KANPUR UNIVERSITY’S

QUESTION
BANK
B.SC. II SEM

THERMAL
PHYSICS AND
SEMICONDUCTOR
DEVICES
 400+ MCQs
 Brief and Intensive Notes

KALEEM AHMED DR. SATYA PRAKASH

DHEERENDRA GUPTA DR. MANISH KAPOOR
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Syllabus
Subject: Physics

Year: First Semester: IInd

Course Code: B010201T Course Title: Thermal Physics & Semiconductor Devices

Unit Topics

0th & 1st Law of Thermodynamics

State functions and terminology of thermodynamics. Zeroth law and temperature. First law,
I internal energy, heat and work done. Work done in various thermodynamical processes.
Enthalpy, relation between CP and CV. Carnot’s engine, efficiency and Carnot’s theorem.
Efficiency of internal combustion engines (Otto and diesel).
2nd & 3rd Law of Thermodynamics
Different statements of second law, Clausius inequality, entropy and its physical
significance. Entropy changes in various thermodynamical processes. Third law of
II
thermodynamics and unattainability of absolute zero. Thermodynamical potentials,
Maxwell’s relations, conditions for feasibility of a process and equilibrium of a system.
Clausius- Clapeyron equation, Joule-Thompson effect.
Kinetic Theory of Gases
Kinetic model and deduction of gas laws. Derivation of Maxwell’s law of
III
distribution of velocities and its experimental verification. Degrees of freedom, law
of equipartition of energy (no derivation) and its application to specific heat of gases
(mono, di and poly atomic). Theory of Radiation
Blackbody radiation, spectral distribution, concept of energy density and pressure of
IV
radiation. Derivation of Planck's law, deduction of Wien’s distribution law, Rayleigh-
Jeans law, Stefan- Boltzmann law and Wien’s displacement law from Planck’s law.
DC & AC Circuits
Growth and decay of currents in RL circuit. Charging and discharging of capacitor in RC,
V LC and RCL circuits. Network Analysis - Superposition, Reciprocity, Thevenin’s and
Norton’s theorems. AC Bridges - measurement of inductance (Maxwell’s, Owen’s and
Anderson’s bridges) and measurement of capacitance (Schering’s, Wein’s and de Sauty’s
bridges). Semiconductors & Diodes
P and N type semiconductors, qualitative idea of Fermi level. Formation of depletion layer in PN
junction diode, field & potential at the depletion layer. Qualitative idea of current flow
VI mechanism in forward & reverse biased diode. Diode fabrication. PN junction diode and its
characteristics, static and dynamic resistance. Principle, structure, characteristics and
applications of Zener, Tunnel, Light Emitting, Point Contact and Photo diodes. Half and Full
wave rectifiers, calculation of ripple factor, rectification efficiency and voltage regulation. Basic
idea about filter circuits and voltage regulated power supply.
Transistors
Bipolar Junction PNP and NPN transistors. Study of CB, CE & CC configurations w.r.t.
active, cutoff & saturation regions; characteristics; current, voltage & power gains;
VII
transistor currents & relations between them. Idea of base width modulation, base
spreading resistance & transition time. DC Load Line analysis and Q-point stabilisation.
Voltage Divider Bias circuit for CE amplifier. Qualitative discussion of RC coupled
amplifier (frequency response not included).

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Electronic Instrumentation
Multimeter: Principles of measurement of dc voltage, dc current, ac voltage, ac current and
resistance. Specifications of a multimeter and their significance.
VIII Cathode Ray Oscilloscope: Block diagram of basic CRO. Construction of CRT,
electron gun, electrostatic focusing and acceleration (no mathematical treatment). Front
panel controls, special features of dual trace CRO, specifications of a CRO and their
significance. Applications of CRO to study the waveform and measurement of voltage,
current, frequency & phase difference.

Kaleem Ahmed Dr. Satya Prakash Singh

Assistant Professor Professor
Department of Physics Department of Physics
D.A-V. PG College, Kanpur (U.P.) Christ Church College, Kanpur (U.P.)

Dheerendra Gupta Dr. Manish Kapoor

Assistant Professor Associate Professor
Department of Physics Department of Physics
D.A-V. PG College, Kanpur (U.P.) Christ Church College, Kanpur (U.P.)

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Unit - I

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Unit I
(0th & 1st Law of Thermodynamics)

Introduction
Thermodynamics deals with the transformation of energy in the form of heat into other forms
of energy and vice-versa. This subject evolved out of the need for an efficient engine during
industrialisation of Europe. But today it finds wide applications in all facets of physical science
and beyond. In thermodynamics deals with (directly observable) macroscopic properties of
matter without any reference to their microscopic structure. Thermodynamics is based on
empirical laws which is very exact and powerful. Each of these laws introduced a new concept
(like temperature, internal energy, entropy) which gives a definite meaning to physically
measurable quantities and provides useful correlation between observables properties of
matter. The first law is essentially a statement about the conservation of energy for
thermodynamical systems and recognition of heat as form of energy. It gives the relation
between heat and mechanical work.
Summary/Information at a Glance:
System
The substance (or substances) involved in physical and/or chemical changes is known as the
system. There are four types of system in thermodynamics.

1. Open System: In such a system, exchange of energy and matter occurs with its surroundings.
2. Closed System: In such a system, exchange of energy may occur but no transfer of matter
occurs between the system and its surroundings.
3. Thermally Isolated System: No exchange of energy (in the form of heat) takes place.
4. Mechanically Isolated System: No work is done on the system or by the system.
Surroundings
Defined as the regions outside the boundaries of the system which may act on the system.
Process
The actual change that occurs in a system and the manner of its occurrence is known as the
process. A process may be physical or chemical. Magnetising of iron bar → Physical process
Rusting of iron→ Chemical process

1. Reversible Process: Process carried out very slowly so that system remains in temperature
and pressure equilibrium with surroundings.
2 Irreversible Process: In such a process a property of the system differs by a finite amount
from one instant to another and system cannot returns to its original state Such processes are
real or natural processes.
3. Spontaneous Process: Takes place under a given set of conditions without application of
any force.

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

4. Isothermal Process: Reversible process at a constant temperature.

5. Adiabatic Process: Thermally isolated so that no heat can enter or leave the system.
6. Isentropic Process: A reversible adiabatic process is called isentropic process
7. Isobaric Process: The process carried out at a constant pressure.
8. Isochoric Process: The process carried out at constant volume.
9. Cyclic Process: This process leads from a given state through a sequence of changes back
to the original state.
State
The state of a system is described by specifying the values of all relevant macroscopic variables
(volume, pressures and temperature), so that the system could be precisely duplicated from this
information.

State Variables or Functions

The macroscopic quantities that are used to specify the state of a thermodynamic system are
called state variables because their values depend only on the condition.
Volume, temperature, pressure and density are state variables but work and heat are not state
variables.

Extensive Variables
Those variables that are proportional to the amount of matter are called extensive variables,
e.g. volume V and heat capacity.

Intensive Variables
amount of matter are called intensive variables Those variables that are independent of the e.g.
temperature T. pressure P and viscosity

Laws of Thermodynamics and their Consequences

 In thermodynamics we deal with the transformation of heat into mechanical work or
vice versa.
 The state of a thermodynamical system is defined by the thermodynamic variables
such as pressure P, volume V, temperature T
 Out of these three thermodynamic variables, only two are independent variables.
 The relation connecting these thermodynamic variables, is called the equation of state
of the system.
 For example the equation of state for the gaseous system is f(P,V,T)=0

Thermal Equilibrium and Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third one are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
This statement is called the zeroth law of thermodynamics.

Internal Energy

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

The total internal energy of a system is the sum of internal kinetic energy (due to motion of
molecules) and internal potential energy (due to intermolecular attractions).

The Difference Between the Two Specific Heats of a Perfect Gas

The specific heat of a system is defined as the amount of heat energy given to a unit mass of
the system to raise its temperature by unity.

If dQ →Amount of heat energy given for a rise of temperature by an amount dT, then
Specific heat of system,

 dQ 
C  
 dT 
When volume is kept constant, then

 dQ 
CV   
 dT V

When pressure is kept constant,

 dQ 
CP   
 dT  P

The difference in specific heat at constant pressure to that at constant volume is given as
CP – CV = R
First Law of Thermodynamics
 The first law of thermodynamics is a law of conservation of energy.
 Statement: Whenever other forms of energy are converted into heat energy or vice versa
there is a fixed ratio between that form ot energy and heat thus converted.
W
 J (Mechanical equivalent of heat)
H
 In mathematical form, we can state the law as
dQ = dU + dW
Where dQ→ amount of heat given to system which which is used up in
(i) raising the internal energy of the system by an amount dU
(ii) doing work dW by the system.
 Specific heat capacity
(i) at constant volume
ΔU = nCvΔT
(ii) at constant pressure
ΔH = nCPΔT

Isothermal change of perfect gas:

PV = nRT
Adiabatic change of perfect gas:

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

PVγ = constant
TVγ-1 = constant
TP(1-γ)/γ = constant

Work done during isothermal expansion of an ideal gas:

Vf 
W = 2.303nRTlog10  
 Vi 
Work done during adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas:
1
W= ( PiVi  Pf V f )
 1
Joule’s law for perfect gas:
 U 
  0
 V  T

A heat engine is a mechanical device which converts heat into mechanical work. The system
which undergoes such change is called working substance.
Heat engine are of two types: steam engine and internal combuston engine.

The efficiency of the heat engine

workoutput
η=
Heatinput
W
η = ,
Q
W = Q1 – Q2 (work done by the system)
Q1 = amount of heat absorbed by the system
Q2 = amount of heat rejected by it
η = (Q1 – Q2)/Q1
= 1 – Q2/Q1

Carnot’s Engine:
A simple type of engine working between two reservoirs at fixed temperature T1 (source
temperature) and T2 (Temperature of sink)
The efficiency of Carnot Engine is given by :
η = 1 – Q2/Q1 = 1 – T2/T1
Q1/Q2 = T1/T2

Different process in Carnot’s cycle:

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Fig. 1. Carnot Cycle on a P-V diagram

Step 1. Isothermal Expansion

Q1 = W1
W1 = nRT1ln(V2/V1)
Step 2. Adiabatic Expansion
Heat absorbed by gas = 0
W2 = R(T1 – T2)/(γ-1)
Step 3. Isothermal Compression
Q2 = W3 = -RT2ln(V3/V4)
Step 4. Adiabatic Compression
Heat absorbed by gas = 0
W4 = - R(T1 – T2)/( γ-1)

Coefficient of performance for refrigerator,

k = (heat extracted from the cold reservoir)/(work input)
= Q2/W
T2
=
T1  T2
Relation between η and k:
1

k 1

In Internal Combuston Engine, heat is generated inside the cylinder itself. Two types of
Internal combuston engine
1. Otto engine in which heat absorbed at constant volume.
2. Diesel engine in which heat is absorbed at constant pressure.

Multiple Choice Questions and Answers

1. Temperature and Energy related to which laws of thermodynamics respectively

a) First law and Zeroth law
b) Zeroth law and First law
c) Ist law and IInd law
d) None of these

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Ans. b) Zeroth law and First law

2. Which of the following is reversible process?

a) Diffusion
b) Radiation
c) Change of state
d) Heat Conduction
Ans. c) Change of state
3. In which process, the change in internal energy of the system is not zero?
a) Cyclic
b) Free expansion
c) Adiabatic
d) Isothermal
Ans. c) Adiabatic

4. Which one is correct? (Symbols have their usual meaning)

a) dQ = dU + dW
b) dQ = dU – dW
c) dQ = dW – dU
d) dQ = dW
Ans. a) dQ = dU + dW

5. A system which has constant temperature, pressure and chemical composition is called
a) Thermal Equilibrium
b) Chemical equilibrium
c) Thermodynamic equilibrium
d) Mechanical Equilibrium
Ans. c) Thermodynamic equilibrium

6. Which of the following is reversible process

a) Transfer of heat by radiation
b) Transfer of heat from hot body to cold body
c) Diffusion of gases
d) Very slow isothermal expansion of a gas
Ans. d) Very slow isothermal expansion of a gas

7. Which of the following is an example of Closed system

a) Thermoflask
b) Stream turbine
c) Pressure Cooker
d) All of the above
Ans. c) Pressure Cooker

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Hint: As exchange of energy with surrounding but not matter, thermoflask is isolated
system

8. Two samples of ideal gas A and B having same composition and initially at the same
temperature and pressure are compressed from V to V/3. (A → isothermally and B →
adiabatically). Which one is correct?
a) PA > PB
b) PA < PB
c) PA = PB
d) PA = 3PB
Ans. b) PA < PB

9. An ideal gas of three sample A, B and C expands to double its volume V to 2V. A →
isobarically, B → Isothermally and C → adiabatically. Which of the following is
correct for heat absorption?
a) QA > QB > QC
b) QA = QB = QC
c) QA < QB < QC
d) QA > QB < QC
Ans. a) QA > QB > QC
Hint: In the PV diagram, work done is calculated by area under the curve, therefore
Isobaric has larger area than other. Similarly adiabatic case least work, heat absorbs is
zero.

10. A gas expands by 0.25 m3 at constant pressure of 103 N/m2. If increase in internal
energy of 50 J. The heat change of the system is
a) +300 J
b) –300 J
c) 0
d) None of these
Ans. a) +300 J
Hint: Use dQ = dU + PdV

11. A gas is compressed at a constant pressure of 100 N/m2 from a volume of 10 m3 to a

volume of 5 m3. Energy of 200 J is then added to the gas by heating. Its internal
energy is
a) Increased by 700 J
b) Decreased by 700 J
c) Increased by 300 J
d) Increased by 300 J
Ans. a) Increased by 700 J
Hint: Q = 200 J, dV = 5 – 10 = -5m3
Use first law of thermodynamics, dU = dQ - W

12. In an adiabatic change between the system and surrounding

a) There is a transfer of heat in such a way temperature remain constant.

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

b) There is no transfer of heat but the temperature may vary.

c) There is no transfer of heat hence the temperature remain constant.
d) There is free transfer of heat as well as variation in heat.
Ans. b) There is no transfer of heat but the temperature may vary.

13. For one mole of an ideal gas in adiabatic process, work done is
V 
a) RTln  2 
 V1 
b) PV 
c) 0
R (T1  T2 )
d)
 1
R (T1  T2 )
Ans. d)
 1

14. A system is taken from state A to state B along two different path 1 and 2. If the heat
absorbed and work done by the system along these two paths are Q1, Q2 and W1, W2
respectively then
a) Q1 = Q2
b) W1 = W2
c) Q1 – W1 = Q2 – W2
d) Q1 + W1 = Q2 + W2
Ans. c) Q1 – W1 = Q2 – W2

15. For the given cycle as shown in fig. the work done during the isobaric process is

a) 200 J
b) 0
c) 400 J
d) 600 J
Ans. d) 600 J
Hint: WAB = AB region of the curve(Isobaric), P = constant = 3 × 102 N/m2
WAB = P(V2 – V1) = 3 × 102× (3 – 1 ) = 600

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

16. An ideal gas undergoes four different process from the same initial state as shown in
figure below. Those process are adiabatic, isothermal, isobaric and isochoric. Which
of the following correct?

a) I→ Isothermal, II→Isobaric, III→ Adiabatic, IV→Isochoric

b) I→Isochoric, II→ Adiabatic, III→ Isothermal, IV→Isobaric
c) I→Isobaric, II→ Adiabatic, III→ Isothermal, IV→Isochoric
d) I→ Adiabatic, II→Isobaric, III→Isochoric, IV→ Isothermal
Ans. b) I→Isochoric, II→ Adiabatic, III→ Isothermal, IV→Isobaric
Hint: Thermodynamic process PVn = constant
For n = 0, P = constant (Isobaric)
For n = 1, PV = constant (Isothermal)
For n = γ, PVγ = constant (Adiabatic)

17. A thermodynamic system is taken through the cycle ABCD as shown in fig. Heat
rejected by the gas during the cycle is

a) PV
b) 2PV
c) 0.5PV
d) 4PV
Ans. b) 2PV
Hint: For cyclic process, Internal energy is zero. Therefore heat is equal to the work
done by the gas whch is area ABCD. W = WAB + WBC + WCD + WDA
WDA = WBC = 0
W = 2PV – 4PV = -2PV = heat rejected

18. During an adiabatic process, the pressure of the gas is found to be proportional to the
cube of its temperature. The ratio of Cp/Cv for the gas is

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

a) 5/3
b) 4/3
c) 3/2
d) 2
Ans. c) 3/2
1
Hint: Given P = kT3 threfore TP 3
compare this with adiabatic relation P and T
 1 
1  
 
Use TP (1-γ)/γ
= constant, Therfore TP 3
 TP 

19. A monoatomic gas at a pressure P, having a volume V expands first isothermally to

volume 2V and then adiabatically to a volume 16V. The final pressure of the gas is
(take γ = 5/3)
a) 64P
b) 32P
c) 16P
d) P/64
Ans. d) P/64
Hint: For isothermal expansion, Use P2V2 =P1V1 and find P2 after that adiabatic
expansion use P2V2γ = P1V1γ

20. When one mole of monoatomic gas (γ = 5/3) is mixed with one mole of a diatomic
gas (γ = 7/5). What is the value of γ for mixture?
a) 1.5
b) 1.4
c) 1.53
d) 3.07
Ans. a) 1.5
 n   2 n2
Hint: γ for mixture = 1 1
n1  n2

21. Compressed air coming out from a tyre burst

a) Becomes hotter
b) Becomes cooler
c) Remains at same temperature
d) Attains atmospheric pressure
Ans. b) Becomes cooler
Hint: Adiabatic process

22. The difference between two specific heat Cp and Cv for a gas represents
a) Increase in potential energy of gas molecules
b) Increase in kinetic energy of gas molecules
c) External work done
d) Increase in volume
Ans. c) External work done

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

23. If a gas of volume 6000 cm3 and pressure of 200 KPa is compressed quasistatically
according to PV2 = constant until the volume becomes 3000 cm3. Determine the final
pressure
a) 600 KPa
b) 800 KPa
c) 900 KPa
d) 400 KPa
Ans. b) 800 KPa
Hint: Use equation P1V12 = P2V22

24. PV graph for _________ process is parallel to X-axis.

a) Adiabatic
b) Isothermal
c) Isobaric
d) Isochoric
Ans. c) Isobaric

25. For hydrogen gas Cp – Cv = k1 and for Nitrogen gas Cp – Cv = k2, relation between k1
and k2 can be given by (where C is molar heat capacity)
a) k1 = 14k2
b) k2 = 14k1
c) k1 = 4k2
d) k1 = k2
Ans. d) k1 = k2

26. n moles of a gas are filled in a container at temperature T. If the gas slowly and
isothermally compressed to half its initial volume, the work done by the atmosphere
on the gas is
a) –nRTln2
b) nRTln2
c) (nRT)/2
d) -(nRT)/2
Ans. b) nRTln2
Hint: Work done by gas (Wg) = - Work done by atmosphere (Wa) on the gas
Wg = nRTln(V2/V1) and V2 = V1/2

27. A tyre is at 27oC temperature and at 2 atm pressure it burst suddenly then the resultant
temperature will be (γ = 1.4, 22/7 = 1.22)
a) -123oC
b) 240oC
c) -27oC
d) 0oC
Ans. c) -27oC
Hint: As tyre burst its pressure becomes atmospheric pressure
Therefore P2 = 1 atm, P1 = 2 atm

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Adiabatic process, TP(1-γ)/γ = constant, use this for initial and final pressure and
temperature T2 = 246 K

28. The slope of Isothermal and adiabatic curves are related as

a) Isothermal curve slope = adiabatic curve slope
b) Isothermal curve slope = γ×adiabatic curve slope
c) Adiabatic curve slope = γ×isothermal curve slope
d) Isothermal slope = 1/2× adiabatic curve slope
Ans. c) Adiabatic curve slope = γ×isothermal curve slope

29. For a particular ideal gas, the value of R is 0.280 KJ/KgK and the value of γ is 1.375.
The value of Cp and Cv are respectively in KJ/KgK
a) 1.25, 0.8
b) 1.0267, 0.7467
c) 1.111, 0.66
d) 1.2, 0.7
Ans. b) 1.0267, 0.7467
Hint: CV = R/(γ-1) and CP = γR/(γ-1)

30. The efficiency of carnot engine is 50% and temperature of sink is 500 K. If
temperature of source is kept constant and its efficiency raised to 60%, then the
required temperature of sink will be
a) 100 K
b) 400 K
c) 500 K
d) 600 K
Ans. b) 400 K
T
Hint: use   1  2
T1

31. The difference between Cp and Cv is equal to the universal gas constant R, when
a) one gram of gas is heated
b) any amount of gas is heated
c) one molecule of gas is heated
d) one gram molecule of the gas is heated
Ans. d) one gram molecule of the gas is heated

32. Which statement is false?

a) Carnot cycle is reversible.
b) A reversible cycle is more efficient than irreversible one.
c) Carnot Cycle is the most efficient among all cycles.
d) All reversible cycle has same efficiency.
Ans. d) All reversible cycle has same efficiency.

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

33. If two engine E1 and E2 are working in the same temperature ranges. The E1 is an
reversible engine, where as E2 is an irreversible engine. Which of the following is
correct for the efficiency of the engines?
a) η(E1) > η(E2)
b) η(E1) < η(E2)
c) η(E1) = η(E2)
d) Insufficient data
Ans. a) η(E1) > η(E2)
Hint: Carnot Theorem

34. The first carnot engine work under temperature T1, T2 and the second carnot engine
work under T2 and T3. Which of the following is true for above mentioned carnot
engine for same work output?
a) T2 = (T1 – T3)/2
b) T1 – T2 = T2 – T3
c) T2 = T1  T3
d) T2 = 2(T1 – T3)
Ans. b) T1 – T2 = T2 – T3
Hint: Carnot engine in series, W1 = W2
Therefore T2 = (T1 + T3)/2

35. The heat engine operating between temperature 2000 K and T K and T K and 500 K
respectively. What is the intermediate temperature, if the efficiency of both the cycle
is same.
a) 900 K
b) 1000 K
c) 1500 K
d) 1600 K
Ans. b) 1000 K
T T
Hint: use formula Carnot engine, η = 1   1  2 therefore
T1 T
T = (T1×T2)1/2

36. The coefficient of performance of refrigerator between 100C and 420C is

a) 6.77
b) 7.77
c) 8.84
d) 10.77
Ans. c) 8.84
T2
Hint: use k =
T1  T2

37. If Cp and Cv are the molar heat capacities of an ideal gas at constant pressure and
constant volume respectively. Which of the following is Universal constant?
a) CpCv

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

b) Cp/Cv
c) Cp - Cv
d) Cp + Cv
Ans. c) Cp - Cv

38. The efficiency of a reversible engine is 100% if

a) temperature of source is 100oC
b) temperature of sink is 0oC
c) temperature of sink is 0 K
d) temperature of source is same as the temperature of the sink.
Ans. c) temperature of sink is 0 K

39. A carnot engine works between hot reservoir at temperature T1 and a cold reservoir at
temperature T2. To increase its efficiency
a) T1 and T2 both should be decreased
b) T1 and T2 both should be increased
c) T1 should be increased and T2 decreased.
d) T1 should be decreased and T2 increased
Ans. c) T1 should be increased and T2 decreased.

40. A carnot engine with the sink temperature at 170C has 50% efficiency. By how much
should its source temperature be changed to increase its efficiency to increase its
efficiency to 60%?
a) Decreased by 145 K
b) Increased by 200 K
c) Increased by 145 K
d) Decreased by 200 K
Ans. c) Increased by 145 K
Hint: use Carnot efficiency
ηcarnot = (T1 – T2)/T1, η1 = 0.5 find T1
next use η2 = 0.6 and calculate T1 and fixed T2 same. Take the difference of T1 for both
case.

41. An insulated box containing 0.5 Kg of a gas having Cv = 0.98 KJ/Kg-K falls from a
balloon 4 Km above the earth’s surface. The temperature rise of the gas when box hits
the ground is
a) 0 K
b) 20 K
c) 40 K
d) 60 K
Ans. c) 40 K
Hint: As the box hit the ground, Potential energy = Internal energy of gas
mgh = mcvΔT therefore ΔT = (9.8×4000)/0.98 = 40 K

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

42. A heat engine is supplied 278 KW of heat at a constant fixed temperature of 2830C
and heat rejection takes place at 50C. The engine is reversible if the heat rejected, in
KW is
a) 139
b) 208
c) 35
d) 70
Ans. a) 139 KW
dQ
Hint: engine is reversible,   0 , Q1/T1 = Q2/T2
T

43. If the heat rejected from the system is zero, then which of the following statement will
hold true?
a) When net work is equal to the heat absorbed, work efficiency is 100%
b) Heat is exchanged from one heat reservoir only
c) It violates Kelvin-Planck statement
d) All options are correct
Ans. d) All options are correct

44. Carnot cycle is not practical because it

a) Demands that all process should be reversible
b) Piston movement is required very slow in isothermal process and very fast in
adiabatic process, this variations practically not possible
c) Heat addition at constant temperature is not possible
d) All of the above
Ans. d) All of the above

45. A Carnot engine has the same efficiency between 800 K to 500 K and X to 600 K.
The value of X is
a) 960 K
b) 846 K
c) 812 K
d) 754 K
Ans. a) 960 K
Hint: use Carnot efficiency η1 = η2

46. In a Carnot Cycle, heat is transferred at

a) Constant pressure
b) Constant volume
c) Constant temperature
d) Constant enthalpy
Ans. c) Constant temperature

47. A cyclic machine receives 325 KJ from a 1000 K energy reservoir. It rejects 125 KJ
to a 400 K energy reservoir and the cycle produces 200 KJ of work as output. Is this
cycle

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

a) Reversible
b) Irreversible
c) Impossible
d) None of these
Ans. c) impossible
Hint: ηactual = 200/325 = 0.615, ηcarnot = (T1 – T2)/T1 = 0.6
As ηactual > ηcarnot therefore impossible

48. A litre of an ideal gas at pressure of 72 cm of Hg column is compressed isothermally

to a volume of 900 cc. The stress in terms of length of Hg column is
a) 80 cm
b) 64.8 cm
c) 8 cm
d) 7.2 cm
Ans. a) 80 cm
Hint: use P1V1 = P2V2

49. The absolute zero temperature is taken as

a) -2730C
b) 2730C
c) 00C
d) 273K
Ans. d) -2730C

50. For same compression ratio and for same heat added which one is more efficient
between Otto cycle and Diesel cycle?
a) Otto cycle
b) Diesel cycle
c) both are equal
d) depends on other factors
Ans. a) Otto cycle

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Unit II
(2nd & 3rd Law of Thermodynamics)

Introduction
The first law of thermodynamics is a statement abount conservation of energy in thermal
processes. However, it gives no information about the way thermodynamic system evolve or
the direction of flow of heat. Can heat flow by itself from a colder to hotter body? Similarly, it
is a common experience that one can achieve complete conversion of heat into work and the
extent to which it can be done. Can we achieve 100% efficiency? The answer to these questions
given by second law of thermodynamics. What determines the direction of a process? The
answer to these given by Clausius when he introduced the concept of entropy. After familiar
with the several properties of thermodynamic system like P, T, V, H, U and S. Of these U and
S cannot measure in laboratory. So we would naturally like to know how one can relate them
with measurable properties. To answer these question, we would require thermodynamic
relations. After this, third law of thermodynamics to explain the nature of bodies in
neighbourhood of absolute zero temperature. It allow the calculation of absolute value of
entropy and the physical interpretation of thermodynamic properties such as Helmholtz and
Gibbs free energies etc.

Second law of Thermodynamics

Kelvin-Planck statement – It is impossible to construct a device which when operates
in a cycle, extracts heat from a source and converts whole of it into work.
Clausius statement – It is impossible to construct a device which when operates in a
cycle, produces no effect other than to transfer heat from a colder body to hotter body.
Both the statements are equivalent to each other.

Entropy
Boltzman showed that entropy is a measure of disorder in molecular arrangement of a
system and as such it is an abstract concept.
Clausius developed a general mathematical formulation of the second law and showed
that only such process can occur for which entropy does not decrease.

Entropy change for an ideal gas

 Tf  Vf 
S  C v ln    R ln  
 Ti   Vi 
Entropy change in terms of T and P
 Tf   Pf 
S  C p ln    R ln  
 Ti   Pi 
Entropy change of ideal gas in terms of P and V
 Pf  Vf 
S  C v ln    C p ln  
 Pi   Vi 
Entropy change Isothermal expansion
Vf   Pf 
S  R ln   = R ln  
 Vi   Pi 

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Entropy change in reversible change of state

dQ mL
S  
T T
Wher L is the latent of substance

Entropy change in reversible process:

dQ = TdS
Carnot cycle as an example with corresponding T-S diagram

Fig. 1. Carnot cycle on (a) P-V diagram and (b) T-S diagram

Entropy change in irreversible change of state

dQ mL1  T  mL2
S    mc ln  2  
T T1  T1  T2

Clausius-Clapeyron equation:
By the second law of thermodynamics, the boiling point and melting point of substance change
with pressure explain by Clausius – Clapeyron equation or first latent heat equation.
dp L

dT T (V2  V1 )
a) Effect of change of pressure on the melting point: When a solid is converted to liquid,
there is change in the volume.
If V2 > V1 , (dP/dT) is positive, so that the melting point of substance will increase in pressure
and vice-versa.
If V2 < V1, (dP/dT) is negative quantity. In such case the melting point of the substance will
decrease with increase in pressure and vice-versa. (e.g. for ice, V2 < V1, (dP/dT) is negative,
hence ice will melt at a temperature lower than 00C at a pressure higher than the normal
pressure)
b) Effect of change of pressure on boiling point: Here always V2 > V1, (dP/dT) is positive
quantity. So with increasing pressure, the boiling point of a substance increases and vice-versa.
The liquid will boil at lower temperature under reduced pressure.
The second latent heat equation of Clausius:
 dL L 
C 2  C1    
 dT T 

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Thermodynamic Potential – Four thermodynamic potential which are the functions of the
thermodynamic variables P, V, T and S.
(i) Internal Energy (U)
(ii) Helmholtz Free Energy (F)
F = U - TS
(iii) Enthalpy or total heat function (H)
H = U + PV
(iv) Gibb’s potential/free energy (G)
G = U + PV – TS
= H – TS
= F + PV
Maxwell’s Thermodynamic relationship:
 T   P 
i)      derive from dU = TdS - PdV
 V  S  S V
 S   P 
ii)     derive from dF = -PdV – SdT
 V  T  T V
 T   V 
iii)     derive from dH = TdS + VdP
 P  S  S  P
 S   V 
iv)      derive from dG = VdP – SdT
 P  T  T  P

Ratio of adiabatic and Isothermal elasticity:

i) Adiabatic elasticity Es (entropy constant)
 P 
E S  V  
 V  S
ii) Isothermal elasticity ET (temperature constant)
 P 
ET  V  
 V  T
ES CP
Ratio  
E T CV

Joule Thomson Coefficient (μ):

Gas at constant high pressure forced through a porous plug to a region of constant low pressure,
the temperature of the escaping gas changes called the Joule-Thomson effect.
 T  1   V  
    T   V 
 P  H C P   T  P 
For perfect gas, μ = 0

The TdS equation:

i) The entropy of pure substance can be regarded as a function of temperature and volume.
 P 
TdS  CV dT  T   dV (Ist TdS equation)
 T V

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

ii) The entropy of pure substance can be regarded as a function of temperature and pressure.
 V 
TdS  C P dT  T   dP (IInd TdS equation)
 T  P

Multiple Choice Questions and Answers

1. One gram mole of a perfect gas expands isothermally to 8 times its initial volume.
Than the change in entropy in terms of R is
a) 1.386R J/K
b) 2.079R J/K
c) 0.693R J/K
d) 0
Ans. b) 2.079R J/K
Vf 
Hint: use S  R ln   , Vf =8 Vi
 Vi 

2. Which of the following statement is false about entropy?

a) Entropy of universe always is decreasing
b) Entropy change of the system is the degree of increase or decrease of its randomness.
c) Entropy of substance with high degree of randomness is higher.
d) Entropy of solid state is the least
Ans. a) Entropy of universe always is decreasing

3. Change in entropy during constant pressure process is given by the relation

a) mcpln(T2/T1)
b) mcpln(T1/T2)
c) mcvln(T2/T1)
d) m(R/J)ln(T2/T1)
Ans. a) mcpln(T2/T1)

4. The entropy always increases for an isolated system and when the equilibrium is
reached, it is
a) Maximum
b) Same as the initial state
c) More than initial state
d) Zero
Ans. a) Maximum

5. The net entropy change of a system in Carnot’s cycle is

a) zero
b) positive
c) negative
d) None of these
Ans. a) zero

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

6. The change in entropy of a one mole of an ideal gas, when the gas undergoes free
expansion is
a) zero
b) positive
c) negative
d) none of these
Ans. b) positive

7. When water vapour condenses into water, its entropy

a) increases
b) remains unchanged
c) decreases
d) none of these
Ans. c) decreases

8. Choose the correct option for entropy measurement

a) solid > liquid > gas
b) gas > liquid > solid
c) solid = liquid = gas
d) None of these
Ans. b) gas > liquid > solid

9. The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of gas through
one degree at constant volume is called
a) Entropy
b) cv
c) cp
d) Enthalpy
Ans. b) cv

10. Entropy change depends on

a) Heat transfer
b) Thermodynamic state
c) Change of temperature
d) mass transfer
Ans. a) Heat transfer

11. If a piece of ice is added to water in a vessel than its

a) increased
b) decreased
c) remains same
d) none of these
Ans. a) increased

12. 10 gm of water at 400C are mixed with 20 gm of water at 700C. What is the
temperature of mixture? specific heat of water, c = 1cal/g-deg

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

a) 600C
b) 650C
c) 1100C
d) 500C
Ans. a) 600C
Hint: use principle of calorimetry,
Heat absorb = heat lost
m1c(T – 40) = m2c(70 – T)

13. 10 gm of steam at 1000C is converted into water at the same temperature. Latent heat
of steam is 540 cal/gm. The change in entropy in cal/K is
a) 14.48
b) 1.448
c) -1.448
d) -14.48
Ans. d) -14.48
dQ mL
Hint: The change in Entropy for change of state, S  
T T

14. A heat engine is supplied 278 KW of heat at a constant fixed temperature of 2830C
and heat rejection takes place at 50C. The engine is reversible if the heat rejected, in
KW is
e) 139
f) 208
g) 35
h) 70
Ans. a) 139 KW
dQ
Hint: engine is reversible,   0 , Q1/T1 = Q2/T2
T

15. In the free expansion of an ideal gas from volume V1 to V2

a) The entropy of the gas remains while its temperature decreases
b) The entropy of the gas remains constant while its temperature decreases
c) The entropy and temperature both increases
d) None of the above
Ans. d) None of the above
Hint: dU = 0, dT = 0 (free expansion)
ΔS = nRln(V2/V1) as V2 > V1 therefore S increases and T constant.

16. At constant temperature, the work done by a gas is equal to

a) change in its internal energy
b) change in its Gibbs energy
c) change in its Helmholtz energy
d) change in its enthalpy
Ans. c) change in its Helmholtz energy
Hint: F = U – TS, dT and dU is zero

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

dF = -TdS = dQ = dW

17. Which one of the following is correct?

a) –ΔG = ΔH – TΔS
b) ΔH = ΔG – TΔS
c) ΔS = (1/T)[ ΔG – ΔH]
d) ΔS = (1/T)[ ΔH – ΔG]
Ans. d) ΔS = (1/T)[ ΔH – ΔG]
Hint: use G = H - TS

18. Joule Thomson Coefficient is given by the expression :

 T 
a)  
 P  H
 T 
b)  
 V  H
 E 
c)  
 P V
 S 
d)  
 T  P
 T 
Ans. a)  
 P  H

19. Gibb’s Potential is defined as

a) G = U – PV + TS
b) G = U + PV + TS
c) G = U – PV - TS
d) G = U + PV – TS
Ans. d) G = U + PV – TS
Hint: Use G = H – TS and H = U + PV

20. Which of the following is not a Maxwell thermodynamical relation?

 T   P 
a)    
 V  S  S V
 S   P 
b)    
 V  T  T V
 T   V 
c)    
 P  S  S  P
 S   V 
d)     
 P  T  T  P
 T   P 
Ans. a)      as negative sign needed
 V  S  S V

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

21. The condition for an isolated system to be in equilibrium is

a) Gibb’s energy must be maximum.
b) Helmholtz free energy must be maximum
c) Internal energy must be maximum.
d) Entropy must be maximum.
Ans. d) Entropy must be maximum.

22. As entropy is related to probability of occurance of a state. Entropy increased during

the irreversible process can be associated with a change of state from
a) less probable to more probable
b) more probable to less probable
c) both are equally probable
d) None of these
Ans. a) less probable to more probable state

23. The Gibbs Helmholtz equation is written as:

 F 
a) U  F  T  
 T V
 F 
b) F  U  T  
 T V
 F 
c) U  F  T  
 T  P
 F 
d) F  U  T  
 T  P
 F 
Ans. a) U  F  T  
 T V

24. If C1 and C2 represents the specific heat of a liquid and its saturated vapour. L is the
latent heat then C2 – C1 is given by
 dL L 
a)   
 dT T 
 dL L 
b)   
 dT T 
2
dL  L 
c)  
dT  T 
2
dL  L 
d)  
dT  T 
 dL L 
Ans. a)   
 dT T 

25. Mathematical form of the Second law of thermodynamics is

a) dS = TdQ

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

b) dQ = TdS
c) dQ = dU + PdV
d) dS = dQ + PdV
Ans. b) dQ = TdS

26. According to Clausius theorem

dQ
a)  0
T
dQ
b)  0
T
dQ
c)  0
T
dQ
d)   cons tan t
T
dQ
Ans. b)  0
T

27. Clausius Clapeyron heat equation is:

dp L
a) 
dT P(V2  V1 )
dp L
b) 
dT T (V2  V1 )
dp L
c) 
dT V ( P2  P1 )
dp L
d) 
dV T (V2  V1 )
dp L
Ans. b) 
dT T (V2  V1 )

28. Thermodynamic Potentials are

a) P, V, T, U
b) H, U, T, S
c) U, H, F, G
d) S, H, U, F
Ans. c) U, H, F, G

29. On a T-S diagram the isothermals are

a) parallel to T-axis
b) parallel to S-axis
c) 450 to the plane
d) None of these
Ans. b) parallel to S-axis

30. Pressure cooker, cook the food rapidly because

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

a) higher pressure available at 1000C

b) the boiling point of water is raised by increased pressure inside the cooker
c) more steam available to cook the food at 1000C
d) None of these
Ans. b) the boiling point of water is raised by increased pressure inside the cooker
Hint: use clausius clapeyron equation

31. Water boils at 1000C at NTP. Under the deep down tunnel, water will boil at the
temperature
a) less than 1000C
b) greater than 1000C
c) at 1000C
d) None of these
Ans. b) greater than 1000C

32. The volume expansion coefficient is given by

1  V 
a)  
V  T  P
 V 
b) V  
 T  P
1  P 
c)  
P  T V
 P 
d) P 
 T V
1  V 
Ans. a)  
V  T  P

33. T-S diagram of cycle ABCA shown in figure.

Which one of the figure have higher work?

a) Fig (a)
b) Fig (b)
c) both have equal work done
d) None of these
Ans. c) both have equal work done
Hint: As work done = area ABC, which is same in both case

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

W = (1/2) × (T2 – T1) × ( S2 – S1)

a
34. In the above question in given figure, Find out the ratio of efficiency
b

2T2
a)
T1  T2
2T1
b)
T1  T2
2T2
c)
T1  T2
d) 0
2T2
Ans. a)
T1  T2
W
Hint: Use   , Q = heat absorbed by the system which is different for area
Q
(ABEFA) in fig. (a) and fig. (b). Calculate and put in efficiency equation.

35. A heat engine receives 100 kcal of heat from source at 1000 K. It rejects (I) 50 kcal or
(II) 75 kcal of heat to the surroundings at 500 K. Identify the nature of change in each
case?
a) I→ Reversible, II→ Irreversible
b) I→ Irreversible, II→ Reversible
c) both reversible
d) both irreversible
Ans. a) I→ Reversible, II→ Irreversible

36. Nernst’s heat theorem also called as

a) First law of thermodynamics
b) IInd law of thermodynamics
c) IIIrd law of thermodynamics
d) None of these
Ans. c) IIIrd law of thermodynamics

37. IIIrd law of thermodynamics stated

a) total energy of universe is conserved
b) Entropy of all solids or liquid is zero at absolute zero
c) Entropy of the universe is increasing
d) None of these
Ans. b) Entropy of all solids or liquid is zero at absolute zero

38. In First TdS equation S is function of

a) T and V
b) T and P
c) P and V
d) constant

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Ans. a) T and V

39. Which one is correct relation?

E
a) S  
ET
ES 1
b) 
ET 
ET
c) 
ES
ES
d) 2
ET
ES
Ans. a) 
ET

40. Rice cooked take longer time

a) at sea level
b) at Higher altitude
c) at mines below sea level
d) None of these
Ans. c) at Higher altitude

41. Unit of entropy

a) JK-1mol-1
b) JKmol-1
c) J
d) K-1mol-1
Ans. a) JK-1mol-1

42. Which of the following statement is not true?

a) The pressure of a saturated vapour is independent of its temperature
b) A liquid boils when its saturated vapour pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure
c) The saturated vapour pressure is independent of its volume.
d) when saturated pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure, abubble of vapour can
form anywhere in the liquid.
Ans. a) The pressure of a saturated vapour is independent of its temperature

43. Adiabatic elasticity of an ideal gas (γ = 1.4) is 2×105 N/m2. Its isothermal elasticity is
given by
a) 2×105 N/m2
b) 0
c) 105 N/m2
d) 1.42×105 N/m2
Ans. d) 1.42×105 N/m2

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

ES
Hint: use formula 
ET

44. For thermodynamic system under isothermal – isochoric process in stable

equilibrium, the Helmholtz potential (F) becomes
a) Maximum
b) Minimum
c) neither max nor min.
d) none of these
Ans. b) Minimum

45. For real gas, the Joule-Thomson coefficient (μ) is

1  2a 
a)   b
C P  RT 
b) 0
2a
c)
RT
1  2a 
b)   b
CV  RT 
1  2a 
Ans. a)   b
C P  RT 

46. The temperature at which Joule-Thomson effect change its sign is called
a) Critical Temperature
a) Inversion Temperature
b) Ordinary temperature
d) None of the above
Ans. b) Inversion Temperature

47. If specific volume of liquid is much less than of its vapour. The vapour obey ideal gas
equation, than Clausius-clapeyron equation leads to
a) P = RTlnV
L
b) P  ke RT

L
c) T  ke RT

d) P = 0
L
Ans. b) P  ke RT
Hint: Clausius Clapeyron equation is
dp L

dT T (V2  V1 )
Given V2>>>V1 therefore V2 – V1 = V2 = V
PV = RT, V = RT/P put in the equation we get the result.

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

48. At normal temperature, H and He gas shows

a) Cooling
b) Heating
c) sometimes cooling and sometime heating effect
d) None of these
Ans. b) Heating effect

49. Specific heat of saturated water vapour at boiling point is

a) 0
b) positive
c) negative
d) None of these
Ans. c) negative

50. During phase change of water to steam, if latent heat of water L = 800 – 0.705T Than
the specific heat of water vapour at 1000C using second latent heat equation of
clausius is
a) – 11.4
b) 0
c) – 1.14
d) + 1.14
Ans. c) - 1.14
Hint: Second latent Heat equation is
 dL L 
C2 = C1 +    , take C1 = 1 (for water at liquid state)
 dT T 
T = 1000C = 373K and L = 800 – 0.705T, calculated C2

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Unit - III

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Unit III
(Kinetic Theory of Gases)
Summary
1. Kinetic Model of Gases
 According to this model the gas consists of a very large number of extremely tiny
particles called the 'molecules'.
 All the molecules of a pure gas are identical and do not occupy space.
 Molecules do not exert attractive or repulsive force on each other.
 Due to its thermal state the molecules of a gas are in continuous thermal random
motion.
 The molecules are widely separated and execute only linear motion in this space. In
this process they frequently collide with each other and with the wall of the container.
In these collisions the speed and direction of motion of molecule continuously
changes.
 The gas exerts pressure on the walls of the container due to continuous collisions of
the molecules. When a gas molecule collides with the wall of the container, there is a
change in its momentum and according to Newton's law of motion an equal and
opposite momentum is transferred to the wall of the container. The pressure on the
wall is due to this rate of change of momentum transferred to its unit area.

2. Assumptions of Kinetic Theory of Gases

 The molecules of a gas behave as hard, smooth and perfectly elastic spheres of
extremely small dimensions; there is no loss of kinetic energy in the collisions of a
molecule with other molecules or the walls of the container.
 Due to thermal state of the gas its molecules are in a state of continuous random
motion, colliding with one another and the walls of the container. They move with
very high velocities in straight lines. Their velocity and direction changes in collision.
 The collisions are instantaneous, the time taken in collision is negligible compared to
that taken in travelling the mean free path (the average distance travelled by a
molecule between successive collisions).
 The molecules are point masses and do not occupy any space.
 The molecules of a gas do not exert any force on each other.

3. Pressure exerted by an Ideal Gas

𝒎𝒏𝑪𝟐
 𝑷= 𝟑𝑽
; m is the mass of each molecule, n is the number of molecules in volume V
and C is root mean square velocity, C2 is the mean square velocity of the molecules.
𝝆𝑪𝟐
 𝑷= ; ρ is the density of the gas
𝟑
 Pressure exerted by a gas is equal to two-third of the K.E of translation per unit
𝟐𝑬 𝜌𝐶 2
volume i.e. 𝑷 = ; E is the energy density of the gas =
𝟑 2

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

4. Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature

𝒎𝑪𝟐 𝟑𝒌𝑻
 =
𝟐 𝟐
 Average kinetic energy of translation of the molecules is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature of the gas.
 Average kinetic energy of translation of the molecules can be regarded as a measure
of temperature.
 Absolute zero is that temperature at which all molecular motion of a gas ceases.

5. Using Kinetic theory of gases, one can deduce and verify Boyle’s law, Charle’s law, Ideal
gas equation, Graham’s law of diffusion, Avogadro hypothesis and Dalton’s law of Partial
Pressure.

6. Root- mean-square-speed of molecules

3𝑅𝑇
 C=√
𝑀
 mN = M; N is Avogadro number and M is molecular weight; R = Nk where k is
Boltzmann constant
3𝑘𝑇
C=√
𝑚

𝜌𝐶 2 3𝑃
 As 𝑃 = so 𝐶 = √
3 𝜌

7. Maxwell’s Distribution Law of Velocities

 According to Maxwell’s distribution of velocities, the probability that a molecule will

have x-component of velocity in the range vx to vx + dvx is
P(vx) dvx = (m/2πkT)1/2 exp [-(mvx2/2kT)] dvx
 In terms of x-component of momentum px
P(px) dpx = (1/2πmkT)1/2 exp [-(px2/2mkT)] dpx
 P(vx) is symmetrically distributed about vx = 0.
 The maximum value of probability Pmax(vx) =
(m/2πkBT)1/2 when vx = 0
 Probability falls to (1/e) of its maximum value
2𝑘𝑇
Pmax(vx) at vx=√
𝑚

 As T increases, the peak at vx=0 becomes lower and

the distribution spreads out; the area under the curve
is always unity.
 Maxwell-Boltzmann law of distribution of molecular velocities can be indirectly
verified by study of the width of a spectral line.

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

 Stern experiment, Zartman and Ko experiment and Estermann, Simpson and Stern
experiment gives direct experimental verification of Maxwell-Boltzmann law of
distribution of molecular velocities.

8. Maxwell’s Distribution Law of Speeds

 The number of molecules having speed in the range v

and v + dv is
Nv dv = 4πN (m/2πkT)3/2 v2 exp [-(mv2/2kT)] dv
2𝑘𝑇
 Most probable speed vmp = √
𝑚

8𝑘𝑇
 Average speed vavg = √
𝜋𝑚

3𝑘𝑇
 Root-mean-square-speed vrms = √
𝑚

9. Degrees of Freedom

 The number of independent directions in which a particle can execute motion.

 For a molecule of a monoatomic gas; it contains only
one atom which is a point mass. It can execute only
translational motion and can move in any direction in
the three dimensional space. Its motion can be resolved
into three mutually perpendicular components along the
X-, Y-and Z-axes in the Cartesian coordinate system.
Thus, the particle may be regarded as executing motion
in three independent directions. Therefore, it is said to
possess 3-degrees of freedom f=3.
 The diatomic molecule (H2, N2, O2) contains two atoms
separated by a small distance. It is of the shape of a
dumbell. Such a molecule, in addition to executing
translatory motion in the 3-dimensional space can also
execute rotatory motion about two axes perpendicular
to the bond-length. Thus, a diatomic molecule
possesses 5 degrees of freedom, 3 for translatory
motion and 2 for rotatory motion f=5.

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

 The polyatomic molecule (O3, H2O, CH4) in which all

the atoms are not in the same line; such a molecule in
addition to the translational motion in three dimensional
space can also execute rotatory motion about three
mutually perpendicular axes. Therefore, a polyatomic
molecules possess six-degrees of freedom, 3 for the
translatory motion and 3 for the rotational motion f=6.
 At high temperatures, the atoms of diatomic and
polyatomic gas molecules vibrate with respect to each other and possess vibrational
degrees of freedom also.

10. Law of Equipartition of Energy

 The total energy of a dynamical system consisting of a large number of particles is

uniformly distributed over all the degrees of freedom of its particles.
 The average energy corresponding to each degree of freedom is kT/2.

11. Ratio of Specific heats

 For 1 mole of a perfect gas at absolute temperature T, if each molecule possess f degrees
of freedom, the average total kinetic energy per molecule (Internal Energy) is
U = f RT/2
 Molar specific heat at constant volume Cv = dU/dT = f R/2
 As Cp – Cv = R therefore Molar specific heat at constant pressure Cp = [(f/2)+1]R
 Cp / Cv = γ = 1 + (2/f)
 Monoatomic gas f=3, γ = 5/3 = 1.67
 Diatomic gas f=5, γ = 7/5 =1.40
 Non-linear Triatomic or polyatomic gas f=6, γ = 4/3 = 1.33

Multiple Choice Questions and Answers

1. Which of the following statements is true according to the kinetic theory of gases?
a) Gas particles move in straight lines between collisions
b) Gas particles move in a predictable pattern
c) Gas particles occupy fixed positions
d) Gas particles have no kinetic energy
Ans. a) Gas particles move in straight lines between collisions
2. Which of the following is NOT an assumption of the kinetic theory of gases?
a) Gas particles are in constant random motion
b) Gas particles exert attractive forces on each other
c) Gas particles undergo elastic collisions
d) Gas particles occupy negligible volume

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Ans. b) Gas particles exert attractive forces on each other

3. According to Kinetic theory, gas exerts pressure due to:

a) Total energy of the gas particles
b) Attraction between gas particles
c) Volume occupied by the gas particles
d) Change in momentum of gas particles on collisions with the container walls
Ans. d) change in momentum of gas particles on collisions with the container walls

4. The correct expression for pressure exerted by gas is (m is the mass of each molecule, n is
the number of molecules in volume V and C is root mean square velocity):
𝑚𝑛𝐶 2
a) 𝑝 =
3𝑉
2𝑚𝑛𝐶 2
b) 𝑝 =
3𝑉
2𝑚𝑛𝐶 2
c) 𝑝 =
𝑉
𝑚𝑛𝐶 2
d) 𝑝 =
𝑉
𝑚𝑛𝐶 2
Ans. a) 𝑝 =
3𝑉

5. According to Kinetic theory of gases, relation between pressure 𝑝, density ρ and root mean
square velocity C is:
𝜌𝐶 2
a) 𝑝 =
2
𝜌𝐶 2
b) 𝑝 =
3
𝜌𝐶
c) 𝑝 =
2
𝜌𝐶
d) 𝑝 =
3
𝜌𝐶 2
Ans. b) 𝑝 =
3

6. According to Kinetic theory of gases, root mean square velocity C is related to pressure 𝑝
and density of the gas ρ as:
3𝑝
a) 𝐶 = √
𝜌

2𝑝
b) 𝐶 = √
𝜌

𝑝
c) 𝐶 = √
𝜌

3𝜌
d) 𝐶 = √
𝑝

3𝑝
Ans. a) 𝐶 = √
𝜌

7. The correct relation between pressure P and energy density u of an ideal gas is:

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

𝑢
a) 𝑝 =
2
2𝑢
b) 𝑝 =
3
3𝑢
c) 𝑝 =
4
d) 𝑝 = 𝑢
2𝑢
Ans. b) 𝑝 =
3

8. Calculate the number of molecules in 1cc of oxygen at NTP given ρmercury =13.6g/cm3, rms
velocity of oxygen molecules at 0oC=5x104cm/s and mass of one molecule of oxygen is
50x10-24 g?
a) 1.22 x 1016
b) 2.12 x 1018
c) 2.43 x 1019
d) 3.2 x 1020
Ans. c) 2.43x1019
Hint: n=3PV/mC2 ; P=76 x 13.6 x 980 dynes/cm2; V=1cc

9. According to the kinetic theory of gases, the average kinetic energy of gas particles is directly
proportional to:
a) Pressure
b) Volume
c) Temperature
d) Density
Answer: c) Temperature

10. The temperature of gas is held constant, while its volume is decreased. The pressure
exerted by the gas on the wall of the container increases, because of its molecules:
a) Strike the walls with higher velocities
b) Strike the walls with large farce
c) Strike the walls more frequently
d) Are in contact with the walls for a shorter time
Ans. c) Strike the walls more frequently
Hint: When the volume is decreased, the gas molecules strike the walls more frequently.

11. Calculate the mean translational kinetic energy per molecule of a gas at 3270C? given R=8.3
J/mole-K and Avogadro’s number N=6x1023
a) 1.24x10-20 Joule
b) 2.12x10-21 Joule
c) 2.44x10-22 Joule
d) 3.06x10-22 Joule
Ans. a) 1.24x10-20 Joule
Hint: Mean translational KE per molecule =3kT/2; k=R/N=8.3/6x1023 ;T=327+273=600 K

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

12. According to law of equipartition of energy, the energy associated with each degree of
freedom is:
a) (1/2) kBT
b) kBT
c) (3/2) kBT
d) (5/2) kBT
Ans. a) (1/2) kBT

13. Equal volumes of two gases at the same temperature and pressure have the same:
a) No. of molecules
b) RMS velocity
c) No. of molecules with rms velocities
d) None of the above
Ans. a) No. of molecules

14. For a gas molecule with 6 degrees of freedom, the law of equipartition of energy gives the
relation between molar specific heat Cv and gas constant R:
a) Cv =R/2
b) Cv =R
c) Cv =2R
d) Cv =3R
Ans. d) Cv =3R
Hint: γ=1+2/f=4/3, Cp-Cv=R and Cp/Cv=γ therefore γCv-Cv=R

15. A gas is formed of molecules, each molecule possess f degrees of freedom then Cp/Cv is:
a) 1- (2/f)
b) 1+ (2/f)
c) 1+ (f/2)
d) 1- (f/2)
Ans. b) 1+ (2/f)

16. Two gases A and B are kept at the same temperature, if the degree of freedom of the
molecule of gas A is more than gas B, then which of the following is correct?
a) Energy of the molecule of gas A is more than gas B
b) Energy of the molecule of gas A is less than gas B
c) Energy of the molecule of gas A is equal to gas B
d) can’t say
Ans. a) Energy of the molecule of gas A is more than gas B
Hint: Total energy=f x (1/2) kBT; T constant then total energy α f

17. If the molecule of a monoatomic gas is free to move in a space, then its degree of freedom
is:
a) 1
b) 2

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

c) 3
d) 4
Ans. c) 3

18. If the molecule of a gas can move in a free space and it can also rotate about two different
axis, then the ratio of the energy of the molecule due to translational motion to the rotational
motion is:
a) 1/2
b) 3/2
c) 1/3
d) 2/3
Ans. b) 3/2
Hint: Etrans=3 x (1/2) kBT; Erot=2 x (1/2) kBT

19. According to the law of equipartition of energy, the energy of the molecule of a gas depends
on the:
a) Degree of freedom
b) Degree of freedom and mass
c) Degree of freedom and temperature
d) Mass and temperature
Ans. c) Degree of freedom and temperature
Hint: Total energy = f x (1/2)kBT

20. Which of the following experiment(s) verify the Maxwell's law of distribution of velocities?
a) Stern experiment
b) Zartman and Ko experiment
c) Estermann, Simpson and Stern experiment
d) All of the above
Ans. d) All of the above

21. According to Maxwell’s law of distribution of molecular velocities, the no. of molecules
having velocities between v and v+dv is:[ a and b are some constants]
a) dnv=4πna3exp(-bv2)vdv
b) dnv=4πna3exp(-bv2)v2dv
c) dnv=4πna3v2dv
d) )dnv=4πna3exp(-bv2)dv
Ans. b) dnv=4πna3exp(-bv2)v2dv

22. According to Maxwell’s distribution of velocities, the maximum probability that a molecule
will have x-component of velocity in the range vx to vx + dvx is:
a) (m/2πkBT)1/2
b) (m/2πkBT)1/4
c) m/2πkBT
d) (m/2πkBT)2

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Ans. a) (m/2πkBT)1/2
Hint: According to Maxwell’s distribution of velocities, the probability that a molecule will
have x-component of velocity in the range vx to vx + dvx is (m/2πkBT)1/2 exp [-(m vx2/2kBT)]
dvx and maximum probability when vx =0

23. Which of the following statement is true about Maxwell’s velocity distribution law:
a) The graph between Probability P(vx) and vx is symmetrical about vx=0
b) The maximum value of Probability is (m/2πkBT)1/2
2𝑘𝑇
c) Probability falls to (1/e) of its maximum value at vx=√
𝑚
d) All of the above
Ans. d) All of the above

24. The no. of degrees of freedom for CO2 (linear triatomic molecule) gas is:
a) 3
b) 4
c) 5
d) 6
Ans. c) 5

25. The no. of degrees of freedom for H2S (non-linear triatomic molecule) gas is:
a) 3
b) 4
c) 5
d) 6
Ans. d) 6

26. At what temperature will O2 molecules have the same root mean square velocity as that of
H2 at -1000C ?
a) 14920C
b) 17980C
c) 24950C
d) 28650C
Ans. c) 24950C
Hint: (1/2)mC2=(3/2)kBT; m2/m1=16:1; T1=173K; C1=C2; T2= (m2 C22 T1)/ m1 C12 ; C is rms
velocity

27. γ for a gas is 5/3. The gas is:

a) Monoatomic
b) Diatomic
c) Linear triatomic
d) Non-linear triatomic
Ans. a) Monoatomic

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

28. The increase in internal energy of a gas per unit mass per unit rise in temperature is:
a) Cp
b) Cv
c) Cp+Cv
d) Cp-Cv
Ans. b) Cv

29. For hydrogen, cp=3400cal/kg-K, cv =2400cal/kg-K, R=8400 J/kmole-K. If the molecular

weight of H2 is 2, value of J is:
a) 4.1 J/cal
b) 4.18 J/cal
c) 4.2 J/cal
d) 4.3 J/cal
Ans. c) 4.2 J/cal

30. The difference between two principal specific heats of nitrogen is 300J/kg-K and ratio of
the two specific heats is 1.4. cp is:
a) 1050 J/kg-K
b) 750 J/kg-K
c) 650 J/kg-K
d) 150 J/kg-K
Ans. a) 1050 J/kg-K

31. The density of a gas is 6x10-2 kg/m3 and rms velocity (C) of the gas molecule is 500m/s.
The pressure exerted by the gas on the walls of the vessel is:
a) 5x103 N/m2
b) 0.83x10-4 N/m2
c) 1.2x10-4 N/m2
d) 30 N/m2
Ans. a) 5x103 N/m2
3𝑝
Hint: 𝐶 = √
𝜌

32. If the pressure of the gas is doubled at constant volume and mass, the frequency of collision
of the molecules with the walls of a container will:
a) Not change
b) Increase 4 times
c) Be doubled
d) Increase by √2 times
Ans. d) increase by √2 times
Hint: Collision frequency=vrms/λmean; vrmsα√𝑃

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

33. 1 mole of a gas with γ=7/5 is mixed with 1 mole of a gas with γ=5/3, then the value of γ for
the resulting mixture is:
a) 7/5
b) 2/5
c) 24/16
d) 12/7
Ans. c) 24/16
Hint: Gas A: Cp =7R/2 Cv = 5R/2; Gas B: Cp = 5R/2 Cv =3R/2; Cp = γR/γ-1 ; Cv = R/γ-1
Cpeff = (Cp1+Cp2)/2=12R/2; Cveff = (Cv1+Cv2)/2=8R/2; γnew = Cpeff/Cveff = 24/16
34. At what temperature is the rms velocity of a hydrogen molecule equal to that of an oxygen
molecule at 470C?
a) 80K
b) -73K
c) 3K
d) 20K
Ans. d) 20K
3𝑅𝑇 3𝑅𝑇 3𝑅(47+273)
Hint: Vrms=√ ; vrmsH2=vrmsO2;√ =√ ; T=2x320/32 K
𝑀 2 32

35. One mole of ideal monoatomic gas (γ=5/3) is mixed with one mole of diatomic gas (γ=7/5).
What is γ for the mixture? γ denotes the ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to that at
constant volume.
a) 3/2
b) 23/15
c) 35/23
d) 4/3
Ans. a) 3/2
Hint: Monoatomic gas Cv = 3R/2, Diatomic gas Cv = 5R/2; Cvavg = (3R/2+5R/2)/2=2R; Cpavg =
Cvavg + R = 3R;
γ= Cpavg / Cvavg =3/2

36. A gaseous mixture consists of 16g of He and 16g of O2. The ratio Cp / Cv of the mixture is:
a) 1.4
b) 1.54
c) 1.59
d) 1.62
Ans. d) 1.62
Hint: Cv = (n1Cv1+n2Cv2)/(n1+n2)
=[(16/4)(R/γ1-1)+(16/32)(R/γ2-1)]/(16/4+16/32) =[4(3R/2)+(1/2)(5R/2)]/(4+1/2)=29R/18
Cv=29R/18=R/γ-1 or γ = (18/29)+1=1.62 i.e. Cp / Cv =1.62

37. If cp and cv denotes the specific heats of nitrogen per unit mass at constant pressure and
constant volume resp., then:
a) cp-cv=28R

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

b) cp-cv=R/28
c) cp-cv=R/14
d) cp-cv=R
Ans. b) cp-cv=R/28

38. One kg of a diatomic gas is at a pressure of 8 x104 N/m2. The density of the gas is 4 kg/m3.
What is the energy of the gas due to its thermal motion?
a) 3 x104 J
b) 5 x104 J
c) 6 x104 J
d) 7 x104 J
Ans. b) 5 x104 J
Hint: For a diatomic molecular gas U/molecule= 5NkBT/2; Also PV=NkBT. Therefore
U=5PV/2; V=m/ρ
39. What will be the temperature when the root-mean-square velocity is double of that at 300
K?
a) 300 K
b) 600 K
c) 900 K
d) 1200 K
Ans. d) 1200 K
Hint: Vrms α √𝑇

40. If Maxwell distribution is valid and Vp denotes the most probable speed, V the average
speed and Vrms the root-mean-square speed, then:
a) V< Vp < Vrms
b) Vp < V < Vrms
c) V< Vrms < Vp
d) Vp < Vrms < V
Ans. b) Vp < V < Vrms

41. The root-mean-square (rms) speed of O2 molecules at a certain absolute temperature is V.

If the temperature is doubled and the O2 gas dissociates into atomic oxygen, the rms speed
would be:
a) V
b) √2 V
c) 2V
d) 2√2 V
Ans. c) 2V
𝑇
Hint: root-mean-square speed V α√ ; Mnew = M/2
𝑀

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

42. The first excited state of hydrogen atom is 10.2 eV above its ground state. The temperature
needed to excite hydrogen atoms to the first excited level is:
a) 6.22 x 104 K
b) 7.88 x 104 K
c) 9.04 x 104 K
d) 105 K
Ans. b) 7.88 x 104 K
Hint: Kinetic interpretation of temperature: mv2/2=10.2 x 1.6 x 10-19 = 3kBT/2

43. The temperature at which the root-mean-square speed of a gas will be half its value at 0 0C
is (assume the pressure remains constant):
a) -86.4 0C
b) -68.4 0C
c) -104.75 0C
d) -204.75 0C
Ans. d) -204.75 0C
273
Hint: Vrms1/(Vrms1/2) =√
𝑇2

44.The most probable speed of a gas molecule whose root-mean-square speed is 4.6 x 102
m/sec is:
a) 2.27 x 102 m/sec
b) 3.77 x 102 m/sec
c) 4.27 x 102 m/sec
d) 5.77 x 102 m/sec
Ans. b) 3.77 x 102 m/sec
2
Hint: Vmp=√ vrms
3

45. The average kinetic energy of a gas molecule at 270C is 5.4 x 10-21 J. Its average kinetic
energy at 2270C is:
a) 7 x 10-21 J
b) 8 x 10-21 J
c) 9 x 10-21 J
d) 10-20 J
Ans. c) 9 x 10-21 J
Hint: Average kinetic energy = (3/2)kBT

46. When an ideal diatomic gas is heated at constant pressure, the fraction of the heat energy
supplied which increases the internal energy of the gas is:
a) 2/5
b) 3/5
c) 3/7
d) 5/7

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
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Ans. d) 5/7
Hint: f=ΔU/ΔQ=nCvΔT / nCpΔT= Cv/ Cp=1/γ=5/7

47. At room temperature (T=270C), the root-mean-square speed of the molecules of a certain
diatomic gas is 1930 m/sec. The gas is:
a) H2
b) F2
c) O2
d) Cl2
Ans. a) H2
3𝑅𝑇
Hint: Vrms=√ ; T=300K; R=8.31 J/K-mol calculation gives M=2g
𝑀

48. The temperature of an ideal gas is increase from 120 K to 480 K. If at 120 K root-mean-
square velocity of the gas molecules is v, at 480 K it becomes:
a) v/2
b) v/4
c) 2v
d) 4v
Ans. c) 2v
Hint: Vrms α √𝑇

49. The average translational kinetic energy of O2 (molar mass 32) molecules at a particular
temperature is 0.052 eV. The translational kinetic energy of N2 (molar mass 28) molecules in
eV at the same temperature is:
a) 0.0022
b) 0.003
c) 0.048 eV
d) 0.052 eV
Ans. d) 0.052 eV
Hint: average translational kinetic energy α T and T is same for both oxygen and nitrogen

50. One mole of a monoatomic gas is heated at a constant pressure of 1 atmosphere from 0 K
to 100 K. If the gas constant R=8.31 J/K-mol, the change in internal energy of the gas is
approx.:
a) 2.2 J
b) 34 J
c) 3.4 x 102 J
d) 12.5 x 102 J
Ans. d) 12.5 x 102 J
Hint: ΔU is always equal to the heat supplied at constant volume = (ΔQ)v = nCvΔT=1 x (3R/2)
x (100-0)

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Unit IV
(Theory of Radiation)
Summary

1. Thermal Radiation

 Maxwell defined radiation as the transfer of heat from a hot body to a cooler body
without appreciable heating of the intervening medium or space.
 The propagation of heat by radiation consists merely in transference of energy which
can take place even in empty space.
 Thermal radiations have the same nature as that of light with only difference that
average wavelength of thermal radiation is greater than that of visible light.
Therefore, thermal radiation is called the infra-red radiation.
 These radiations cannot be detected by naked eye or the photographic plate but can
be detected by bolometer or thermopile.

2. Terms frequently used in Radiation

 Total Energy Density (u): At any point, it is the total radiant energy per unit
volume around that point for all the wavelengths taken together.
 Spectral Energy Density (uλ): For a particular wavelength, it is the energy per unit
volume per unit wavelength range.
 Total Emissive Power (E): Radiant energy emitted per unit time per unit surface
area of body for all the wavelengths taken together.
 Spectral Emissive Power (Eλ): For a particular wavelength, it is the radiant energy
emitted per unit time per unit surface area of body within a unit wavelength range.
 Absorptive Power (aλ): At a particular temperature and for a particular wavelength,
it is the ratio of the radiant energy absorbed per unit surface area per unit time to the
total energy incident on the same area of the body in unit time within a unit
wavelength range.
 Relative Emittance or Emissivity (ε): It is the ratio of emittance of a surface to the
emittance of a black body.
0 < ε <1
For a perfectly black body ε = 1

3. Radiation in an Isothermal Enclosure

The energy density of radiation in a uniform temperature enclosure depends on its
temperature and is entirely independent of the nature of its walls or on the bodies
present inside it.

4. Black-Body Radiation

 A perfectly black body is one which absorbs all the heat radiations of whatever
wavelengths incident on it.
 Heat radiations in an isothermal enclosure is black body radiation

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 In practice, no substance is a perfect black body. Lamp-black, Platinum black are

very near to be considered as a black body.
 Some constructed bodies showing close approximation to a perfectly black body are
Ferry’s black body and Wien’s black body.

5. Pressure of Radiation (P)

 Radiation possess properties of light; it exerts a small but definite pressure on the
surface on which it is incident.
 Expression for pressure of radiation could be obtained on the basis of Quantum
theory.
 P = E/c ; E is the total energy incident on the surface per unt area per second and c is
velocity of light.
 In terms of energy density u, for normal incidence on a surface P = u
 For diffuse radiation P = u/3 (assuming all the radiations incident on the surface
are absorbed)
 The pressure exerted by diffuse radiations P on the perfectly reflecting surface
P =2u/3

6. Spectral Distribution of Black Body Radiation

 Lummer and Pringsheim investigated the distribution of energy among the radiations
emitted by a black body at different temperatures.
 The curves are drawn for various temperatures between intensity and wavelength.
 The curves show:
 Energy is not uniformly distributed in the spectrum of a black body
 At a given temperature, intensity of radiation increases with wavelength and
becomes maximum at a particular wavelength. On increasing wavelength
further, intensity decreases.
 An increase in temperature causes an increase in energy emission for all
wavelengths.
 An increase in temperature causes a decrease in λm where λm is the wavelength
at which energy emitted is maximum.

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

λm α 1/T or λmT = constant which is Wien’s Displacement Law

 The area under each curve represents the total energy emitted by the body at a
particular temperature for the range of wavelengths considered. This area
increases with increase in temperature and directly proportional to T4 which is
Stefan’s Law.

7. Stefan’s Law

 Rate of emission of radiant energy by unit area of perfectly black body is directly
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature
E = σT4 ; Stefan’s constant σ = 2π5k4/15c2h3 = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2-K4

 This law refers to the emission only and not to the net loss of heat by body after
exchange with the surroundings.

8. Stefan- Boltzmann Law

 A black body at absolute temperature T surrounded by another black body at

absolute temperature T0 , not only loses an amount of enery σT4 but also gains σT04
therefore amount of heat loss by the former per unit time is E = σ(T4- T04)

 Power radiated from a surface at temperature T and surrounding temperature T04 ,

having emissivity ε is P = ε σ A(T4- T04)

9. Wien’s Displacement Law

 The product of the wavelength corresponding to maximum energy λm and the

absolute temperature T is constant; λmT = constant=b
 Constant b is Wien’s displacement constant = hc/4.965k = 0.2896 x 10-2 m- K
 λm α 1/T

10. Wien’s Distribution Law

 The energy-wavelength curves obtained by Lummer and Pringsheim shows that

energy is not uniformly distributed in the radiation spectrum of a black body.
 The amount of energy contained in the spectral region from wavelength λ to λ + dλ
emitted by a black body at temperature T is
Eλdλ = A f(λT) dλ / λ5
or
Eλdλ = A T5 F(λT) dλ where F(λT) = (λT)-5 f(λT)
 Wien’s distribution law of radiation is applicable to shorter wavelengths at lower
temperatures.

11. Planck’s Radiation Law

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

 Planck found an empirical formula to explain the experimentally observed

distribution of energy in the spectrum of a black-body.
 Postulates:
 1. A black body radiation chamber is filled up not only with radiation, but also
with simple harmonic oscillators or resonators of the molecular dimensions;
which cannot have any value of energy but only energies given by E=nhν; v is
the frequency of the oscillator, h is the Planck's constant and n is a number that
can take only integral values, i.e. n=0,1,2,3......
 2. The oscillators cannot radiate or absorb energy continuously; but an oscillator
of frequency ν can only radiate or absorb energy in units or quanta of magnitude
hν. The exchange of energy between radiation and matter cannot take place
continuously; but is limited to discrete set of values 0, hν, 2hν…. i.e., in multiples
of some small unit, called quantum.
The average energy of a Planck's oscillator 𝑬 ̅ = hν / (ehν/kT -1)
 Average energy of classical oscillator in thermal equilibrium at absolute
temperature T is kT.
 For black body radiation, the number of modes of vibration per unit volume within
frequency range ν and ν+dν is 8πν2dν /c3 or the number of modes of vibration per
unit volume within wavelength range λ and λ +d λ is 8π dλ/ λ4
 Each resonator entails one degree of freedom only so the number of resonators per
unit volume in the frequency range ν and ν+dν = 8πν2dν /c3
 Energy density belonging to range dν:
Eν dν = 8πhν3dν /c3 (ehν/kT -1) Planck’s Radiation Formula

 Energy density belonging to range dλ

Eλ dλ = 8πhcdλ /λ5 (ehc/λkT -1) Planck’s Radiation Formula
12. Rayleigh-Jean’s Law

 Rayleigh and Jeans assumed that the law of equipartition of energy is applicable to
radiation also i.e 𝐸̅ =kT.
 Energy density belonging to range dν:
Eν dν = 8πν2dν kT/c3
 Energy density belonging to range dλ
Eλ dλ = 8πkT dλ / λ4
 Rayleigh-Jeans law of radiation applicable to longer wavelengths at higher
temperatures.

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Multiple Choice Questions and Answers

1. What is the fastest mode of heat transfer?

a) Conduction
b) Convection
c) Radiation
d) Both conduction and convection
Ans. c) Radiation

2. Thermal radiations are:

a) Infra-red radiations
b) Ultra-violet radiations
c) Visible radiations
d) Microwave radiations
Ans. a) Infra-red radiations

3. The rate of energy emission from unit surface area through unit solid angle, along a normal
to the surface is known as:
a) Emissivity
b) Transmissivity
c) Reflectivity
d) Intensity of Radiation
Ans. d) Intensity of Radiation

4. A black body can absorb radiations of:

a) Higher wavelength only
b) Lower wavelength only
c) Intermediate wavelengths only
d) All wavelengths
Ans. d) All wavelengths

5. For a perfectly black body, the absorptive power is:

a) 1
b) 0.5
c) 0
d) ∞
Ans. a) 1

6. For an object other than a black body, it’s emissivity ε is:

a) 1
b) Between 0 and 1
c) Greater than 1
d) 0
Ans. b) Between 0 and 1

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
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7. An ideal black body is represented by:

a) A metal coated with a black dye
b) A glass surface coated with coal tar
c) A hollow enclosure blackened from inside and having a small hole
d) A lump of charcoal heated to a high temperature
Ans. c) A hollow enclosure blackened from inside and having a small hole

8. The temperature of a black body is gradually increased. The colour of the body will change
from
a) White-green-red
b) Red-yellow-blue
c) Red-violet-yellow
d) Yellow-green-red
Ans. b) Red-yellow-blue

9. The black body emits:

a) A continuous spectrum
b) A band spectrum
c) A line spectrum
d) Line and band spectrum
Ans. a) A continuous spectrum

10. The emissive powers of a gold foil and the black body are 3.5 and 4.5 watts per square
meter at 670C and 908 nm. The emissivity of the gold foil is:
a) 1
b) 0.67
c) 0.77
d) 0.87
Ans. c) 0.77

11. The relation between emissive power E of a black body and energy density u is:
a) E = u
b) E = uc
c) E = uc/4
d) E = u/c
Ans. b) E = uc

12. Pressure of radiation P is related to the total energy incident on the surface per unit area per
second E as: [c is the velocity of light]
a) P = E/c
b) P = E/c2
c) P = Ec
d) P = Ec2

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Ans. a) P = E/c

13. For normal incidence on a surface, the correct relation between pressure of radiation P and
energy density u is:
a) P = uc
b) P = u/c
c) P = u
d) P = uc2
Ans. c) P = u

14. The pressure exerted by diffuse radiations P on the perfectly reflecting surface is related to
energy density u as:
a) P = 2u/3
b) P = u/3
c) P = u/2
d) P = u
Ans. a) P = 2u/3

15. The pressure exerted by diffuse radiations P on a surface is related to energy density u as:[
assuming that all the radiations incident on the surface are absorbed]
a) P = 2u/3
b) P = u/3
c) P = u/2
d) P = u
Ans. b) P = u/3

16. The energy received from sun at earth’s surface per unit area per second is 10-1 J/cm2-s.
The total force due to solar radiation on the earth (assumed perfectly absorbing) is: [earth’s
diameter = 10-7 m]
a) 109 N
b) 1010 N
c) 1011 N
d) 1012 N
Ans. a) 109 N
Hint: E = 10-1 J/cm2-s = 103 J/m2-s; Radiation pressure P = E/c; F = P x 4πr2

17. The amount of solar radiation energy on unit area of the surface of the earth in unit time is
called:
a) Stefan’s constant
b) Boltzmann constant
c) Solar constant
d) Radiation constant
Ans. c) Solar constant

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

18. Which of the following is not the characteristics of Planck’s black body radiation
distribution:
a) Spectral emissive power varies continuously with the change in wavelength
b) As temperature increases, the peak of the curve shift towards higher wavelength
c) At a given wavelength, as temperature increases, emissive power also increases
d) The energy is not uniformly distributed in the radiation spectrum
Ans. b) As temperature increases, the peak of the curve shift towards higher wavelength

19. The area under each curve of Eλ-λ graph showing the distribution of energy among the
radiation emitted by a black body at different temperatures T is directly proportional to:
a) T
b) T2
c) T3
d) T4
Ans. d) T4
Hint: Stefan’s Law

20. Wien’s displacement law is: [λm wavelength corresponds to maximum emission in Eλ-λ
curve]
a) λm/T = constant
b) λm/T2 = constant
c) λmT = constant
d) λmT2 = constant
Ans. c) λmT = constant

21. The value of constant in Wien’s displacement law is:

a) 1.3 x 10-2 m-K
b) 2.9 x 10-2 m-K
c) 1.3 x 10-3 m-K
d) 2.9 x 10-3 m-K
Ans. d) 2.9 x 10-3 m-K

22. In terms of universal constants, the value of constant in Wien’s displacement law is: [k is
Boltzmann constant, c is velocity of light and h is Planck’s constant]
a) hc/k
b) hc/4.965k
c) h/4.965k
d) hk/4.965c
Ans. b) hc/4.965k

23. If wavelength of maximum intensity of radiation emitted by sun and moon are 0.5 x 10-6 m
and 10-4 m resp. the ratio of their temperature is:
a) 2000
b) 1000

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

c) 100
d) 200
Ans. d) 200
Hint: Wien’s Displacement Law λmT = constant

24. A black body radiates power P and maximum energy is radiated by it around a wavelength
λ0. The temperature of the black body is now changed such that it radiates maximum energy
around the wavelength 3 λ0/4. The power radiated by it now is:
a) 256P/18
b) 27P/64
c) 64P/27
d) 81P/256
Ans. a) 256P/18
Hint: Wien’s Displacement law λ0T0= λT; Stefan’s law P/P’ = (T0/T)4 hence λ/λ0=(P/P’)1/4 or
P’=(λ0/λ)4P

25. The power radiated by a black body is P0 and the wavelength corresponding to maximum
energy is λ0. On changing the temperature of black body, power radiated becomes 256P0/81.
The shift in wavelength corresponding to the maximum energy will be:
a) λ0/4
b) λ0/2
c) λ0
d) 2λ0
Ans. a) λ0/4
Hint: Wien’s Displacement law λ0T0= λT; Stefan’s law P0/P = (T0/T)4; it implies that
λ/λ0=(81/256)1/4=3/4
Shift in wavelength |Δλ|=|λ-λ0|=|3λ0/4- λ0|

26. The maximum wavelength of radiations emitted at 900K is 4μm. What will be the
maximum wavelength of radiations emitted at 1200K?
a) 0.3μm
b) 1μm
c) 3μm
d) 3.7μm
Ans. a) 0.3μm
Hint: Wien’s Displacement Law λmT = constant

27. If a black body at a temperature 7000 K emits 4800 Å with maximum energy, the
temperature at which it will emit a wavelength of 1.4 x 10-5 m with maximum energy is:
a) 140 K
b) 240 K
c) 340 K
d) 440 K
Ans. b) 240 K

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Hint: Wien’s Displacement Law λmT = constant

28. The maximum energy in thermal radiations from a black body occurs at wavelength
4000Å.The effective temperature of the source is:
a) 7240K
b) 80000K
c) 104K
d) 106K
Ans. a) 7240K

29. The intensity of radiation emitted by the Sun has its maximum value at a wavelength 510
nm and that emitted by the North Star has the maximum value at 350 nm. If these stars behave
like black bodies, then the ratio of the surface temperature of the Sun and North Star is:
a) 1.46
b) 0.69
c) 1.21
d) 0.83
Ans. b) 0.69

30. A blackbody is at a temperature of 2880 K. The energy of radiation emitted by this object
with wavelength between 499 nm and 500 nm is U1, between 999 nm and 1000 nm is U2 and
between 1499 nm and 1500 nm is U3.The Wien constant b=2.88x106 nm-K. Then:
a) U1=0
b) U3=0
c) U1>U2
d) U2>U1
Ans. d) U2>U1
Hint: λmT = 2.9 x 10-3 m-K = 2.9 x 106 nm-K; λm ~ 1000 nm; given energy of radiation emitted
by this object with wavelength between 999 nm and 1000 nm is U2

31. The amount of heat lost by a black body at absolute temperature T surrounded by another
black body at absolute temperature T0 is
a) E = σ (T - T0)
b) E = σ (T + T0)
c) E = σ (T4 - T04)
d) E = σ (T4 + T04)
Ans. c) E = σ (T4 - T04)
Hint: Stefan-Boltzmann Law

32. The value of σ in Stefan’s law E = σT4 is:

a) 5.67 x 10-7 W/m2-K4
b) 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2-K4
c) 5.67 x 10-7 W/m-K4
d) 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2-K

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BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Ans. b) 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2-K4

33. The formula used to calculate the value of Stefan’s constant is:[k is Boltzmann constant, c
is velocity of light and h is Planck’s constant]
a) 2πk4/15c2h3
b) 2π5k5/15c2h3
c) 2π5k4/15c2h3
d) 2π4k5/15c3h2
Ans. c) 2π5k4/15c2h3

34. If a blackbody radiates 10 cal/s at 227ºC, it will radiate at 727 ºC:

a) 10 cal/s
b) 80 cal/s
c) 160 cal/s
d) 320 cal/s
Ans. c) 160 cal/s
Hint: E = σT4

35. The temperature of body is increased from 27 ºC to 127 ºC .The radiation emitted by it
increases by a factor of:
a) 3.16
b) 1.67
c) 0.8
d) 0.44
Ans. a) 3.16
Hint: E = σT4

36. A sphere has a surface area of 1.0m2 and a temperature of 400K and the power radiated
from it is 150W. Assuming the sphere is blackbody radiator the power in kW radiated when
the area expands to 2.0m2 and the temperature changes to 800K is:
a) 6.2
b) 9.6
c) 4.8
d) 16
Ans. c) 4.8
Hint: Stefan’s law E = σT4 where E is the rate of emission of radiant energy per unit area or E
= P/A where P is the power radiated; therefore P = σAT4 for a perfectly black body; P2/P1 =
(A2/A1)(T2/T1)4

37. The area of hole of a heat furnace is 10-4m2. It radiates 1.58 x105 calorie of heat per hour.
If the emissivity of the furnace is 0.80, then it’s temperature is: [use (40)1/4 = 2.5]
a) 1500K
b) 2000K
c) 2500K

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d) 3000K
Ans. c) 2500K
Hint: Stefan’s law Power radiated from a surface having emissivity ε is P = εσAT4

38. If the total surface area of human body is 1.2m2 and the temperature is 30 ºC, then the net
rate of radiation from the body if surrounding temperature is 20 ºC would be: [Take emissivity
of human body =1 and use (303)4 – (293)4 =1.05]
a) 574W
b) 72W
c) 800W
d) 60W
Ans. b) 72W
Hint: Stefan Boltzmann law: Power radiated from a surface at temperature T and surrounding
temperature T04 , having emissivity ε is P = εσA(T4- T04)

39. A spherical blackbody with a radius of 12 cm radiates 450W power at 500K. If the radius
halved and the temperature is doubled, the power radiated in W would be:
a) 225
b) 450
c) 900
d) 1800
Ans. d) 1800
Hint: P = εσA(T4- T04); P1/P2 = (r12 x T14) / (r22 x T24)

40. The energy radiated per minute from the filament of an incandescent lamp at 2000 K if the
surface area is 5 x 10-5 m2 and its relative emittance is 0.85:
a) 152 J
b) 1087 J
c) 2315 J
d) 3015 J
Ans. c) 2315 J
Hint: Stefan’s law: Energy radiated per second i.e. power from a surface having emissivity ε is
P = εσAT4; in t seconds Energy radiated = εσAT4 x t; t = 60 sec

41. The absolute temperature of a perfectly black body is increased to twice its value. The rate
of emission of energy per unit area will be:
a) 2 times
b) 4 times
c) 8 times
d) 16 times
Ans. d) 16 times
Hint: Stefan’s law E = εσT4 where E is the rate of emission of radiant energy per unit area; ε=1
for a perfectly black body.

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

42. An electric flat-plate square heater of sides 10 cm provides 100W power from each side. If
the heater is assumed to be black, its temperature is approximately:
a) 6480C
b) 648 K
c) 64800C
d) 6480 K
Ans. b) 648 K
Hint: P = εσAT4

43. For black body radiation, the number of modes of vibration per unit volume within
frequency range ν and ν+dν is:
a) 4πν2dν /c3
b) 8πν2dν /c3
c) 4πνdν /c3
d) 4πc2ν2dν
Ans. b) 8πν2dν /c3

44. The number of modes of vibration in a black body chamber of volume 50 cc in the
frequency range 4 x 1014 and 4.01 x 1014 sec-1 is:
a) 6.5 x 1010
b) 6.5 x 1011
c) 7.5 x 1012
d) 7.5 x 1013
Ans. c) 7.5 x 1012
Hint: For black body radiation, the number of modes of vibration per unit volume within
frequency range ν and ν+dν is 8πν2dν /c3

45. A black body has its cavity in the shape of a cube. The number of modes of vibration per
unit volume in the wavelength region 4990Å to 5010Å is:
a) 7 x 1011
b) 8 x 1011
c) 7 x 1012
d) 8 x 1012
Ans. b) 8 x 1011
Hint: For black body radiation, the number of modes of vibration per unit volume within
frequency range ν and ν+dν is 8πν2dν /c3 = 8πdλ/ λ4

46. Planck’s Radiation law is: [Eλ is energy density belonging to the range dλ; k is Boltzmann
constant]
a) Eλ dλ = (8πhc dλ) / [λ5(ehc/λkT – 1)]
b) Eλ dλ = (8πhc dλ) / [λ4(ehc/λkT – 1)]
c) Eλ dλ = (8πhc dλ) / [λ5ehc/λkT]
d) Eλ dλ = (8πhc dλ) / [λ4ehc/λkT]
Ans. a) Eλ dλ = (8πhc dλ) / [λ5(ehc/λkT – 1)]

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

47. The Rayleigh-Jeans law of radiation is expressed as:

a) Eλ dλ = 8πkT dλ / λ4
b) Eλ dλ = 8πkT dλ / λ3
c) Eλ dλ = 8πkT dλ / λ2
d) Eλ dλ = 8πkT dλ
Ans. a) Eλ dλ = 8πkT dλ / λ4

48. Rayleigh-Jeans law of radiation:

a) Applies to shorter wavelengths at lower temperatures
b) Applies to longer wavelengths at higher temperatures
c) Applies to all wavelengths
d) Does not apply to any wavelength
Ans. b) Applies to longer wavelengths at higher temperatures

49. Wien’s distribution law of radiation:

a) Applies to shorter wavelengths at lower temperatures
b) Applies to longer wavelengths at higher temperatures
c) Applies to all wavelengths
d) Does not apply to any wavelength
Ans. a) Applies to shorter wavelengths at lower temperatures

50. The Wien’s distribution law of radiation is expressed as:

a) Eλ dλ = (8πhc dλ) / [λ5(ehc/λkT – 1)]
b) Eλ dλ = (8πhc ehc/λkT dλ) / λ5
c) Eλ dλ = (8πhc e-hc/λkT dλ) / λ5
d) Eλ dλ = 8πhc e-hc/λkT dλ
Ans. c) Eλ dλ = (8πhc e-hc/λkT dλ) / λ5

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Unit - V

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Unit V
DC & AC Circuits

Summary

LR Circuit: a serial arrangement of an inductor and a resistor. This circuit is connected with
a voltage source, i.e., a battery E and a switch. Here, the wire of the coil of an inductor has a
DC resistance, i.e., R
During the storage or decay the circuit is said to be in a transient state
When the capacitor or inductor has stored energy to its full value, the circuit voltage and current
do not change with time, then the circuit is said to be in steady state.

 the voltage across a resistor 𝑉𝑅 = IR

𝑑𝑖
 the voltage across an inductor 𝑉𝐿 = L
𝑑𝑡
 the voltage across the battery 𝑉𝐵 = E
 the growth of current in L-R circuit is given by the following equation
𝑅
I = I0 [1 − 𝑒 −( 𝐿 )𝑡 ] I = 𝐼0 (0.632) = 63%
𝑑𝐼 𝑅
 the rate of growth of current is given by = (𝐼0 − 𝐼)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
𝑅
−( 𝐿 )𝑡
 the decay of current is given by I = I0 𝑒 =0.368𝐼0 =37%
𝑑𝐼 𝑅
 the rate of decay of current is given by = -( ) 𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
𝐿
 the is known as time constant of LR circuit
𝑅

CR Circuit: : a serial arrangement of a capacitor C and a resistor R. This circuit is connected

with a voltage source, i.e., a battery E and a switch.

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 the voltage across a resistor 𝑉𝑅 = IR

𝑞
 the voltage across an inductor 𝑉𝐶 =
𝑐
 the voltage across the battery 𝑉𝐵 = E
 The growth of charge in CR circuit is given by the following equation
𝑡
q = 𝑞0 [1 − 𝑒 −𝐶𝑅 ]
q = 𝑞0 (0.632) = 63%
𝑑𝑞 1
 the rate of growth of charge is given by = (𝑞0 − 𝑞)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑅
𝑡
−𝐶𝑅
 the decay of charge is given by q = 𝑞0 𝑒 = 0.368𝑞0 =37%
𝑑𝑞 𝑞
 the rate of decay of charge is given by =-
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑅
 the CR is known as time constant of CR circuit

LCR Circuit: An electronic LCR circuit contains a resistor of R ohms, a capacitor of C farad,
and an inductor of L Henry, all connected in a series combination with each other. Since all the
three elements of the LCR circuit are connected in series, the current passing through each of
them is the same and is equivalent to the total current I passing through the circuit.

Balance condition of A.C. bridge: the principle of direct current Wheatstone bridge can also
be applied to A.C network with the modification that here complex impedance and current
are used instead of resistance. The null point determines with the help of an A.C. detector. at
the balance point B and D are at the same potential and detector d, which is, in general a heat
phone, gives a minimum sound. the balance condition for bridge is given by

Maxwells bridge: The maxwell LC bridge for measuring self-inductance in term of

capacitance and resistance. L =C1R2R3
Owen’s bridge: it is sensitive bridge for the measurement of self- inductance in term of
resistance and a fixed standard capacitance. L= C2R1R4
Wein’s bridge: this bridge is a convenient method of measurement of capacitance as well as
the power factor of the capacitance.
𝑅4 𝑅
𝐶 = 𝐶3 and Power factor cos 𝜙 =
𝑅2 𝑍
Schering bridge: Schering bridge the most accurate bridge for determining capacitance of a
standard capacitor .it is particularly used for the of measurement of small capacitance.

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
 BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Network theorem:
1. An electrical circuit containing element like resistance, inductance, capacitance and
generator’s is known as electric network.
hus an electrical network is nothing but combination of circuit element and generators.
2. A network is said to be linear when the current in all branches is directly proportional to the
driving circuit.
3. If relation between voltage and current in any branch of network is non-linear, the network is
said to be non-linear.
4. If the network contains energy source as well as other circuit elements, it is called active
network while a network containing circuit element without any energy source is known as
passive network.
5. If the inductors, resisters and capacitors are electrically separated in a network, it is called a
distributed network. In a lumped network on the other hand, physically separated inductors,
resistors and capacitors are separated.

Superposition theorem: In a network containing linear impedance and energy source the
current flowing at any point is the vector sum of the current which would exist. if each source
of e.m.f. were consider separately, all the other sources being replaced at that time by their
internal impedance.

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Therfore, I1 = I1' + I1",

I2 = I2' + I2"
Thevenin’s theorem: the current in load resistant connected to two terminals A and B of a
network or generators and linear impedance is the same if this impedance were connected to
single voltage generator whose e.m.f. is the open circuit ( where there is no load) voltage
measured across A and B and whose internal impedance is equal to the impedance of the
network between the terminals A and B when all the generators in the network have been
replaced by their internal impedance.

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

the impedance between terminals A and B after discounting the load ZL is given by

The value of load current IL is given by

Norton’s theorem: the current in a load impedance connected to two terminals A and B of a
network of generators and linear impedances is the same as if this impedance were connected
to a constant current generator whose generated current is equal to the short circuit current at
the terminal A, B and placed in parallel with an impedance equal to the impedance of the
network between the terminals A and B when all the generators in the network have been
replaced by their internal impedances

The current through ZL is given by

Multiple Choice Questions and Answer

1. A varying current is that which

a) Varies in magnitude but not in direction
b) Varies in magnitude but direction both
c) Change its direction once in a cycle
d) Change its direction twice in a cycle
Ans. a) Varies in magnitude but not in direction

2. In L-R Circuit time constant is the time in which current increase from zero to
a) 37⁒ of maximum value
b) equal to maximum value of current
c) 50⁒ of maximum value
d) 63⁒ of maximum value
Ans. d) 63⁒ of maximum value

3. Which is not the dimension of time

a) L/R

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

b) CR
c) LC
d) R/L
Ans. d) R/L

4. The conjugate impedance is defined as

a) Z = Z - jX
b) Z = R + Jx
𝑅
c) Z=
𝑗𝑋
d) None of these
Ans. b) Z = R + Jx

5. In series LCR Circuit if 1/LC = R2/4L2 the circuit is

a) Dead beat
b) Critically damped
c) Oscillatory
d) None of these
Ans. b) Critically damped

6. RC has the Unit of

a) Sec
b) 1/sec
c) H/sec
d) Sec/H
Ans. a) Sec

7. In LCR Circuit resonance occurs when

a) WL =1/WC
b) L = 1/C
c) L = C
d) WL= C
Ans. a) WL =1/WC

8. The dimension of RC is
a) Time
b) Inverse time
c) Square of time
d) Square of inverse time
Ans. a) Time

9. The time constant of LR circuit is

a) LR
b) L/R

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

c) R/L
d) C/L
Ans. b) L/R

10. The necessary condition for the oscillation of LCR circuit

a) R< 2L/C
b) R> 2L/C
c) R= 2L/C
d) R> L/C
Ans. a) R< 2L/C

11. In L-R circuit the current increase to three-fourth of its maximum value in 4 sec then time
constant of the circuit
a) 2log2
b) 4/log2
c) 2/log2
d) 3/log2
Ans. c) 2/log2

12. In RC circuit the transient current is maximum

a) T= ∞
b) T= RC
c) T= RC/e
d) T= 0
Ans. d) T= 0

13. In L-R circuit the value of current I when t→∞ is given by

a) I  I 0 1  e R / L t 
b) I  I 0 1  e L / R t 
c) I = I  I 0 e R / L t 
L R t
d) I  I 0 e
Ans. a) I  I 0 1  e R / L t 

14. The rate of growth of current in LR circuit

a) (R/L)( I-I0 )
b) (L/R)( I-I0 )
c) (L/R) I0
d) (LI)/R
Ans. a) (R/L)( I-I0 )

15. In LR circuit the current decays exponentially is

R
  t

a) I  I 0 e
L

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

L
  t

b) I  I 0 e
R

R
 t

c) I  I 0 e
L

L
 t

d) I  I 0 e
R

R
  t

Ans. a) I  I 0 e
L

16. In LR Circuit the rate of decay of current

a) dI/dt = -(R/L)I
b) dI/dt = (R/L)I
c) dI/dt = -(L/R)I
d) dI/dt = (L/R)I
Ans. a) dI/dt = -(R/L)I

17. The unit of inductance L

a) time
b) ohm
c) henry
d) none
Ans. c) henry

18. A capacitor is connected through register and dc source in series the expression of charge
on capacitor at a time t is
t
a)
q  q0 e RC

b) q  q0 e
CR

t
c)
q  q0 (1  e RC )
d) None of these
t
Ans. c)
q  q0 e RC

19. In RC circuit the capacitor discharge through the capacitor charge on the capacitor
a) Increase
b) Decrease
c) First increase then decrease
d) None of these
Ans. b) Decrease

20. The capacitor discharge through the resister, the rate discharge of the capacitor
a) dq/dt = q/CR

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
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b) dq/dt = -q/CR
c) dq/dt = CR/q
d) none of these
Ans. b) dq/dt = -q/CR

21. A capacitor of capacity 0.5µF and resistance 10Ωm is charge to a potential difference of 10
volts find time constant
a) 2sec
b) 4 sec
c) 8 sec
d) 5 sec
Ans. d) 5 sec

22. The maximum charge stored by capacitor if c =10mΩ and E= 10 volts

a) 6µc
b) 5 µc
c) 3 µc
d) 2 µc
Ans. b) 5 µc

23. General condition of balance in ac bridge

a) Z4 /Z2 = Z3 /Z1
b) Z1 / Z2 = Z3 /Z4
c) Z2/Z1 = Z4/Z3
d) both b) and c)
Ans. d) both b) and c)

24. Maxwell bridge is used for the measurement of

a) Capacitance
b) Inductance
c) Both inductance and capacitance
d) Frequency of ac supply
Ans. b) Inductance

25. Value of self-Inductance in term of C and R is measure using

a) Maxwell bridge
b) Owens bridge
c) Both (a) and (b)
d) Weins bridge
Ans. a) Maxwell bridge

26. Owens bridge is used for measurement of

a) Capacitance
b) Resistance

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c) Inductance
d) None
Ans. c) Inductance

27. The average power dissipation in pure inductance is

a) Li2/2
b) Li2
c) 2Li2
d) None of these
Ans. a) Li2/2

28. A ballistic galvanometer is used to measure

a) Current
b) Capacitance
c) Charge
d) Potential difference
Ans. c) Charge

29. For measuring self-inductance over a wide range we used

a) Maxwell bridge
b) Owens bridge
c) Weins bridge
d) Anderson bridge
Ans. d) Anderson bridge

30. The modification of LC bridge is

a) Weins bridge
b) Schering bridge
c) Anderson bridge
d) Owens bridge
Ans. c) Anderson bridge

31. Convenient method for measurement of capacitance as well as the power

factor of capacitor
a) Maxwell bridge
b) Weins bridge
c) Schering bridge
d) None of these
Ans. b) Weins bridge

32. The bridge used for the accurate measurement of small capacitance is
a) Schering bridge
b) De-sauty bridge
c) Anderson bridge

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

d) Maxwell bridge
Ans. a) Schering bridge

33. Weins bridge can be used for measuring

a) Frequency
b) Resistance
c) Distortion
d) None of these
Ans. a) Frequency

34. De-sauty bridge is

a) To determine unknown resistance
b) To determine unknown capacitance
c) To determine unknown inductance
d) None of these
Ans. b) To determine unknown capacitance

35. The value of time constant LR and RC circuit is respectively

a) R/L, RC
b) R/L, R/C
c) L/R, C/R
d) L/R, RC
Ans. d) L/R, RC

36. The Schering bridge is used to measure

a) Resistance
b) Inductance
c) Power
d) Capacity
Ans. d) Capacity

37. Network theorem can be applied network with

a) DC source only
b) AC source only
c) Both AC and DC source
d) None of these
Ans. c) Both AC and DC source

38. Superposition theorem can be applied to circuit have

a) resistive element
b) passive element
c) linear element
d) non linear element
Ans. c) linear element

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39. A network containing circuit element without any energy source is

a) Active network
b) Negative network
c) Not a network
d) Passive network
Ans. d) Passive network

40. According to superposition theorem current following at any point is vector sum of
a) Voltage
b) Impedance
c) Current
d) Current and impedance
Ans. c) Current

41. The relation of current in superposition theorem

a) I1 = I1' + I1", I2 = I2' + I2"
b) I1 = I1' - I1", I2 = I2' - I2"
c) I1 = I1' + I1", I2 = I2' - I2'
d) I1 = I1' - I1", I2 = I2' - I2"
Ans. a) I1 = I1' + I1", I2 = I2' + I2"

42. Thevenin’s and Norton’s circuit are equivalent at

a) resonant frequency
b) all frequency
c) only at frequency at which these are computed
d) no frequency
Ans. c) only at frequency at which these are computed

43. In superposition theorem while considering a source, all other voltage

source are
a) Open circuit
b) Short circuit
c) Change its position
d) Removed from the circuit
Ans. b) Short circuit

44. To get the Norton current you have to

a) short the load resistor
b) open the load resistor
c) short the voltage source
d) open the voltage source
Ans. a) short the load resistor

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45. When dc source is switch off then current voltage

a) decrease
b) increase
c) fall abruptly to zero
d) None of these
Ans. c) fall abruptly to zero

46. The form of energy in charge capacitor is

a) heat
b) magnetic
c) gravitational
d) electrostatic
Ans. d) electrostatic

47. At 0 k temperature a semiconductor like

a) conductor
b) insulator
c) semiconductor
d) none
Ans. b) insulator

48. In a semiconductor at room temperature there is

a) a partially field conduction band
b) a partially field valance band
c) a very narrow energy gap between then
d) all of these
Ans. d) all of these

49. The ratio of forward resistance and reverse resistance of a germanium Crystal diode
a) 1: 4000
b) 1: 100
c) 1: 10
d) 1: 1000
Ans. a) 1: 4000

50. Find the power factor if R = 50Ω and Z = 300Ω

1
a)
6
b) 6
c) 1
d) 0
1
Ans. a)
6
𝑅
Hint: power factor =
𝑍

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Unit - VI

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BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Unit VI
Semiconductor and Diodes

Introduction to Semiconductor
Classification of solids based on the conductivity is as follows:
Conductors: those substance whose atoms have their outermost orbits incomplete are called
conductors. There is no forbidden gap between the valence band and conduction band which
results in the overlapping of both the bands. Semiconductors: the conduction band is empty
and the valence band is completely filled but the forbidden gap between the two bands is very
small that is about 1eV. For Germanium, forbidden gap is 0.72eV and for Silicon, it is 1.1eV.
Insulators: These substances do not allow electricity to pass through them. They have high
resistivity and very low conductivity. The energy gap in the insulator is very high up to 7eV.
Band Theory of Semiconductors
The Walter Heitler and Fritz London discovered the energy bands. We know that the electrons
in an atom are present at different energy levels. When we try to assemble a lattice of a solid
with N atoms, each level of an atom must split into N Levels in the solid.

Fig. Energy Band Diagram for Semiconductors, Conductors and Insulators

Band Gap: The Gap between valence band and conduction band is called Band Gap. Band
Gap are two types 1- Valence band 2- Conduction band.
Valence Band: The energy band involving the energy levels of valence electrons is known as
the valence band. It is the highest occupied energy band.
Conduction Band: It is the lowest, unoccupied band that includes the energy levels of positive
(holes) or negative (free electrons) charge carriers. It has conducting electrons resulting in the
flow of current.
Fermi Level in Semiconductors: The Fermi level (denoted by EF) is present between the
valence and conduction bands. It is the highest occupied molecular orbital at absolute zero.

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When the temperature rises above absolute zero, these charge carriers will begin to occupy
states above the Fermi level.
In a p-type semiconductor the Fermi level lie top of valence band.
In an n-type semiconductor the Fermi level lie bottom of conduction band.

An intrinsic semiconductor is made up of very pure materials. Example: Ge and Si, they have
four valence electrons (tetravalent). at absolute zero temperature intrinsic semiconductor
behave as insulator. When the temperature rises due to collisions, few electrons are unbounded
and become free to move through the lattice which are responsible for conduction of current,
thus creating an absence in its original position (hole). These free electrons and holes contribute
to the conduction of electricity in the semiconductor. The negative and positive charge carriers
are equal in number.
The total current is the sum of the electron current Ie and hole current Ih.
Total Current (I) = Ie + Ih

Extrinsic Semiconductor: The conductivity of semiconductors can be greatly improved by

introducing a small number of suitable replacement atoms called Impurities. An extrinsic
semiconductor can be further classified into types:

1. N-type Semiconductor
 Mainly due to electrons
 Entirely neutral
 ne >> nh
 Majority – Electrons and Minority – Holes
 Donor impurity
2. P-type Semiconductor
 Mainly due to holes
 Entirely neutral
 nh >> ne
 Majority – Holes and Minority – Electrons
 Acceptor impurity

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

A p-n junction diode is a basic semiconductor device that control the flow of electric current
in a circuit. It has a positive (p) side and a negative (n) side.

There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the
standard Junction Diode and these are:
1. Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.
2. Reverse Bias – The negative terminals of battery connected to the P-type material
and positive terminals of battery connect to the N-type material, across the diode which
Increasing the width of PN junction diode.
3. Forward Bias – The positive terminals of battery is connected to the P-type material and
negative terminals of battery connected to the N-type material, across the
diode which Decreasing the width of PN junction diode.
Zener Diode: is defined as the semiconductor which is heavily doped to operate in reverse
direction or in breakdown region. The Zener diode behaves just like a normal general-
purpose diode consisting of a silicon PN junction and when biased in the forward direction,
that is Anode positive with respect to its cathode, it behaves just like a normal diode passing
the current. However, unlike a conventional diode that blocks any flow of current through
itself when reverse biased, that is the Cathode becomes more positive than the Anode, as
soon as the reverse voltage reaches a predetermined value, the zener diode begins to conduct
in the reverse direction.
Zener Diode Symbol:

Working of Zener Diode

The basic principle behind Zener diode working is based on the cause of
breakdown when the diode is in the reverse biased condition. For a Zener
diode there are two types of breakdown:

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
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1. Zener breakdown
2. Avalanche breakdown

Application of Zener Diode

 Zener diode as voltage regulator
 Zener diode in over-voltage protection
 Zener diode in clipping circuits

Static or DC Resistance : It is defined as the ratio of the d.c voltage to the d.c current.
Rdc = V/I
Dynamic or AC Resistance: it is defined as ratio of change voltage to change in current
Rac= dV/dI
Light Emitting Diode: A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light
when current flows through it. The lighting emitting diode is a p-n junction diode. It work in
forward biased condition.
Photodiode: A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to produce an
electric current. They are also called a photo-detector, a light detector, and a photo-sensor.
Photodiodes are designed to work in reverse bias condition.
Rectifier: A rectifier is an electronic device that converts an alternating current into a direct
current by using one or more P-N junction diode. This process is known as rectification
The rectifiers are classified into two categories.
1. Half wave rectifier
2. Full wave rectifier
Half Wave Rectifier (HWR) : The half-wave rectifier converts the AC signal to a DC signal
by passing the signal to either a negative or positive half-cycle of waveform while blocking
the other half-cycle.
The half-wave rectifier is made of 3 components:-
1. Diode
2. Transformer
3. Resistive Load

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Efficiency of HWR: The efficiency of HWR is defined as the ratio of output DC power to the
input AC power.
𝑃𝑑𝑐
η= ∗ 100%= 40.6%.
𝑃𝑎𝑐

Peak Inverse Voltage of HWR: PIV= 𝑽𝒎

𝐼𝑚
RMS Value of Load Current of HWR: Irms =
2
𝐼𝑚
Average Value of Load Current of HWR: Iavg =
𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
Form Factor of HWR =
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔

𝑰𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔
Ripple Factor of HWR: r= √( ) − 𝟏= 1.21
𝑰𝟐𝒅𝒄

Full wave rectifier: A rectifier that converts the complete cycle of alternating into pulsating
DC.

Efficiency of FWR: The efficiency of FWR is defined as the ratio of output DC power to the
input AC power.
𝑷𝒅𝒄
η= =81.2
𝑷𝒂𝒄

Peak Inverse Voltage of FWR PIV= 2Vm

𝑰𝒎
RMS Value of Load Current of FWR: Irms=
√𝟐

𝟐𝑰𝒎
Average Value of Load Current of FWR: 𝑰𝒅𝒄 =
𝝅

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𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔
Form Factor of FWR =
𝑽𝒗𝒂𝒈

𝑰𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔
Ripple Factor of FWR: r=√( ) − 𝟏 = 0.48
𝑰𝟐𝒅𝒄

Bridge Rectifier: Bridge Rectifier is a type of Full Wave Rectifier that uses four diodes to
form a close-loop bridge. The diodes conduct in pairs through each positive and negative half
cycle, leading to no wastage of power. bridge Rectifier does not require a centre tap over the
secondary winding of the transformer.

𝑃𝑑𝑐
Efficiency of bridge rectifier : η= =81.2%
𝑃𝑎𝑐

Peak Inverse Voltage of bridge rectifier: PIV= Vm

𝟐𝑰𝒎
Average Value of Load Current of bridge rectifier: 𝑰𝒅𝒄 =
𝝅
𝑰𝒎
RMS Value of Load Current of bridge rectifier: Irms =
√𝟐

Ripple Factor of bridge rectifier: r = 0.48

Multiple Choice Questions and Answers

1. Which among the following is the most widely used semiconductor material?
a) Potassium
b) Phosphorous
c) Silicon
d) Arsenic
Ans. c) Silicon

2. The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band in a semiconductor is
a) 5 eV
b) 10 eV
c) 15 eV
d) 1 eV
Ans. d) 1 eV

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
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3. What is the sign of the temperature coefficient of resistance in a semiconductor?

a) Negative
b) Positive
c) Zero
d) None of the above
Ans. a) Negative

4. What does the addition of pentavalent impurity to semiconductors create?

a) Free Electrons
b) Holes
c) Valence electrons
d) Bound electrons
Ans. a) Free Electrons

5. How many valence electrons are there in a pentavalent impurity?

a) 3 Valence electrons
b) 6 Valence electrons
c) 4 Valence electrons
d) 5 Valence electrons
Ans. d) 5 Valence electrons

6. How many valence electrons are there in a trivalent impurity?

a) 3 Valence electrons
b) 5 valence electrons
c) 6 valence electrons
d) 4 valence electrons
Ans. a) 3 Valence electrons

7. What is the effect on the bulk resistance on a semiconductor by adding impurities?

a) Decreases
b) Remain the same
c) Increases
d) None of the above
Ans. a) Decreases.

8. In germanium and silicon the valance electron are

a) two
b) four
c) six
d) four
Ans. d) four

9. The charge carrier in intrinsic semiconductor is

a) electrons

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b) hole
c) both electrons and hole
d) none
Ans. c) both electrons and hole

10. n- type semiconductor is

a) positively charged
b) negatively charged
c) electrically neutral
d) none
Ans. c) electrically neutral

11. On increasing the temperature of an intrinsic semiconductor

a) conductivity of semiconductor is decrease
b) resistance of semiconductor increase
c) hole are produce in conduction band
d) conductivity of semiconductor is increase
Ans. d) conductivity of semiconductor is increase

12 In p-type semiconductor the impurity is called

a) acceptor
b) donor
c) both donor and acceptor
d) none of these
Ans. a) acceptor

13. For intrinsic semiconductor fermi level is

a) Ef = (EC+EV)/2
b) Ef = (EC-EV)/2
c) Ef = EC˟EV
d) none of these
Ans. a) Ef = (EC+EV)/2

14. The band gap is

a) Eg = Ec-Ev
b) Eg = Ec+Ev
c) Eg = Ec*Ev
d) Eg = Ec/Ev
Ans. a) Eg = Ec-Ev

15. How many junctions in a diode consist?

a) 0
b) 1
c) 2
d) 3
Ans. b) 1

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16. If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type of the diode, then it is
known as
a) Forward biased
b) Reverse biased
c) Equilibrium
d) Schottky barrier
Ans. a) Forward biased

17. During reverse bias, a small current develops known as

a) Forward current
b) Reverse current
c) Reverse saturation current
d) Active current
Ans. b) Reverse current

18. Thickness of depletion layer is the order of

a) 10-9
b) 10-6
c) 10-10
d) 10-8
Ans. b) 10-6

19. The barrier potential of silicon diode at room temperature is

a) 0.3V
b) 0.1V
c) 2mV
d) 0.7V
Ans. d) 0.7V

20. The potential barrier at a P-N Junction is due to

a)majority carrier
b) minority carrier
c) both majority and minority carrier
d) fixed donor and acceptor ions
Ans. d) fixed donor and acceptor ions

21. The depletion layer width of a P-N Junction has maximum value in
a) forward bias
b) reverse bias
c) zero bias
d) a.c. bias
Ans. b) reverse bias

22. A Zener diode is used for

a) modulation

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b) detection
c) voltage regulation
d) rectification
Ans. c) voltage regulation

23. The mobility of charge carrier can be expressed in unit of

a) m2/volt-sec
b) volt/ m2-sec
c) volt-sec/m2
d) m2.sec/volt
Ans. a) m2/volt-sec

24. When the current through Zener diode increase by a factor of 2, voltage across its terminals
a) halved
b) double
c) practically unchanged
d) zero
Ans. c) practically unchanged

25. Static or D.C resistance is

a) Rdc= I/V
b) Rdc=V/I
c) Rdc= IR
d) none
Ans. b) Rdc=V/I

26. Dynamic or AC resistance for Ge (η = 1) at room temperature is

a) Rac=26/I
b) Rac= I/26
c) Rac= 26
d) Rac= I
Ans. a) Rac=26/I

27. Find static resistance of P-N Junction diode Ge diode temperature is 2 C and I =1µA for an
applied forward bias of 0.2 volt.
a) 300kΩ
b) 250 kΩ
c) 200 kΩ
d) 100 kΩ
Ans. c) 200 kΩ

28. Zener Breakdown occurs

a) mostly in silicon diode
b) mostly in Ge diode
c) because of rupture of covalent bond
d) due to thermal generated carrier

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Ans. c) because of rupture of covalent bond

29. Photo diode work in

a) forward biasing
b) reverse biasing
c) Zero biasing
d) none of these
Ans. b) reverse biasing

30. LED always work in

a) reverse bias
b) forward bias
c) both a and b
d) none of the above
Ans. b) forward bias

31. Bridge rectifier is an alternative for

a) Full wave rectifier
b) Peak rectifier
c) Half wave rectifier
d) None of the mentioned
Ans. a) Full wave rectifier

32. Which rectifier requires four diodes?

(a) half-wave rectifier
(b) full-wave rectifier
(c) bridge rectifier
(d) voltage quadrupler
Ans. c) bridge rectifier

33. The ripple factor of a bridge rectifier is

(a) 0.48
(b) 0.8l2
(c) 1.21
(d) 1.11
Ans. a) 0.48

34. The ripple factor of a half wave rectifier is

a) 0.48
b) 1
c) 1.21
d) 2.56
Ans. a) 1.21

35. In half wave rectifier rms value of output current is

a) Irms = I0/√2
b) Irms = I0 /2

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c) Irms = I0
d) Irms = I0 +2
Ans. b) Irms = I0 /2

36. The ripple factor r > 1, then rectifier is

a) Good device
b) Poor device
c) Both a and b
d) none of these
Ans. b) Poor device

37. Ripple factor of full wave rectifier is

a) 0.23
b) 0.121
c) 1.11
d) 0.482
Ans. d) 0.482

38. In bridge rectifier, the peak inverse voltage is

a) E0
b) 2E0
c) E0 /2
d) 3E0
Ans. a) E0

39. A Zener diode is used as

a) an amplifier
b) a voltage regulator
c) a rectifier
d) a multi vibrator
Ans. b) a voltage regulator

40. Avalanche breakdown occurs at

a) zero reverse voltage
b) small reverse voltage
c) high reverse voltage
d) none of these.
Ans. c) high reverse voltage

41. The height of potential barrier is

a) qVb
b) q + Vb
c) Vb – q
d) none of these
Ans. a) qVb

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42. Zener diode gives

a) sharp breakdown voltage
b) zero breakdown
c) undefined breakdown voltage
d) none of these
Ans. a) sharp breakdown voltage

43. For detection light intensity we use

a) LED in forward bias
b) LED in reverse bias
c) photodiode in forward bias
d) photodiode in bias
Ans. a) LED in forward bias

44. Avalanche breakdown is a

a) Addition process
b) cumulative
c) both Addition and cumulative
d) none of these
Ans. b) cumulative

45. π section filter consists of

a) inductor only
b) capacitor only
c) both inductor and capacitor
d) none of these
Ans. c) both inductor and capacitor

46. In a half - wave rectifier, the load current flows for

(a) Complete cycle of the input signal
(b) Less than half-cycle of the input signal,
(c) More than half-cycle but less than complete cycle of the input signal.
(d) Only for the positive half-cycle of the input signal.
Ans. d) Only for the positive half-cycle of the input signal.

47. The basic purpose of a filter is to

(a) Minimize variations in a.c. input signal.
(b) Suppress harmonics in rectified output.
(c) Remove ripples from the rectified output.
(d) Stabilize d.c. output voltage.
Ans. c) Remove ripples from the rectified output

48. The peak inverse voltage of full wave rectifiers is

a) 2E0
b) E0
c) 3E0

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d) E0 /2
Ans. a) 2E0

49. Maximum efficiency of half wave rectifier is

a) 100%
b) 40.6%
c) 81.2%
d) 43.6%
Ans. b) 40.6%

50. The maximum wavelength emitted by electron is 600 nm. The value of band gap energy (
in eV) is
a) 2 eV
b) 1.875 eV
c) 18.75 eV
d) 0.2 eV
Ans. b) 1.875 eV

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Unit – VII

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Unit VII

(Transistors)

 A junction transistor is a sandwich made of two pn junctions either in pnp or npn

form. In normal operation the base-emitter junction is always forward- biased and the
base-collector junction is always reverse-biased. The collector current is proportional
to the base current; and is much larger. The ratio of a small change in collector current
brought about as a result of a small change in base current is known as the current
gain.
 Transistors may be connected in the common-base, common-collector or common-
emitter. The common-emitter configuration is the most common amplifier
arrangement. Changes in collector current give rise to corresponding changes in
voltage across a load resistor connected into the collector circuit.

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BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

 Amplifiers are needed to increase the very small voltages produced by transducers to
values suitable for driving power amplifiers. They may be classified according to the
function they perform or their frequency of operation. Voltage amplifiers are designed
to produce amplified versions of the input signal without introducing, as far as
possible, any distortion or noise. The basic single-stage voltage amplifier uses a
transistor as the active component. In order to avoid distortion and ensure satisfactory
transistor operation, bias circuits must be used. Variations of base current are then
superimposed on a steady bias current. This produces larger variations of collector
current that are superimposed on a steady component known as the quiescent current.
Bias circuits are designed not only to obtain satisfactory transistor operation, but also
to compensate for variations of temperature and changes of component values.

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By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
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 When we plot a graph showing how the collector current varies with the collector-
emitting voltage for any fixed value of base current, the form of the graph is that
shown in Fig. 7. Here several graphs of this type are drawn on one set of axes, each
graph being for a different base current. The family of curves is known as a set of
output characteristics. For any value of base current and collector voltage we could
read off the corresponding value of collector current. Consider now the circuit
diagram accompanying the set of output characteristics. Here we have a fixed supply
voltage, V cc, and a load resistor, RL, in the collector circuit. For any particular value
of collector current a voltage drop across RL will be experienced which is equal to I c
RL. The sum of this voltage and the collector voltage, V ce is equal to the fixed supply
voltage V cc. Hence
V cc = V ce + I c RL

Now the characteristic curves are plotted on axes which show I, as the y-axis and V ce
as the x-axis. We can transpose the above equation, using simple algebra, so that we
have Ic on one side and everything else on the other side of the equation. This equation
then becomes Ic = (-1/R L) V ce + [V cc / RL]

which is in the form y = mx + c, where y is Ic and m (the slope) is -1/RL and the intercept
on the y-axis is V cc/RL. This straight-line graph can be super- imposed on the set of
output characteristics as shown; the straight line is known as the load line. From it we
can make a more accurate estimate of the bias current needed as well as making many
other deductions.

 Important Relationships related to common-emitter, common-collector, common-base

configurations:
β = α / (1- α)
γ = 1 / (1 – α)
where α is current amplification factor for common-base configuration i.e. the ratio
of change in collector current to change in emitter current when collector voltage is
kept constant, β is current amplification factor for common-emitter configuration i.e.

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the ratio of collector current to change in base current and γ is current amplification
factor for common-collector configuration i.e. the ratio of change in emitter current to
the change in base current.

Multiple Choice Questions and Answers

1. A transistor has ........

(a) one pn junction
(b) two pn junctions
(c) three pn junctions
(d) four pn junctions
Hint: Consider the basic structure of a transistor and the arrangement of pn junctions.
Ans: (b)

2. The number of depletion layers in a transistor is ........

a) four
b) three
c) one
d) two
Hint: Think about the formation of depletion layers in a transistor's structure.
Ans: d)

3. The base of a transistor is _____ doped.

(a) heavily
(b) moderately
(c) lightly
(d) none of the above
Hint: Consider the doping concentration required for the transistor's operation.
Ans: (c)

4. The element that has the biggest size in a transistor is ______

(a) collector
(b) base
(c) emitter
(d) collector-base junction
Hint: Think about the physical dimensions of the transistor's components.
Ans: (a)

5. In a pnp transistor, the current carriers are __________

(a) acceptor ions
(b) donor ions
(c) free electrons
(d) holes

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Hint: Consider the type of charge carriers in a pnp transistor's operation.

Ans: (d)
6. The collector of a transistor is _______ doped.
(a) heavily
(b) moderately
(c) lightly
(d) none of the above
Hint: Think about the doping concentration needed for efficient charge carrier collection.
Ans: (b)

7. A transistor is a ___________ operated device.

(a) current
(b) voltage
(c) both voltage and current
(d) none of the above
Hint: Consider how a transistor responds to different types of input signals.
Ans: (a)

8. In an npn transistor ___________ are the minority carriers.

(a) free electrons
(b) holes
(c) donor ions
(d) acceptor ions
Hint: Think about the behavior of charge carriers in an npn transistor.
Ans: (b)

9. The emitter of a transistor is__________ doped.

(a) lightly
(b) heavily
(c) moderately
(d) none of the above
Hint: Consider the doping concentration required for efficient emitter injection.
Ans: (b)

10. In a transistor, the base current is about___________ of emitter current.

(a) 25%
(b) 20%
(c) 35%
(d) 5%
Hint: Consider the typical ratio between base current and emitter current in transistor
operation.
Ans: (d)

11. At the base-emitter junction of a transistor, one finds ___________

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(a) reverse bias

(b) a wide depletion layer
(c) low resistance
(d) none of the above
Hint: Consider the typical characteristics of the base-emitter junction in a transistor.
Ans: (c)

12. The input impedance of a transistor is ......

(a) high
(b) low
(c) very high
(d) almost zero
Hint: Think about the ease of input signal application to a transistor.
Ans: (b)

13. Most of the majority carriers from the emitter __________

(a) recombine in the base
(b) recombine in the emitter
(c) pass through the base region to the collector
(d) none of the above
Hint: Consider the behavior of majority carriers in a transistor's operation.
Ans: (c)

14. The current IB is _________

(a) electron current
(b) hole current
(c) donor ion current
(d) acceptor ion current
Hint: Think about the type of charge carriers involved in the base current.
Ans: (a)

15. In a transistor ___________

(a)IC = IE + IB
(b) IB = IC + IE
(c) IE = IC - IB
(d) IE = IC + IB
Hint: Consider the relationship between collector, emitter, and base currents in a transistor.
Ans: (d)

16. The value of α of a transistor is___________

(a) more than 1
(b) less than 1
(c) 1
(d) none of the above

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Hint: Recall the definition and typical range of the current gain parameter α for transistors.
Ans: (b)

17. IC = α IE + ___________
(a) IB
(b) ICEO
(c) ICBO
(d) β IB
Hint: Consider the relationship between collector current, emitter current, and base current
in a transistor.
Ans: (c)

18. The output impedance of a transistor is ____________

(a) high
(b) zero
(c) low
(d) very low
Hint: Think about the impedance seen at the collector terminal of a transistor.
Ans: (a)

19. In a transistor, IC = 100 mA and IE = 100.5 mA. The value of β is__________

(a) 100
(b) 50
(c) about 1
(d) 200
Hint: Use the relationship between collector current, emitter current, and base current to
calculate β.
Ans: (d)

20. In a transistor if β = 100 and collector current is 10 mA, then IE is __________

(a) 100 mA
(b) 100.1 mA
(c) 110 mA
(d) none of the above
Hint: Apply the relationship between collector current, emitter current, and β to find IE.
Ans: (b)

21. The relation between α and β is __________

(a) β = 1/(1-α)
(b) β = (1-α)/α
(c) β = α/(1-α)
(d) β = α/(1+α)
Hint: Think about the relationship between the current gain parameters α and β.
Ans: (c)

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BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

22. The value of β for a transistor is generally ______________

(a) 1
(b) less than 1
(c) between 20 and 500
(d) above 500
Hint: Consider the typical range of β values for transistors.
Ans: (c)

23. The most commonly used transistor arrangement is__________ arrangement.

(a) common emitter
(b) common base
(c) common collector
(d) none of the above
Hint: Think about the transistor configuration commonly used in amplifier circuits.
Ans: (a)

24. The input impedance of a transistor connected in__________ arrangement is the highest.
(a) common emitter
(b) common base
(c) common collector
(d) none of the above
Hint: Consider the configuration that provides the highest input impedance.
Ans: (b)

25. The output impedance of a transistor connected in________ arrangement is the highest.
(a) common emitter
(b) common collector
(c) common base
(d) none of the above
Hint: Think about the configuration that provides the highest output impedance.
Ans: (c)

26. The phase difference between the input and output voltages in a common base arrangement
is ________
(a) 180o
(b) 90o
(c) 270o
(d) 0o
Hint: Consider the phase relationship between input and output signals in different transistor
configurations.
Ans: (d)

27. The power gain of a transistor connected in _____________ arrangement is the highest.

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
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(a) common emitter

(b) common base
(c) common collector
(d) none of the above
Hint: Think about the configuration that typically provides the highest power gain.
Ans: (a)

28. The phase difference between the input and output voltages of a transistor connected in
common emitter arrangement is ______________
(a) 0o
(b) 180o
(c) 90o
(d) 270o
Hint: Consider the phase relationship between input and output signals in common emitter
configuration.
Ans: (b)

29. The voltage gain of a transistor connected in arrangement is the highest.

(a) common base
(b) common collector
(c) common emitter
(d) none of the above
Hint: Think about the configuration that typically provides the highest voltage gain.
Ans: (c)

30. As the temperature of a transistor goes up, the base-emitter resistance ........
(a) decreases
(b) increases
(c) remains the same
(d) none of the above
Hint: Consider the effect of temperature on the semiconductor properties of the transistor.
Ans: (a)

31. The voltage gain of a transistor connected in common collector arrangement is .......
(a) equal to 1
(b) more than 10
(c) more than 100
(d) less than 1
Hint: Consider the typical voltage gain characteristics of a common collector configuration.
Ans: (d)

32. The phase difference between the input and output voltages of a transistor connected in
common collector arrangement is ........
(a)180o

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BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

(b) 0o
(c) 90o
(d) 270o
Hint: Think about the phase relationship between input and output signals in a common
collector configuration.
Ans: (b)

33. IC = β IB + ........
(a) ICBO
(b) IC
(c)ICEO
(d) α IE
Hint: Consider the additional term related to the transistor's characteristics.
Ans: (c)

𝛼
34. IC = IB + ______
1−𝛼
(a) ICEO
(b) ICBO
(c) IC
(d) (1-α) IB
Hint: Think about the relationship between collector and base currents in a transistor.
Ans: (a)

𝛼 ______
35. IC = IB +
1−𝛼 (1−α)
(a) ICBO
(b) ICEO
(c)IC
(d) IE
Hint: Consider the additional term related to the transistor's characteristics.
Ans: (a)

36. BC 147 transistor indicates that it is made of ........

(a) germanium
(b) silicon
(c) carbon
(d) none of the above
Hint: Consider the common semiconductor materials used in transistor manufacturing.
Ans: (b)

37. ICEO = (_____) ICBO

(a) β
(b) 1 + α
(c) 1 + β

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

(d) none of the above

Hint: Think about the relationship between ICEO and ICBO in terms of transistor
parameters.
Ans: (c)

38. A transistor is connected in CB mode. If it is now connected in CE mode with same bias
voltages, the values of IE, IB and IC will______________
(a) remain the same
(b) increase
(c) decrease
(d) none of the above
Hint: Consider the differences in configurations and their effects on transistor parameters.
Ans: (a)

39. If the value of α is 0.9, then value of β is ........

(a) 9
(b) 0.9
(c) 900
(d) 90
Hint: Use the relationship between α and β to calculate the value of β.
Ans: (d)

40. In a transistor, signal is transferred from a ____________ circuit.

(a) high resistance to low resistance
(b) low resistance to high resistance
(c) high resistance to high resistance
(d) low resistance to low resistance
Hint: Consider the flow of signal through different parts of the transistor.
Ans: (b)

41. The arrow in the symbol of a transistor indicates the direction of ___________
(a) electron current in the emitter
(b) electron current in the collector
(c) hole current in the emitter
(d) donor ion current
Hint: Consider the conventional current flow direction in the transistor.
Ans: (c)

42. The leakage current in CE arrangement is __________ that in CB arrangement.

(a) more than
(b) less than
(c) the same as
(d) none of the above
Hint: Compare the leakage characteristics of transistors in different configurations.

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Ans: (a)

43. A heat sink is generally used with a transistor to _________

(a) increase the forward current
(b) decrease the forward current
(c) compensate for excessive doping
(d) prevent excessive temperature rise
Hint: Think about the purpose of a heat sink in electronic devices.
Ans: (d)

44. The most commonly used semiconductor in the manufacture of a transistor is _________
(a) germanium
(b) silicon
(c) carbon
(d) none of the above
Hint: Consider the semiconductor material commonly used in transistor fabrication.
Ans: (b)

45. The collector-base junction in a transistor has _____________

(a) forward bias at all times
(b) reverse bias at all times
(c) low resistance
(d) none of the above
Hint: Think about the biasing conditions and characteristics of the collector-base junction.
Ans: (b)

46. In a common emitter transistor configuration, the output voltage is taken across
___________
(a) base-emitter junction
(b) base-collector junction
(c) collector
(d) emitter
Hint: Consider the terminal where the output signal is usually measured in a common emitter
setup.
Ans: (c)

47. The purpose of the base region in a transistor is to ___________

(a) amplify the input signal
(b) provide a path for majority carriers
(c) act as a barrier for majority carriers
(d) control the flow of majority carriers
Hint: Think about the role of the base region in transistor operation.
Ans: (d)

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

48. The common emitter configuration provides ___________.

(a) Highest voltage gain and current gain
(b) Highest voltage gain and lowest current gain
(c) Lowest voltage gain and highest current gain
(d) Lowest voltage gain and current gain
Hint: Consider the characteristics of different transistor configurations.
Ans: (a)

49. The primary purpose of biasing in transistor circuits is to ___________.

(a) Maintain the operating point stable
(b) Increase the voltage gain
(c) Decrease the collector current
(d) Prevent the transistor from overheating
Hint: Think about why biasing is necessary for proper transistor operation.
Ans: (a)

50. The primary function of the emitter in a transistor is to ___________.

(a) Provide a path for majority carriers
(b) Increase the breakdown voltage
(c) Increase the base current
(d) Decrease the collector current
Hint: Consider the role of the emitter region in transistor operation.
Ans: (a)

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Unit – VIII

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Unit VII

(Electronic Instrumentation)
Summary
 A multimeter is an electrical measuring instrument used for measuring voltage,
current, resistance, and other electrical parameters. It can measure “multiple”
electrical quantities that depend on the type of multimeter.
 To measure dc voltage, suitable range resistances are connected in series with
galvanometer. Now switching to dc position with desired ranre selection, one
measures the dc voltage from the galvanometer.
 To measure ac voltage, a bridge type full wave rectifier is used. It converts ac into dc
and thus by switching to ac position with desired range selection, one measures the ac
voltage.
 To measure dc current, low resistances are connected in parallel with galvanometer.
Now switching to dc position with desired range selection, one measures the dc
current.
 To measure ac current, once again a bridge type full wave rectifier is used. It converts
the ac to be measured into dc which can be measured by the same galvanometer.
 To measure resistance, one chooses the proper range and galvanometer is taken which
is calibrated directly in ohms. Before using the multimeter one should short the
terminals in ohmmeter position and inbuilt small resistance is adjusted to get the
reading zero ohm.
 The cathode-ray oscilloscope is designed as a measuring instrument that displays
signal information in the form of a graph or trace on the face of a cathode-ray
tube.
 The cathode-ray tube consists of an electron gun which produces and focuses a thin
beam of electrons onto a fluorescent screen. The latter glows at the point of impact of
the electrons.
 A deflection system deflects the electron beam electrostatically in accordance with the
voltage waveform to be displayed. Deflections in the vertical direction are controlled
by applying voltages to a pair of Y-plates. These voltage waveforms are those of the
signal to be examined. Deflections in the horizontal direction are controlled by
applying voltages to the X-plates. Usually, the horizontal deflections must be
proportional to time because the phenomena usually studied are time-dependent. The
necessary X-voltages are produced by a saw-tooth oscillator. Both X- and Y-
amplifiers are re- quired to amplify the control signals before application to the X-
and Y- plates.
 Double-beam tubes are available to enable two signals to be displayed
simultaneously.
 Voltage and time measurements can be made by using the calibrated controls of the
instrument. Alternatively, separate calibrated signals of known magnitude can be
used. Frequency measurements can be made by observing Lissajous' patterns. For
these the time base is made inoperative and the two signals whose frequencies are to

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BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

be compared are applied to the X- and Y- inputs respectively. Phase differences and
waveform analyses can be made by a proper interpretation of the patterns or graphs
produced on the screen.

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Multiple Choice Questions and Answers

1. An ammeter is connected in _______ with the circuit element whose current we wish to
measure.
(a) series
(b) parallel
(c) series or parallel
(d) none of the above

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BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Hint: Think about where in the circuit you would place the ammeter to measure current
flow.
Ans: (a)

2. A galvanometer in series with a high resistance is called ______________

(a) an ammeter
(b) a voltmeter
(c) a wattmeter
(d) none of the above
Hint: Consider the purpose and setup of a device used to measure voltage.
Ans: (b)

3. An ammeter should have_________ resistance.

(a) infinite
(b) very large
(c) very low
(d) none of the above
Hint: Think about how an ammeter should ideally affect the circuit it's measuring.
Ans: (c)

4. A voltmeter is connected in___________ with the circuit component across which

potential difference is to be measured.
(a) parallel
(b) series
(c) series or parallel
(d) none of the above
Hint: Consider how a voltmeter is typically connected to measure voltage.
Ans: (a)

5. A voltmeter should have _________ resistance.

(a) zero
(b) very high
(c) very low
(d) none of the above
Hint: Think about what kind of resistance would be ideal for measuring voltage without
affecting the circuit significantly.
Ans: (b)

6. The sensitivity of a multimeter is given in

(a) Λ
(b) amperes
(c) kΛ/V
(d) none of the above
Hint: Consider what unit would be used to express the sensitivity of a multimeter.

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Ans: (c)

7. If the full-scale deflection current of a multimeter is 50 µA, its sensitivity

is_____________
(a) 10 k Λ /V
(b) 100 k Λ /V
(c) 50 k Λ /V
(d) 20 k Λ /V
Hint: Calculate the sensitivity based on the given full-scale deflection current.
Ans: (d)

8. If a multimeter has a sensitivity of 1000 Λ per volt and reads 50 V full scale, its internal
resistance is______________
(a) 20 k Λ
(b) 50 k Λ
(c) 10 k Λ
(d) none of the above
Hint: Use the sensitivity and full-scale voltage to calculate the internal resistance.
Ans: (b)

9. A VTVM has __________ input resistance than that of a multimeter.

(a) more
(b) less
(c) same
(d) none of the above
Hint: Consider the differences between VTVM and a regular multimeter.
Ans: (a)

10. The input resistance of a VTVM is about _______________

(a) 1000 Λ
(b) 10 k Λ
(c) 20 k Λ
(d) 10 M Λ
Hint: Consider typical values for the input resistance of a VTVM.
Ans: (d)

11. If the negative potential on the control grid of CRT is increased, the intensity of spot
_________
(a) is increased
(b) is decreased
(c) remains the same
(d) none of the above
Hint: Consider the effect of the control grid potential on the intensity of the spot on the
CRT screen.

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Ans: (b)

12. For display of signal pattern _________ voltage is applied to the horizontal plates of a
CRO.
(a) sinusoidal
(b) rectangular
(c) sawtooth
(d) none of the above
Hint: Think about the type of signal pattern typically displayed on a CRO and what type of
voltage would be needed to generate it.
Ans: (c)

13. Two multimeters A and B have sensitivities of 10 k Λ /V and 30 k Λ /V respectively.

Then _______
(a) multimeter A is more sensitive
(b) multimeter B is more sensitive
(c) both are equally sensitive
(d) none of the above
Hint: Compare the sensitivities of the two multimeters to determine which one is more
sensitive.
Ans: (b)

14. A galvanometer of resistance G is shunted by a very small resistance S. The resistance of

the resulting ammeter is _________
(a) GS/(G+S)
(b) G + S
(c) G - S
(d) none of the above
Hint: Consider the effect of the shunt resistance on the overall resistance of the ammeter.
Ans: (a)

15. A VTVM is never used to measure ____________

(a) voltage
(b) current
(c) resistance
(d) none of the above
Hint: Consider the specific purpose of a VTVM and what quantities it is designed to
measure.
Ans: (b)

16. The sensitivity of a voltmeter which uses a 100 µA meter movement is___________
(a) 1 k Λ /V
(b) 10 k Λ /V
(c) 5 k Λ /V

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
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(d) data insufficient

Hint: Use the given meter movement current to calculate the sensitivity.
Ans: (b)

17. What is the total resistance of a voltmeter on the 10 V range when the meter movement is
rated for 50 µA of full-scale current?
(a) 10 k Λ
(b) 20 k Λ
(c) 200 k Λ
(d) none of the above
Hint: Consider the formula for calculating the total resistance of a voltmeter.
Ans: (c)

18. The material used to coat inside face of CRT is ___________

(a) carbon
(b) sulphur
(c) silicon
(d) phosphorus
Hint: Think about the properties of materials suitable for coating the inside face of a CRT.
Ans: (d)

19. When an ammeter is inserted in the circuit, the circuit current will ___________
(a) increase
(b) decrease
(c) remain the same
(d) none of the above
Hint: Consider how adding an ammeter would affect the overall resistance in the circuit.
Ans: (b)

20. A series ohmmeter circuit uses a 3 V battery and a 1 mA meter movement. What is the
half-scale resistance for this movement?
(a) 3 k Λ
(b) 1.5 k Λ
(c) 4.5 k Λ
(d) 6 k Λ
Hint: Use the given information to calculate the resistance.
Ans: (a)

21. The most accurate device for measuring voltage is _________

(a) voltmeter
(b) multimeter
(c) CRO
(d) VTVM
Hint: Consider the accuracy and capabilities of each device in measuring voltage.

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BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Ans: (c)

22. The horizontal plates of a CRO are supplied with __________ to observe the waveform
of a signal.
(a) sinusoidal wave
(b) cosine wave
(c) sawtooth wave
(d) none of the above
Hint: Think about the type of wave typically used to drive the horizontal plates for
waveform observation.
Ans: (c)

23. A CRO is used to measure ...............

(a) voltage
(b) frequency
(c) phase
(d) all of the above
Hint: Consider the various parameters a CRO can measure.
Ans: (d)

24. If 2 % of the main current is to be passed through a galvanometer of resistance G, then

(a) G/50
(b) G/49
(c) 49 G
(d) 50G
Hint: Use the formula for calculating the required shunt resistance.
Ans: (b)

25. Which of the following is likely to have the largest resistance?

(a) voltmeter of range 10 V
(b) moving coil galvanometer
(c) ammeter of range 1 A
(d) a copper wire of length 1 m and diameter 3 mm
Hint: Compare the typical resistances of each device.
Ans: (a)

26. An ideal ammeter has _________ resistance.

(a) low
(b) infinite
(c) zero
(d) high
Hint: Consider the ideal characteristics of an ammeter.
Ans: (c)

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
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27. The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is __________

(a) low
(b) infinite
(c) zero
(d) high
Hint: Consider the ideal characteristics of a voltmeter.
Ans: (b)

28. To send 10% of the main current through a moving coil galvanometer of resistance 99 Λ,
the shunt required is _________
(a) 11 Λ
(b) 9.9 Λ
(c) 100 Λ
(d) 9 Λ
Hint: Use the formula for calculating the required shunt resistance.
Ans: (a)

29. A voltmeter has a resistance of G ohms and range V volts. The value of resistance
required in series to convert it into voltmeter of range nV is _____________
(a) nG
(b) G/n
(c) G/(n-1)
(d) (n-1)G
Hint: Consider the total resistance required for the desired range.
Ans: (d)

30. An ammeter has a resistance of G ohms and range of I amperes. The value of resistance
required in parallel to convert it into an ammeter of range nI is ....................
(a) nG
(b) (n-1) G
(c) G/(n-1)
(d) G/n
Hint: Consider how the total resistance affects the range of the ammeter.
Ans: (c)

31. Which one of the following meters cannot be used to test the transistors and diodes?
(a) Voltmeter
(b) Multi-meter
(c) Both a and b
(d) None of the above
Ans: (a)

32. In which one of the following meters the scope of application is vast?
(a) Multi-meter

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BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

(b) Voltmeter
(c) Both a and b
(d) None of the above
Ans: (a)

33. When measuring resistance with a multimeter, what should be the condition of the
circuit?
(a) Open circuit
(b) Short circuit
(c) Powered on
(d) Powered off
Hint: Consider the impact of current flow on resistance measurement.
Answer: (d) Powered off

34. How does a multimeter typically display continuity?

(a) By emitting a sound
(b) By showing "OL" (Over Limit)
(c) By displaying "0.00" resistance
(d) By flashing a light
Hint: Think about how a multimeter indicates the presence of continuity in a circuit.
Answer: (a) By emitting a sound

35. What does the abbreviation "DMM" stand for in the context of multimeters?
(a) Digital Multimeter
(b) Direct Measurement Module
(c) Differential Mode Measurement
(d) Dynamic Measurement Method
Hint: Think about the type of multimeter commonly used in modern electrical work.
Answer: (a) Digital Multimeter

36. What feature allows a multimeter to automatically select the appropriate range for a
measurement?
(a) Range selector knob
(b) Auto-ranging function
(c) Manual adjustment dial
(d) Backlight display
Hint: Consider the convenience of modern multimeter designs.
Answer: (b) Auto-ranging function

37. What should be the internal resistance of an ideal ammeter?

(a) Infinite
(b) Very low
(c) Very high
(d) Variable

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Hint: Consider how the internal resistance of an ammeter affects the circuit it's measuring.
Answer: (b) Very low

38. Why is it essential for an ammeter to have low resistance?

(a) To ensure accurate measurement of voltage
(b) To minimize its effect on the circuit's current flow
(c) To protect the circuit from high voltage spikes
(d) To increase its sensitivity in detecting voltage variations
Hint: Think about the impact of resistance on current measurement.
Answer: (b) To minimize its effect on the circuit's current flow

39. What should you do before connecting an ammeter to a circuit?

(a) Set the range to maximum
(b) Set the range to minimum
(c) Turn off the circuit power
(d) Adjust the ammeter's internal resistance
Hint: Consider safety precautions when working with electrical circuits.
Answer: (c) Turn off the circuit power

40. What happens to the circuit current when an ammeter is inserted into the circuit?
(a) It increases
(b) It decreases
(c) It remains the same
(d) It fluctuates
Hint: Think about the impact of adding additional resistance to the circuit.
Answer: (b) It decreases

41. In an ammeter, what does the term "full-scale deflection" refer to?
(a) The maximum voltage it can measure
(b) The maximum current it can measure
(c) The maximum resistance it can handle
(d) The maximum frequency it can detect
Hint: Think about how the scale of an ammeter is calibrated.
Answer: (b) The maximum current it can measure

42. Which of the following materials is commonly used for the shunt resistor in an ammeter?
(a) Copper
(b) Aluminum
(c) Manganin
(d) Tungsten
Hint: Consider the properties required for a shunt resistor in an ammeter.
Answer: (c) Manganin

43. In what unit is the sensitivity of a galvanometer typically specified?

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(a) Volts (V)

(b) Amperes per Volt (A/V)
(c) Ohms (Ω)
(d) Tesla (T)
Hint: Think about how sensitivity is quantified in terms of current and voltage.
Answer: (b) Amperes per Volt (A/V)

44. What happens if the current exceeds the full-scale deflection of a galvanometer?
(a) The galvanometer becomes damaged
(b) The needle gets stuck at maximum deflection
(c) The resistance of the galvanometer increases
(d) The galvanometer deflects beyond the scale limit
Hint: Think about the limitations of a galvanometer's scale.
Answer: (b) The needle gets stuck at maximum deflection

45. What is the primary purpose of shunting a galvanometer?

(a) To increase its sensitivity
(b) To decrease its sensitivity
(c) To protect it from overload
(d) To change its range
Hint: Consider how shunting affects the effective resistance of the galvanometer.
Answer: (c) To protect it from overload

46. Which parameter(s) can be measured using a CRT?

(a) Voltage only
(b) Frequency only
(c) Phase only
(d) Voltage, frequency, and phase
Hint: Think about the capabilities of a CRT in terms of measurement.
Answer: (d) Voltage, frequency, and phase

47. What is the purpose of the control grid in a CRT?

(a) To focus the electron beam
(b) To accelerate the electrons
(c) To control the intensity of the electron beam
(d) To deflect the electron beam
Hint: Think about how the control grid affects the behavior of the electron beam.
Answer: (c) To control the intensity of the electron beam

48. How does increasing the negative potential on the control grid affect the electron beam in
a CRT?
(a) It increases the intensity of the beam
(b) It decreases the intensity of the beam
(c) It changes the color of the beam

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BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

(d) It has no effect on the beam

Hint: Consider the impact of control grid potential on the behavior of the electron beam.
Answer: (b) It decreases the intensity of the beam

49. What type of waveform voltage is typically applied to the horizontal plates of a CRT to
observe signal patterns?
(a) Sinusoidal
(b) Rectangular
(c) Sawtooth
(d) Triangular
Hint: Consider the waveform necessary for displaying signal patterns accurately.
Answer: (c) Sawtooth

50. What is the purpose of the phosphor coating on the inside face of a CRT?
(a) To generate the electron beam
(b) To control the intensity of the electron beam
(c) To convert electron energy into visible light
(d) To amplify electrical signals
Hint: Think about the role of phosphor in producing visible images on a CRT screen.
Answer: (c) To convert electron energy into visible light

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Model Question Paper (B010201T)

Thermal Physics and Semiconductor Devices

1. Which of the following is state function?

a) Temperature
b) Heat
c) Internal Energy
d) Work
Ans. c) Internal Energy

2. First law of thermodynamics is based upon

a) law of conservation of charge
b) law of conservation of energy
c) law of conservation of momentum
d) law of conservation of angular momentum
Ans. b) law of conservation of energy

3. Thermal radiation extends over the range of:

a) 0.01 μm to 0.1 μm
b) 0.1 μm to 100 μm
c) 100 μm to 250 μm
d) 250 μm to 1000 μm
Ans. b) 0.1 μm to 100 μm

4. Who studied the spectrum of black body radiation?

a) Ferry
b) Maxwell
c) Stefan
d) Pringsheim
Ans. d) Pringsheim

5. What type of particle forms the cathode rays in a CRT?

a) Electrons
b) Protons
c) Neutrons
d) Alpha particles
Hint: Consider the charged particle responsible for generating the electron beam in a CRT.
Answer: a) Electrons

6. Which of the following materials is commonly used for making the coil in a galvanometer?
(a) Copper
(b) Aluminum
(c) Nichrome
(d) Manganin
Hint: Consider the properties required for the coil material in a galvanometer.
Answer: (c) Nichrome

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

7. In a transistor, what region acts as a barrier to the flow of majority charge carriers?
(a) Base region
(b) Collector region
(c) Emitter region
(d) Depletion region
Hint: Think about the structure of a transistor and its regions' roles.
Answer: (d) Depletion region

8. What effect does increasing the current through an ammeter have on its resistance?
(a) Resistance decreases
(b) Resistance increases
(c) Resistance remains constant
(d) Resistance becomes negative
Hint: Think about how the design of an ammeter affects its resistance.
Answer: (a) Resistance decreases

9. Pressure of radiation P is related to the total energy incident on the surface per unit area per
second E as: [c is the velocity of light]
a) P = Ec
b) P = Ec2
c) P = E/c
d) P = E/c2
Ans. c) P = E/c

10. As the wavelength of the radiation decreases, the intensity of the black body radiations:
a) Increases
b) Decreases
c) First increases and then decreases
d) First decreases and then increase
Ans. c) First increases and then decreases

11. Ideal gas in adiabatic process follow

a) T  V   constant
b) T V  1  constant
c) T V  1  constant
d) T  1V  constant
Ans. b) T V  1  constant

12. Internal energy of a real gas depends upon

a) P
b) V
c) T
d) T and V

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Ans. d) T and V

13. For one mole of ideal gas in Isothermal Process, work done is
V 
a) RTln  2 
 V1 
R (T1  T2 )
b)
 1
c) 0
d) PVγ
V 
Ans. a) RTln  2 
 V1 

14. A perfect gas heat engine operate in carnot cycle between 2270C and 1270C. It absorbs
60000 cals of heat at higher temperature. Amount of heat converted to work is
a) 24000 cals
b) 60000 cals
c) 12000 cals
d) 48000 cals
Ans. c) 12000 cals

15. A refrigerator works between 40C and 300C. It is required to remove 600 cals of heat every
second in order to keep inside the temperature to be constant. The power required is
(Take 1 cal = 4.2 J)
a) 2.365 W
b) 23.65 W
c) 236.5 W
d) 2365 W
Ans. c) 236.5 W

16. A thermodynamic system is taken through the cycle ABCD as shown in fig. Change in
internal energy of the gas during the cycle is

a) PV
b) 2PV
c) -2PV

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

d) 0
Ans. d) 0

17. What principle is utilized in the operation of a moving-coil galvanometer?

(a) Electromagnetic induction
(b) Coulomb's law
(c) Ohm's law
(d) Newton's laws of motion
Hint: Consider the interaction between magnetic fields and electric currents.
Answer: (a) Electromagnetic induction

18. What does the term "sensitivity" of a galvanometer refer to?

(a) Its ability to measure voltage
(b) Its ability to measure resistance
(c) Its ability to detect small currents
(d) Its ability to withstand high currents
Hint: Think about what characteristic allows a galvanometer to detect small currents.
Answer: (c) Its ability to detect small currents

19. What is the function of the emitter in a bipolar junction transistor (BJT)?
(a) To control the flow of current
(b) To provide majority charge carriers
(c) To amplify the input signal
(d) To collect the output signal
Hint: Consider the role of each region in a BJT's operation.
Ans. (b) To provide majority charge carriers

20. Which type of galvanometer is commonly used as the basis for a digital multimeter
(DMM)?
(a) Moving-coil galvanometer
(b) Moving-magnet galvanometer
(c) Vibrating-reed galvanometer
(d) Electronic galvanometer
Hint: Consider the technology used in modern digital measurement devices.
Ans. (d) Electronic galvanometer

21. As per Wien’s displacement law, the spectral distribution of the energy emitted at a given
temperature has:
a) A definite minimum and this minimum shifts to longer wavelengths as the temperature
increases
b) A definite minimum and this minimum shifts to shorter wavelengths as the temperature
increases
c) A definite maximum and this maximum shifts to shorter wavelengths as the temperature
decreases
d) A definite maximum and this maximum shifts to shorter wavelengths as the temperature
increases

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Ans. d) A definite maximum and this maximum shifts to shorter wavelengths as the
temperature increases

22. If wavelength of maximum intensity of radiation emitted by sun and moon are 10-6 m and
10-4 m resp. the ratio of their temperature is:
a) 2000
b) 1000
c) 100
d) 20
Ans. c) 100

23. Stefan’s law states that rate of emission of radiant energy by unit area of perfectly black-
body is directly proportional to: [T is the absolute temperature]
a) T
b) T2
c) T3
d) T4
Ans. d) T4

24. The temperature at which a black body loses thermal energy at the rate of 1watt/cm2 is:
[(5.672)-1/4 = 0.6480; σ= 5.672 x 10-8 W/m2-K4]
a) 500 K
b) 648 K
c) 748 K
d) 820 K
Ans, b) 648 K

25. Out of the given options, which one is not a postulate of the kinetic theory of gases?
a) The molecules of a gas are always at rest position
b) The molecules of the gas are point masses
c) The molecules of a gas are perfectly elastic spheres
d) The molecules of a gas are identical
Ans. a) The molecules of a gas are always at rest position

26. The density of hydrogen at N.T.P. is 0.000089 g/cc. The rms velocity for hydrogen is:
a) 2.4 x 102 m/s
b) 11.2 x 102 m/s
c) 18.4 x 102 m/s
d) 38.1 x 102 m/s
Ans. c) 18.4 x 102 m/s

27. Calculate the number of molecules in 1cc of oxygen at NTP given ρmercury =13.6 g/cm3, the
rms velocity of oxygen molecules at 0oC=7 x104cm/s and mass of one molecule of oxygen=50
x10-24 g:
a) 1.24 x 1016
b) 1.24 x 1017

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

c) 1.24 x 1018
d) 1.24 x 1019
Ans. d) 1.24 x 1019

28. What will be the temperature when the root-mean-square velocity is double of that at 600
K?
a) 600 K
b) 1200 K
c) 2400 K
d) 4800 K
Ans. c) 2400 K

29. What parameter does a cathode ray tube (CRT) primarily measure?
(a) Voltage
(b) Current
(c) Frequency
(d) Phase
Hint: Think about the role of a CRT in electronic measurement.
Answer: (a) Voltage

30. What is the resistance of a galvanometer used in conjunction with a shunt resistor?
(a) Equal to the shunt resistor
(b) Greater than the shunt resistor
(c) Smaller than the shunt resistor
(d) Equal to the total circuit resistance
Hint: Think about the combined resistance of the galvanometer and the shunt resistor.
Answer: (c) Smaller than the shunt resistor

31. What is the function of the electron gun in a CRT?

(a) To generate X-rays
(b) To produce the electron beam
(c) To amplify electrical signals
(d) To regulate voltage
Hint: Consider the role of the electron gun in the CRT's operation.
Answer: (b) To produce the electron beam

32. Which material is commonly used for coating the inside face of a CRT?
(a) Carbon
(b) Sulphur
(c) Silicon
(d) Phosphorus
Hint: Consider the properties of materials suitable for CRT coatings.
Answer: (d) Phosphorus

33. During compression of the spring, the work done is 10 KJ and 2 KJ of heat is escaped to
the surrounding. The change in the internal energy is

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

a) -8
b) 12
c) 8
d) -12
Ans. c) 8

34. 5 moles of gas are filled in container at 270C. If the gas slowly and isothermally compressed
to 1/4 of its volume, the work done by the gas is
a) -3000Rln2
b) 3000Rln2
c) 1500Rln2
d) -1500Rln2
Ans. a) -3000Rln2

35. The capacitance of a PN Junction under reverse bias

a) Increase as the reverse bias is increased
b) Increase as the reverse bias is decreased
c) Mostly depends on the reverse saturation current
d) Renders the junction more effective at higher frequencies
Ans. b) Increase as the reverse bias is decreased

36. The output of rectifier is

a) Unidirectional
b) Bidirectional
c) Both a) and b)
d) None of these
Ans. a) Unidirectional

37. The correct expression is

a) dU = TdS – PdV
b) dF = -PdV – SdT
c) dH = TdS + VdP
d) dG = -VdP – SdT
Ans. d) dG = -VdP – SdT

38. 20 g of water at 400C are mixed with 20 g of water at 800C. What is the temperature of the
mixture.?
a) 600C
b) 1200C
c) 500C
d) 0
Ans. a) 600C

39. Average energy of a Planck’s oscillator is:

a) hν/kT
b) hν

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

c) hν / (ehν/kT – 1)
d) hν / ehν/kT
Ans. c) hν / (ehν/kT – 1)

40. Rayleigh-Jeans law of radiation:

a) Applies to longer wavelengths at higher temperatures
b) Applies to shorter wavelengths at lower temperatures
c) Applies to all wavelengths
d) Does not apply to any wavelength
Ans. a) Applies to longer wavelengths at higher temperatures

L
41. Equation P  ke RT derive from
a) Clausius-Clapeyron equation
b) Ideal gas equation
c) only from a)
d) both a) and b)
Ans. d) both a) and b)

42. Ist TdS equation is

 P 
a) TdS  CV dT  T   dV
 T V
 P 
b) TdS  CV dT  T   dV
 T V
 P 
c) TdS  C P dT  T   dP
 T  P
d) None of these
 P 
Ans. a) TdS  CV dT  T   dV
 T V

43. Which terminal of a bipolar junction transistor (BJT) controls the flow of current between
the other two terminals?
(a) Base
(b) Emitter
(c) Collector
(d) None of the above
Hint: Think about the role of each terminal in the operation of a BJT.
Answer: (a) Base

44. What type of charge carriers are injected into the base terminal of a bipolar junction
transistor (BJT)?
(a) Majority carriers
(b) Minority carriers
(c) Holes
(d) Electrons

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Hint: Consider the flow of charge carriers in a BJT and the role of the base terminal.
Answer: (b) Minority carriers

45. What type of material is commonly used for the filament in a cathode ray tube (CRT)?
(a) Copper
(b) Tungsten
(c) Aluminum
(d) Iron
Hint: Consider the properties required for the filament material.
Answer: (b) Tungsten

46. What is the primary function of a galvanometer?

(a) Measure voltage
(b) Measure resistance
(c) Measure current
(d) Measure magnetic field strength
Hint: Consider the principle of operation of a galvanometer.
Answer: (c) Measure current

47. Latent heat varies with temperature as L = 0.705T, specific heat of water at 1270C is 1.02
cal/gm-0C. The specific heat of vapour at 1270C (in cal/gm-0C) is
a) 0.98
b) -0.98
c) 0
d) 9.8
Ans. b) -0.98

48. Ice melt at the base but not at the top explain through the equation
a) Ideal gas equation
b) Clausius-Clapeyron equation
c) Ist TdS equation
d) None of these
Ans. b) Clausius-Clapeyron equation

49. “It is impossible to construct a device which when operates in a cycle, extracts heat from a
source and converts whole of it into work.”
a) Clausius statement
b) Zeroth law of thermodynamics
c) Ist law of thermodynamics
d) Kelvin-Planck statement
Ans. d)

50. According to Maxwell’s distribution of velocities, the probability that a molecule will have
x-component of velocity in the range vx to vx + dvx is:
a) (m/2πkBT) exp [-(m vx2/2kBT)] dvx
b) (m/2πkBT)1/2 exp [-(m vx2/2kBT)] dvx

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

c) (m/2πkBT) exp [-(m vx/2kBT)] dvx

d) (m/2πkBT)1/2 exp [-(m vx/2kBT)] dvx
Ans. b) (m/2πkBT)1/2 exp [-(m vx2/2kBT)] dvx

51. Diatomic gas molecule (O2) has five degrees of freedom. The ratio of translational to
rotational degrees of freedom is:
a) 1:4
b) 2:3
c) 3:2
d) 4:1
Ans. c) 3:2

52. The indirect verification of the Maxwell's law of distribution of molecular velocities comes
from:
a) Study of the width of spectral line
b) Stern experiment
c) Zartman and Ko experiment
d) Estermann, Simpson and Stern experiment
Ans. a) Study of the width of spectral line

53. The value of Transition or space charge capacitance is

𝜀𝐴
a) 𝐶𝑇 =
𝑇
𝜀𝐴
b) 𝐶𝑇 =
𝑉
𝜀𝐴
c) 𝐶𝑇 =
𝐼
d) None of these
Ans. a)

54. In the manufactured of electronic device Si is preferred to Ge because

a) Si is cheaper than Ge
b) Si is more compact than Ge
c) The leakage current is less in Si than Ge
d) Silicon has better appearance than germanium
Ans. c) The leakage current is less in Si than Ge

55. When an ideal monoatomic gas is heated at constant pressure, the fraction of the heat energy
supplied which increases the internal energy of the gas is:
a) 1/2
b) 2/5
c) 2/3
c) 3/7
Ans. c) 2/3

56. At high temperature (750 K), hydrogen molecule possess 7 degrees of freedom. The molar
specific heat at constant volume (Cv) is:

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

a) 9R/2
b) 7R/2
c) 5R/2
d) 3R/2
Ans. b) 7R/2

57. The absolute zero temperature is that temperature at which the average K.E. of translation
of each molecule of the gas is:
a) 0
b) kT
c) kT/2
d) 2kT
Ans. a) 0

58. In a CRT, what causes the electron beam to move horizontally across the screen?
(a) Anode voltage
(b) Filament heating
(c) Deflection coils
(d) Phosphor coating
Hint: Consider the component responsible for horizontal beam movement.
Answer: (c) Deflection coils

59. How is a galvanometer typically connected to convert it into an ammeter?

(a) In series with a high resistance
(b) In parallel with a high resistance
(c) In series with the load
(d) In parallel with the load
Answer: (a) In series with a high resistance.

60. Two or more branches in a circuit meet at a point is called

a) Antinode
b) Node
c) Mesh
d) None of these
Ans. b) Node

61. What is the purpose of the base terminal in a bipolar junction transistor (BJT)?
(a) To provide mechanical support
(b) To control the input signal
(c) To provide majority charge carriers
(d) To collect the output signal
Hint: Think about the function of each terminal in a BJT.
Answer: (b) To control the input signal

62. In a bipolar junction transistor (BJT), what happens when a small current flows into the
base terminal?

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

(a) The transistor enters saturation mode

(b) The transistor enters cut-off mode
(c) The transistor undergoes amplification
(d) The transistor experiences breakdown
Hint: Consider the behaviour of a BJT based on the input current at the base terminal.
Answer: (c) The transistor undergoes amplification

63. The semiconductor which comes in the category of direct band gap
a) GaAs
b) Si
c) Ge
d) Si-Ge combination
Answer a) GaAs

64. The device which converts heat into mechanical work is

a) Motor
b) Generator
c) Energy converter
d) Heat engine
Ans. d) Heat engine

65. A silicon sample having intrinsic carrier concentration 1.5* 1013 /𝑐𝑚3 is doped by a
trivalent impurity of 1018 /𝑐𝑚3 concentratio. After doping the number of electron in the sample
will be about
a) 1.5 × 1013 /𝑐𝑚3
b) 1.5 × 1031 /𝑐𝑚3
c) 1.5 × 10−5 /𝑐𝑚3
d) 1.5× 108 /𝑐𝑚3
Answer d) 1.5× 108 /𝑐𝑚3

66. At any temperature fermi energy is that energy

a) Above which all state are empty
b) Below which all state are occupied
c) At which average occupancy is half
d) At which average occupancy is maximum
Answer d) At which average occupancy is maximum

67. When pure germanium is doped with pentavalent impurity, the conduction is due to
a) Electron
b) Holes
c) Positron
d) Photons
Answer a) Electron

68. At absolute zero temperature the resistance of pure silicon is

a) Infinite

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

b) Zero
c) 10Ω
d) 1Ω
Answer a) Infinite

69. When the temperature of a semiconductor is increased, its resistance

a) Increased
b) Decrease
c) Remains unchanged
d) May increase or decrease
Answer b) Decrease

70. A carnot engine takes 1000 cals of heat at 9270C and reject some part at 270C. The
efficiency of engine is
a) 0.75
b) 0.66
c) 0.33
d) None of these
Ans. a) 0.75

71. The knee voltage in a semiconductor diode is

a) 0.3 for silicon and 0.7 for germanium
b) 0.7 for silicon and 0.3 for germanium
c) 0.7 for both silicon and germanium
d) 0.3 for both silicon and germanium
Answer b) 0.7 for silicon and 0.3 for germanium

72. If 𝑛𝑒 and 𝑛ℎ be the number of conduction electron and holes respectively in an intrinsic
semiconductor, then
a) 𝑛ℎ > 𝑛𝑒
b) 𝑛ℎ < 𝑛𝑒
c) 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑒
d) 2𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑒
Answer c) 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑒

73. For efficiency of engine to be unity, the temperature of sink must be

a) 00C
b) 0 K
c) -2730C
d) both b) and c)
Ans. d) both b) and c)

74. If voltage across the Zener diode is 50V and load across the Zener diode is 10 kΩ find load
current through load resistance

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

a) 5×10−3 amp
b) 6×10−4 amp
c) 1× 10−5 amp
d) 2 amp
Answer a) 5×10−3 amp
𝑉𝑍
Hint: 𝐼𝐿 =
𝑅𝐿

75. A Zener diode has a breakdown voltage 9.1volts with a maximum power dissipation of 364
milliwatts find maximum current diode
a) 40 mA
b) 50 mA
c) 60 mA
d) 55 mA
Answer a) 40 mA
Hint: 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = VI

76. Find static resistance of PN Junction diode if forward voltage is 0.4 volts
a) 300 kΩ
b) 400 kΩ
c) 100 kΩ
d) 600 kΩ
Answer b)
𝑉
Hint: 𝑅𝐴𝐶 =
𝐼

77. Find dynamic resistance of PN Junction diode if forward current is 2µA

a) 0.013 Ω
b) 0.026 Ω
c) 0.001 Ω
d) 0.023 Ω
Answer a) 0.013 Ω

78. Find efficiency of half wave rectifier if diode resistance is 0.2Ω and load resistance is15Ω
a) 39.94%
b) 40.44%
c) 23.44%
d) 44.23%
Answer a) 39.94%

79. P-type semiconductor materials is

a) Silicon doped with indium
b) Silicon
c) Silicon doped with arsenic
d) Germanium

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

Answer a) Silicon doped with indium

80. Match the following Lissajous figurers to their vertical deflection voltage graph.

a) 1-d, 2-b, 3-c, 4-a

b) 1-b, 2-d, 3-a, 4-c
c) 1-a, 2-d, 3-b, 4-c
d) 1-c, 2-a, 3-d, 4-b
Ans. d) 1-c, 2-a, 3-d, 4-b

81. A commercial power supply has a voltage regulation of

a) 1%
b) 5%
c) 20%
d) 50%
Answer a) 1%

82. If C = 2.0µF and R = 1.0mΩ find the value of time constant

a) 1 sec
b) 2 sec
c) 10 sec
d) 5 sec
Answer b) 2 sec
Hint: time constant = CR

83. A network circuit element without any energy source is

a) Negative network
b) Passive network
c) Active network
d) None of these
Answer b)

84. The average speed of molecule varies with temperature T as 𝑉𝑎𝑣 α 𝑇 𝑛 then the value of n is
a) 1
b) 2

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

c) 0
d) 0.5
Ans. d) 0.5

85. In application of superposition theorem, one is required to solve as many circuits an there
are
a) Nodes
b) Branches
c) Meshes
d) Sources
Answer d) Sources

86. A solenoid has an inductor of 50 H and resistance 30Ω, it connects to a 100volt battery.
Time taken for the current to reach one half of its final equilibrium value
a) 2.15 sec
b) 1.15 sec
c) 4 sec
d) 3 sec
Answer b) 1.15 sec

87. Kirchoff’s law is applicable for

a) AC network
b) DC network
c) AC as well as DC network
d) None of these
Ans. c) AC as well as DC network

88. In Norton’s equivalent circuit the impedance is connected in

a) Series
b) Parallel
c) Either series or parallel
d) None of these
Answer b) Parallel

89. In the active region the emitter-base junction is --------biased and base-collector junction
is---------biased?
a) Reversed biased, Forward biased
b) Forward biased, Forward biased
c) Reversed biased, Reversed biased
d) Forward biased, Reverse biased
Ans. d) Forward biased, Reverse biased

90. Due to forward biasing of emitter-base junction ----------are induced into the base?

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

a) Minority carriers
b) Majority carriers
c) All the charge carriers
d) Only electrons
Ans. b) Majority carriers

91. In irreversible process change in entropy is

a) Increase
b) Decrease
c) Unchanged
d) None of these
Ans. a) Increase

92. The heavily doped region of the transistor is

a) Emitter
b) Collector
c) Both emitter and collector
d) Only collector
Ans. a) Emitter

93. In the active region, collector current depends upon

a) Collector voltage.
b) Emitter voltage.
c) Emitter current.
d) None of the above.
Ans. d) None of the above.

94. Which one is correct? (Symbols have their usual meaning)

a) ηI > ηR
b) ηI < ηR
c) ηI = ηR
d) None of these
Ans. b) ηI < ηR

95. The width of the depletion region -------------with the magnitude of the reverse voltage?
a) Increases
b) Decreases
c) Remains constant
d) None of these
Ans. a) Increases

96. Under which of the following conditions a Wheatstone bridge is balanced?

a) When no current flows
b) When the temperature of the circuit is high

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta
BSc.2nd Semester Thermal Physics and Semiconductor devices/ B010201T

c) When power dissipation is high

d) When no voltage drop across the galvanometer
Ans. d) When no voltage drop across the galvanometer

97. A multiplier is __________

a) non-capacitive
b) capacitive
c) non-inductive
d) resistive
Ans. c) non-inductive

98. The expression for ripple factor is

𝐼2
a) r = √ 𝑟𝑚𝑠
2 −1
𝐼𝑑𝑐

𝐼2
b) r = √( 𝑟𝑚𝑠
2 )−1
𝐼𝑑𝑐
2
𝐼𝑑𝑐
c) r = √( 2 )−1
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
d) none of these
𝐼2
Ans. b) r = √( 𝑟𝑚𝑠
2 )−1
𝐼𝑑𝑐

99. 100 gm of ice at 00C converted into water at the same temperature. The latent heat of ice is
80 cal/gm. The change in entropy in calK-1
a) 0.293
b) 2.93
c) 29.3
d) 293
Ans. c) 29.3

100. During Fusion, entropy of system

a) constant
b) decreases
c) increases
d) none of these
Ans. c) increases

By Dr. Satya Prakash Singh, Dr. Manish Kapoor, Kaleem Ahmed, Dheerendra Gupta