefficient for gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.3.13. Sonic regime for gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.3.14. Flow characteristic of a control valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.3.15. Operating range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.3.16. Installation of a control valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.4. The process parameters of a control valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.4.1. Variation in line pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.4.2. Disturbances on a line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.4.3. Definition of control valves (principles) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Chapter 4. Electric Motors: Performance

and Choice of Pumps and Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.1. Choice of motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.1.1. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.1.2. Installed power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.1.3. Supply voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.1.4. Rotation velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.2. Utilization of motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.2.1. Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.2.2. Power consumption of an installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.3. Turbopumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.3.1. The main types of turbopump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.3.2. Centrifugal pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.3.3. Centrifugal pump yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.3.4. Normal–emergency centrifugal
pump systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.3.5. Liquid flow criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.3.6. Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.3.7. Drive shaft outlet seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.3.8. Cooling requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.3.9. Dry running centrifugal pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.3.10. Hermetically sealed centrifugal pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.3.11. Propeller pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.3.12. Turbopump shaft power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.3.13. Cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.4. Volumetric pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.4.1. Need for volumetric pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.4.2. Piston pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.4.3. Gear pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.4.4. Moyno pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
 Contents ix

4.4.5. Double-screw pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

4.4.6. Sealed volumetric pumps (membrane) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.4.7. Volumetric pumps and net suction pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.4.8. Flow regulation of volumetric pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.4.9. Shaft power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.5. Special cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.5.1. Pumps for liquid–gas mixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.5.2. Self-priming pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.5.3. Slurry pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.5.4. Sludge pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.5.5. The water screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
4.6. Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.6.1. Similarity laws and electrical power
consumed by a fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.6.2. Fan flow calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.6.3. Uses of fans outside of pneumatic transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.6.4. Ventilator start time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.6.5. Noise caused by a ventilator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

Chapter 5. Polymer Extruder Screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

5.1. Introduction of extrusion screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.1.1. Extruder principle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.1.2. Geometrical description of a screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.1.3. Screw rotation direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.1.4. Movement of fluid particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.1.5. Preliminary studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.2. Movement of the polymer in the screw channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.2.2. The viscosity of extruded polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.2.3. Movement equation between two parallel
plates: velocity and flowrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.2.4. Polymer friction on a solid lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.2.5. Cord movement and simulation
of screw operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.2.6. Effect on the cord of the orthoaxial
component of relative velocity VR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.2.7. Leak flowrate between the flight and the barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
5.2.8. Friction of the barrel on the flight edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.3. Heat for polymer melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
5.3.1. Melting of polymer particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
5.3.2. Heat dissipated by viscous friction between
two parallel plates in relative movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
x Fluid Transport

5.3.3. Thermal dissipation due to the liquid

cord rotating by itself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
5.3.4. Preliminary waiting time before
fusion as described by Tadmor et al. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5.3.5. Thermal exchange in the fusion zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.4. Shaft electrical power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
5.4.1. Shaft power of the screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
5.4.2. Extrapolation of power from
diameter d to diameter D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
5.5. Practical considerations and screw use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
5.5.1. Operating variables and
dimensioning variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
5.5.2. Choosing of certain extruder screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.5.3. Uses of extruders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
5.6. Mixing and thermal transfer in the screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

Chapter 6. Choice and Performance

of Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.1. About compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.1.1. Energy loss and yields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.1.2. Gas exit temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
6.1.3. Energetic losses to the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
6.1.4. Ideal compression power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.1.5. Real gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.1.6. Protecting the machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
6.2. Reciprocating compressors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
6.2.1. Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
6.2.2. Dead space in reciprocating compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
6.2.3. Energy and yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.3. Open volumetric compression – screw
compressors and lobe compressors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.3.1. Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.3.2. Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.3.3. Yields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.3.4. Internal leak and volumetric yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
6.4. Turbo compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
6.4.1. Description and use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
6.4.2. Flowrate regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.4.3. Energy equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.4.4. Ideal gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
6.4.5. Real gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
 Contents xi

6.5. Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

6.5.1. Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
6.5.2. Compression power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
6.6. Liquid ring pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6.6.1. Principle and use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6.6.2. Shaft power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6.6.3. Liquid consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Chapter 7. Free Gas Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

7.1. Types of expansion: one-dimensional
flow equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.1.1. Types of expansion and
starting hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.1.2. Free expansion and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.1.3. Mach number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.1.4. Pipe friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
7.1.5. General equations of adiabatic flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
7.1.6. Flow without friction but with
variable cross-section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
7.1.7. Isentropic flow and critical values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
7.1.8. Flow at constant cross-section
with friction (gas pipelines) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
7.1.9. Equation of the stationary shock wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
7.1.10. Singular pressure drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
7.2. Theoretical study of control valves,
safety valves and gas pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
7.2.1. Modeling control valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
7.2.2. Modeling valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
7.2.3. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
7.2.4. Pressure drop in a gas pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
7.2.5. Overall conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Chapter 8. Safety Valves and Rupture Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

8.1. Pressure around a safety valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
8.1.1. Operating pressure of a protected device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
8.1.2. Maximum operating pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
8.1.3. Pressure calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
8.1.4. Set pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
8.1.5. Pressure upstream of the safety valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
8.1.6. Closing differential (drop) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
8.1.7. Counter-pressure downstream of the valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
xii Fluid Transport

8.2. Choice between two types of safety valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

8.2.1. Usual valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
8.2.2. Balanced plugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
8.2.3. Choosing a safety valve type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
8.2.4. Inlet cross-section norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
8.3. Relationship between flowrate and pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
8.3.1. Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
8.3.2. Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
8.3.3. Viscous liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
8.3.4. Flow through valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
8.4. Upstream and downstream connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
8.4.1. Connection between
valve and protected device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
8.4.2. Exhaust pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
8.4.3. Reaction force on the structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
8.5. Various applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
8.5.1. Vacuum-breaking valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
8.5.2. Breathing of reservoirs under
atmospheric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
8.5.3. Liquid escaping without free
surface (low vapor pressure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
8.6. Rupture disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
8.6.1. Rupture pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
8.6.2. Operating ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
8.6.3. Relationship between pressure and flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
8.6.4. Conventional disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
8.6.5. Composite disks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
8.6.6. Thick disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
8.6.7. Graphite disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
8.6.8. Rupture indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
8.6.9. Association of a disk with a safety valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

Chapter 9. Breathing, Inerting, Gas

Losses and Circulation between
Reservoirs, Tanks and Vats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
9.1. Breather valve specifications: reservoir
filling ratio limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
9.1.1. Types of temperature fluctuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
9.1.2. Set pressure of exhalation valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
9.1.3. Range of filling ratio for operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
 Contents xiii

9.1.4. Outlet valve flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

9.1.5. Pressure reducers and overflow valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
9.1.6. Possible mounting for use of inert
gas under pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
9.2. Assessment of losses to the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
9.2.1. Preliminaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
9.2.2. Possible scenarios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
9.2.3. Raw material storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
9.2.4. Product storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
9.2.5. Losses on overheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
9.3. Circulation of liquid between reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
9.3.1. Transfer by gravity from one reservoir to another . . . . . . . . . . . 312

Chapter 10. Flow in Pipes: Rarified Gas,

Non-Newtonian Liquids, Events, Gas–Liquid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
10.1. Rarified gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
10.1.1. Viscosity of gas under low pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
10.1.2. Quadratic mean velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
10.1.3. Mean free path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
10.1.4. Gas flow (low-pressure pipe) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
10.2. Consistent or plastic products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
10.2.1. Pipe flow laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
10.3. Vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
10.3.1. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
10.3.2. Explosion vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
10.3.3. Ambient vents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
10.4. Nature of gas–liquid flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
10.4.1. Horizontal flow or slightly
sloping flow at angle α . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
10.4.2. Vertical rising flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
10.4.3. Vertical descending flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
10.4.4. Sloping ascending or descending
flow from horizontal to vertical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
10.5. Pressure drop in gas–liquid flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
10.5.1. The pipe is strictly horizontal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
10.5.2. The pipe is inclined, ascending or descending . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
10.5.3. Hold-ups and pressure drop on ascent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
10.6. Critical biphasic flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
10.6.1. Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
10.6.2. Speed of sound. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
10.6.3. Critical flow without friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
10.6.4. Flow equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
xiv Fluid Transport

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
 Preface

The observation is often made that, in creating a chemical installation, the

time spent on the recipient where the reaction takes place (the reactor)
accounts for no more than 5% of the total time spent on the project. This
series of books deals with the remaining 95% (with the exception of oil-fired
furnaces).

It is conceivable that humans will never understand all the truths of the
world. What is certain, though, is that we can and indeed must understand
what we and other humans have done and created, and, in particular, the
tools we have designed.

Even two thousand years ago, the saying existed: “faber fit fabricando”,
which, loosely translated, means: “c’est en forgeant que l’on devient
forgeron” (a popular French adage: one becomes a smith by smithing), or,
still more freely translated into English, “practice makes perfect”. The
“artisan” (faber) of the 21st Century is really the engineer who devises or
describes models of thought. It is precisely that which this series of books
investigates, the author having long combined industrial practice and
reflection about world research.

Scientific and technical research in the 20th century was characterized by

a veritable explosion of results. Undeniably, some of the techniques
discussed herein date back a very long way (for instance, the mixture of
water and ethanol has been being distilled for over a millennium). Today,
though, computers are needed to simulate the operation of the atmospheric
distillation column of an oil refinery. The laws used may be simple statistical
xvi Fluid Transport

correlations but, sometimes, simple reasoning is enough to account for a

phenomenon.

Since our very beginnings on this planet, humans have had to deal with
the four primordial “elements” as they were known in the ancient world:
earth, water, air and fire (and a fifth: aether). Today, we speak of gases,
liquids, minerals and vegetables, and finally energy.
The unit operation expressing the behavior of matter are described in
thirteen volumes.
It would be pointless, as popular wisdom has it, to try to “reinvent the
wheel” – i.e. go through prior results. Indeed, we well know that all human
reflection is based on memory, and it has been said for centuries that every
generation is standing on the shoulders of the previous one.

Therefore, exploiting numerous references taken from all over the world,
this series of books describes the operation, the advantages, the drawbacks
and, especially, the choices needing to be made for the various pieces of
equipment used in tens of elementary operations in industry. It presents
simple calculations but also sophisticated logics which will help businesses
avoid lengthy and costly testing and trial-and-error.

Herein, readers will find the methods needed for the understanding the
machinery, even if, sometimes, we must not shy away from complicated
calculations. Fortunately, engineers are trained in computer science, and
highly-accurate machines are available on the market, which enables the
operator or designer to, themselves, build the programs they need. Indeed,
we have to be careful in using commercial programs with obscure internal
logic which are not necessarily well suited to the problem at hand.

The copies of all the publications used in this book were provided by the
Institut National d’Information Scientifique et Technique at Vandœuvre-lès-
Nancy.

The books published in France can be consulted at the Bibliothèque

Nationale de France; those from elsewhere are available at the British
Library in London.

In the in-chapter bibliographies, the name of the author is specified so as

to give each researcher his/her due. By consulting these works, readers may
10 Fluid Transport

2) Pe/Pao > rac Subsonic loosening:

0.5
⎡ 1
⎡ γ a −1
⎤⎤
G ⎡ Pe ⎤ ⎢ 2γ a M a
γa ⎡ P ⎤
⎢1 − e a ⎥ ⎥
γ
)=P [BRU 68 p. 360]
(1 − τ tu ) ao ⎣⎢ Pao ⎦⎥ ⎢⎢ ( γa − 1) RTao ⎢ ⎢ P ⎥ ⎥⎥
⎣ ao ⎦ ⎥ ⎥
⎣ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎦

Temperature at the entrance of the mixing chamber corresponds to

adiabatic loosening:
1
( γa −1) / γa
⎛ Pe ⎞ γa ρ e Tae ⎡ Pe ⎤ P RT
⎜ ⎟ = =⎢ ⎥ and =
⎝ Pao ⎠ ρ ao Tao ⎣ Pao ⎦ ρ M

The velocity Vae of the suction fluid at the entrance of the mixing
chamber is then obtained:
0.5
⎡ 2γ a RTao ⎛ Tae ⎞ ⎤
Vae = ⎢ ⎜1 − ⎟⎥ [BRU 68 p. 360]
⎣⎢ ( γ a − 1) M a ⎝ Tao ⎠ ⎥⎦

1.3.4. Specific consumption σ

This ratio is deduced from the outcome of the expressions that we have
already calculated:
σG G
τ col 1 − τ tu

Flow density G may also be deduced.

1.3.5. Study of the mixing of two gases

For the requirements of this calculation, we accept that the gases mix
instantaneously as soon as the driving gas exits the nozzle. We assign indices
as follows:
– index e for the gas before mixing (inlet);
– index s for the gas after mixing (exit mix);
– index r for the mix discharged on exit from the ejector.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
,

1039

Temperature of head in,

1036

1037

Trophic disturbances and disturbances of respiration,

1044

Vertigo in,

1034

Vomiting in,

1030

1034

Will, impairment of, and defects of speech,

1038

Treatment,

1066

Ergot, cannabis indica, and hyoscyamus, use,

1068

Leeches, use,

1068

Morphia and potassium bromide, use,

1068

Surgical,

1066

UMORS OF THE
S

PINAL

ORD AND ITS

NVELOPES

1090

Definition,

1090

Diagnosis,

1098

from caries of spinal vertebræ,

1099

from hysteria,

1100
 from metallic and infectious diseases,

1100

from spinal congestion, hemorrhage, and meningitis,

1098

from traumatism, sclerosis, aneurism, and neuritis,

1100

localization of spinal tumors,

1100-1106

Duration and termination,

1106

Etiology,

1090

Age and sex, influence of,

1090

Traumatism, influence of,

1090

Pathology,

1096

characters, seat, and varieties of tumors,

1096-1098

vascular changes,

1098

Symptoms,

1091

Ataxia and atrophy in,

1094
 Bladder, urinary and sexual disorders,

1096

Eye disorders,

1096

Headache in,

1096

Mental disturbances in,

1096

Pain, seat and characters,

1091

1092

Paralysis and paresis,

1091-1093
 Reflexes, altered in,

1094

Sensation, alterations of,

1091-1093

Sense of constriction about waist,

1091-1093

Spasms and twitchings in,

1091

1092

1094

Temperature of body in,

1095

Vomiting in,
1096

Treatment,

1106

Tumors, phantom, in hysteria,

255

Turpentine, use of, in neuralgia,

1229

Tympanites, hysterical,

240

Typhoid fever as a cause of abscess of the brain,

799
 of anæmia of the brain,

781

Typhus fever as a cause of hyperæmia of the brain,

768

U.

Ulcer of foot in tabes dorsalis,

839

Ulcerations in nervous diseases,

58
Ulcers, perforating, of the foot,

1273

Unconsciousness, in cerebral meningeal hemorrhage,

712

Unilateral catalepsy, symptoms,

324

epilepsy,

482

facial atrophy, progressive,

693

preponderance of symptoms in cerebral anæmia,

784
 spinal paralysis,

1165

Urine, state of, in brain tumors,

1045

in cerebral hemorrhage and hemiplegia,

961

in chronic lead-poisoning,

682

in epilepsy,

480

in general paralysis of the insane,

195

in hysteria,
253

in myxœdema,

1272

in neuralgia,

1212

1213

in symmetrical gangrene,

1260

in tabes dorsalis,

835

in the chloral habit,

662

in the opium habit,

654

658

659

Uterine and ovarian irritation as a cause of reflex paralysis,

807

Uterus and ovaries, neuralgia of,

1240

V.

Vaginismus, hysterical,

246
Valleix's painful points in migraine,

408

Varieties of hystero-epilepsy,

290

Vaso-constrictors, action of,

1243

Vaso-dilators, action of,

1244

Vaso-motor cerebral disturbances in general paralysis of the insane,

179
 disturbances in writers' cramp,

520

nerves, origin of,

1246

ASO-MOTOR

EUROSES

1242

Course,

1254

Diagnosis,

1252
 Pathogenesis,

1242

Physiology,

1242

Local vascular tone in,

1242

Medullary centres in,

1250

Origin of the vaso-motor nerves,

1246

Vaso-constrictors,

1243

Vaso-dilators,
1244

Vaso-motor reflexes,

1248

Vaso-motor tracts,

1249

Prognosis,

1255

Symptoms,

1252

Acrodynia,

1254

Angio-spasm and angio-paralysis,

1252
 Cutaneous angio-neuroses,

1252-1254

Digiti mortui and gangrene,

1252-1254

Erythromelalgia,

1253

Functional, derangements of internal viscera,

1254

Ruptured capillaries in,

1253

Sensation, disturbances of,

1252

1253
 Taches cérébrales in,

1253

Treatment,

1255

Amyl nitrite and nitro-glycerin,

1256

Chloral hydrate and chloride of potassium in,

1256

Rest, massage, and electricity in,

1255

Vaso-motor and trophic neuroses,

1241

Definition,
1241

Reflexes,

1248

Symptoms of general paralysis of the insane,

189

Theory of pathology of hysteria,

211

Tracts of the spinal cord,

1249

Venous congestion in cerebral hyperæmia,

768

Ventricles of brain in cerebral anæmia,