NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY-ANDHRA PRADESH

TADEPALLIGUDEM– 534102, WEST GODAVARI DIST.,

ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME254-Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

Thermometry
By
Dr.N.S.Balaji
Faculty-Mechanical Engineering Dept.
NIT-AP 1
 Thermometry
• The branch of physics concerned with the measurement of temperature and the design and
use of thermometers and pyrometers.
• Temperature is a very widely measured and frequently controlled variable used in numerous
industrial applications.
• Chemical reactions in the industrial processes and products are temperature dependent and
the desired quality of a product is possible only if the temperature is accurately measured and
maintained.
• Important governing parameter in the thermodynamic and heat transfer operations like steam
raising, gas turbines in power generations and also in numerous propulsion systems.
• In the heat treatment of steel and aluminum alloys, temperature measurement and control
plays a crucial role in incorporating the desired material properties in the finished heat-
treated products.
• Other areas where measurement and control of temperature is essential are: plastic
manufacture, nuclear reactor components, milk and dairy products, plant furnace and molten
metals, heating and air-conditioning systems, space shuttle components, blades of gas
turbines, etc.
Temperature definition
• The degree of hotness or coldness of a body or an environment measured on a definite
scale.
• Condition of a body by virtue of which heat is transferred to or from other bodies.
• A quantity whose difference is proportional to the work obtained from a Carnot engine
operating between a hot source and a cold receiver.
• According to kinematic theory of gases and in statistical thermodynamics, temperature is
related to the average kinetic energy of molecules or atoms of which the material is made
of.
• Temperature scales & their conversions

𝐶−0 𝐹 − 32 𝐾 − 273.15 𝑅 − 491.67

= = =
100 − 0 212 − 32 373.15 − 273.15 671.64 − 491.67
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

• Temperature cannot be measured directly but must be measured by observing the effect that
temperature variation causes on the measuring device. Temperature measurement methods can be
broadly classified as follows:
Four of the most common are:

• Mechanical (liquid-in-glass thermometers, bimetallic strips, etc.)

• Thermo junctive (thermocouples)
• Thermo resistive (RTDs and thermistors)
• Radiative (infrared and optical pyrometers)
 Temperature: bimetallic strip, thermocouples, electrical
resistance thermometer

Mechanical Temperature Measuring Devices

• A change in temperature causes some kind of mechanical motion, typically due to the

fact that most materials expand with a rise in temperature.

• Mechanical thermometers can be constructed that use liquids, solids, or even gases as

the temperature-sensitive material.

• The mechanical motion is read on a physical scale to infer the temperature.

5
Bimetallic strip thermometer:

Deflection of a bimetallic strip (a) Normal condition (b) Cold condition

(c) Hot condition
20ME403 Metrology and Instrumentation 6
• All metals change in dimension, that is, expand or contract when there is a change in
temperature.
• The rate at which this expansion or contraction takes place depend on the temperature
coefficient of expansion of the metal and this temperature coefficient of expansion is
different for different metals.
• Hence the difference in thermal expansion rates is used to produce deflections which is
proportional to temperature changes.
• The bimetallic thermometer consists of a bimetallic strip. A bimetallic strip is made of two
thin strips of metal which have different coefficients of expansion.
• The two metal strips are joined together by brazing, welding or riveting so that the relative
motion between them is arrested.
• The bimetallic strip is in the form of a cantilever beam. An increase in temperature will
result in the deflection of the free end of the strip as shown in diagram.
• This deflection is linear and can be related to temperature change.

7
• The radius of curvature of a bimetallic strip which was initially flat is determined using
the following relationship.

8
 Different common forms of bimetallic sensors are listed:
- Helix type
- Spiral type
- Cantilever type
- Flat type

• When a bimetallic spiral fixed at one end and free at the other end is subjected to a temperature
change, the free end of the bimetallic spiral deflects proportional to the change in temperature. This
deflection becomes a measure of the change in temperature. 9
• A bimetallic strip is constructed of strips of yellow brass and Invar bonded together at 30°C. Each has a
thickness of 0.3 mm. Calculate the radius of curvature when a 6.0 cm strip is subjected to a temperature of
100 °C.
Mechanical properties of some commonly used thermal materials
 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer
• Both liquid and glass expands on heating and their
differential expansion is used to indicate temperature.
• The liquid in glass thermometer has a glass bulb
attached to a sealed glass tube (also called the stem or
capillary tube).
• A very thin opening, called a bore, exists from the bulb
and extends down the centre of the tube.
• The bulb is typically filled with either mercury or red-
coloured alcohol and is free to expand and rise up into
the tube when the temperature increases, and to contract
and move down the tube when the temperature
decreases.
• In the Liquid In Glass Thermometers (LIG) the
thermally sensitive element is a liquid contained in a
graduated glass envelope.
• The principle used to measure temperature is that of the
apparent thermal expansion of the liquid.
 Pressure Thermometers (Fluid Expansion Type)

Basic Principle
• When liquids, gases or vapours are heated. they
expand and when they are cooled, they contract.
This is the basis behind the construction of
pressure thermometers.
• When a liquid, gas or vapour filled system is
subjected to a temperature change, the volume of
the liquid, gas or vapour changes causing a
pressure in the filled system.
• This pressure becomes an indication of
temperature change when calibrated.
Operation
• The sensing bulb of the instrument is introduced into the medium
whose temperature is to be measured.
• Due to the change in temperature, the bulb and the fluid in the
NOTE:
bulb expand or contract. That is, the volume of the fluid in the • The commonly used liquids
bulb increases or decreases which inturn alters the pressure of the in a filled system are
fluid in the bulb. mercury, acetone, ethyl
• This change in volume and pressure of the fluid in the bulb is alcohol, pentane and
transmitted to the bourdon tube through the capillary tube. toluene.
• As the pressure change in the fluid is now sensed by the inner • The commonly used gases in
walls of the bourdon tube, the bourdon tube's cross section which a filled system are nitrogen
was initially elliptical tends to become a circle (if temperature and helium.
change is positive) and this causes a small displacement which is • The commonly used fluids
in a liquid vapour system are
proportional to the change in the filling fluid’s pressure (which is
water, toluene, methyl
inturn proportional to change in temperature). chloride, diethyl ether and
• This displacement is amplified using links and the links shift the ether alcohol.
pointer to a new position on a temperature calibrated scale. Thus
the position of the pointer becomes an indication of the
temperature sensed by the sensing bulb.
 Thermocouples/Thermoelectric Sensors
• When two conductors made from dissimilar
metals are connected forming two common
junctions and the two junctions are exposed to
two different temperatures, a net thermal emf is
produced, the actual value being dependent on the
materials used and the temperature difference
between hot and cold junctions.
• The thermoelectric emf generated, in fact is due
to the combination of two effects: Peltier effect
and Thomson effect. A typical thermocouple
junction is shown in fig.
Operation
• The thermocouple's hot junction JH is introduced into the
place where the temperature is to be measured.
• The reference temperature is controlled to be at a
constant temperature of 0°C.
• Since the two junctions are at different temperatures, a
voltage is setup at the free ends and since the free ends
are connected to a millivoltmeter, the emf setup will
establish a flow of current which can be directly
measured using the millivoltmeter.
• Since the reference junction is kept at 0°C, the emf
measured is a function of the temperature of the hot
measuring junction.
• The millivoltmeter is calibrated suitably so that its
reading becomes an indication of the temperature.
• The total emf produced is made up of a part due to the Peltier effect, which is localized at each junction,
and a (usually much smaller) part caused by the Thomson effect, which is distributed along each
conductor between the junctions.
• The Peltier emfs are assumed proportional to the junction temperature, while the Thomson emfs are pro-
portional to the difference between the squares of the junction temperatures.

• T1 and T2 are hot and cold junction temperatures in K.

• C1 and C2 are constants depending upon the materials.
• For Copper/ Constantan thermocouple, C1 = 62.1 and C2 = 0.045.
Thermocouple Materials and Characteristics

17
 Laws of Thermocouples
There are three laws of thermocouples namely:
1. Law of thermoelectricity or successive or intermediate temperatures.
2. Law of intermediate metals.
3. Law of homogeneous circuit.

Law of thermoelectricity or successive or

intermediate temperatures

If a thermocouple circuit develops an Emf E1 when its

junctions are at temperatures T1 and T2, and an emf E2;
when its junctions are at temperatures T2 and T3, it will
develop an emf (E1+E2) when its junctions are at
temperatures T1 and T3.

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 Law of intermediate metals
If a third metal is introduced into a thermocouple circuit, it will not affect the net emf if the two
junctions (q1,q2 ) introduced by the third metal are at the same temperatures.

Law of homogeneous circuit.

The application of heat to a single homogeneous metal is in itself not capable of producing or
sustaining an electric current.
An experiment is conducted to calibrate a copper-constantan thermocouple. With cold junction at 0°C,
emf obtained at boiling point of water and boiling point of sulphur (100&445°C) are 5 mV and 25 mV
respectively. If the relation is assumed to be
𝑒𝑡1 −𝑡2 = 𝑎 𝑡1 − 𝑡2 + 𝑏 𝑡12 − 𝑡22
(a) Determine constants a and b
(b) The above thermocouple indicates 2 mV with the cold junction at 40°C. Determine the unknown hot
junction temperature.
(c) If the cold junction is maintained at 40°C, what would be the emf when hot junction temperature is
at 500°C.
 Electrical Resistance Thermometers
• Acts on principle of change in resistance of various materials due to change in
temperature.
• Materials may be conductors(metals) and semiconductors.
• In general resistance of highly conducting materials increases with increase in
temperature.
• Resistance of semiconductor materials generally (not always) decreases with increase in
temperature.
• Thermo-sensitive resistors having negative temperature characteristics are known as NTC
thermistors.
 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
Basic Principle
• When an electric conductor is subjected to a temperature change, the resistance of the
conductor changes.
• This change in resistance of the electric conductor becomes a measure of the change in
temperature when calibrated.
• The change in resistance of the electric conductor is due to:
Change in dimension of the conductor, that is, expansion or contraction.
Change in current opposing properties of the material.
The resistance of the electric conductor increases with an increase in temperature and
vice-versa.
Operation
• A known constant current is passed through the resistance
wire of the thermometer and the initial resistance of the wire
is measured using the wheat stone bridge.
• Now the resistance thermometer is introduced into the
media whose temperature is to be measured.
• Due to a change in temperature (assume the change is in the
positive direction), the resistance wire of the thermometer
gets heated and due to this heat the resistance of the wire
changes (increases).
• (It should be noted that the same constant current is passed
through the resistance thermometer during measurement).
• Now this change in resistance of the wine is measured using
the wheat stone bridge.
• This change in resistance becomes a measure of temperature
when calibrated.
 Resistance-Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
• Metals such as platinum, copper, tungsten and nickel exhibit small increase in resistance
as temperature rises.
• Platinum is very widely used sensor having range 4 °C to 1064°C.
• Platinum provides extremely reproducible output, so used in establishing International
Practical Temperature Scale from 13.81 °C to 961.93°C .
• For lower temperatures up to 600°C , RTD sensor is made of nickel.
• For temp. up to 300°C , RTD sensor is made of pure copper wire.
• RTD is useful for both lab. & industrial applications.
• High degree of accuracy & long-term stability.
• Wide operating range & linear characteristics.
• Limitations- low sensitivity, higher cost, and produce errors caused due to contact
resistance, shock & accelerations.
 Construction of platinum resistance thermometer
The resistance of platinum increases linearly with the
temperature, and this property of the metal is used for
measuring the temperature. The resistance of the platinum is
measured by passing the alternating or direct current through it.
Because of the current, the voltage induces across the metal
which measures through the voltmeter. The reading of voltage
is converted into the temperature with the help of the
calibration equation.

• A coil of fine metal wire is wound on grooved hollow insulating ceramic former & covered
with protective cement.
• Ends of coils are welded to stiff copper leads that are taken out to be connected in one of the
arms of Wheatstone bridge circuit.
• A protective metal sheath is used to provide rigidity and mechanical strength.
• Alternatively, RTD may be fabricated by depositing thin films of platinum, nickel or copper on a
ceramic substrate.
• These thin film sensors have advantage of extremely low mass and more rapid thermal response.
• Accuracy for PRT is + 0.01°C up to 1200°C up to 500°C and + 0.1°C
Semiconductor Resistance Sensors (Thermistors)
• A thermistor is similar to an RTD, but a semiconductor material is used instead of a metal.
• Thermistors are many times more sensitive than RTD’s and hence are useful over limited
ranges of temperature.
• They are small pieces of ceramic material made by sintering mixtures of metallic oxides of
Manganese, Nickel, Cobalt, Copper and Iron etc.
• Resistance of a thermistor decreases nonlinearly with temperature.
• Thermistors are extremely sensitive but over a narrow range of temperatures.
• A thermistor has larger sensitivity than does an RTD, but the resistance change with
temperature is nonlinear, and therefore temperature must be calibrated with respect to
resistance.
• Unlike RTDs, the resistance of a thermistor decreases with increasing temperature. The
upper temperature limit of thermistors is typically lower than that of RTD.
• However, thermistors have greater sensitivity and are typically more accurate than RTDs
or thermocouples.
• A simple voltage divider, where Vs is the supply voltage and Rs is a fixed (supply) resistor.
• Rs and Vs can be adjusted to obtain a desired range of output voltage Vout for a given range of
temperature.
• If the proper value of Rs is used, the output voltage is nearly (but not exactly) linear with
temperature.
• Some thermistors have 3 or 4 lead wires for convenience in wiring – two wires are connected to
one side and two to the other side of the thermistor
Operation
• A known constant current is passed through the
thermistor sensing element and the initial resistance of
the thermistor sensing element is measured using the
wheat stone bridge.
• Now the thermistor is introduced into the medium
whose temperature is to be measured. Due to change in
temperature (assume the change is in the positive
direction), the sensing element of the thermistor gets
heated and due to this heat the resistance of the sensing
element changes (decreases). (Itshould be noted that the
same constant current is passed through the sensing
element during measurement).
• Now this change in resistance of the sensing element of
the thermistor is measured using the wheat stone bridge.
This change in resistance be measure of temperature
when calibrated.

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29
Radiation Methods (Pyrometry)
• For temperatures above 650°C, the heat radiations emitted from the body are of sufficient
intensity to be used for measuring the temperature.
• Advantages- used for high temp, moving bodies, temp. over surfaces.
• Types of instruments
1. Total radiation pyrometer – sensitive to all radiations entering the instrument.
2. Selective (or partial) radiation pyrometer – sensitive to radiations of a particular
wavelength.
3. Infrared (IR) pyrometer – employ the infrared portion of spectrum by using a
thermal detector to measure temperature on the surface of the body.
 Total Radiation Pyrometer
• Receives a controlled sample of total radiation of a hot body (eg. Furnace) and focuses it
on to a temperature sensitive transducer.

• Radiation includes visible (0.3 to 0.72 µm wavelength) (light) and invisible (0.72 to 1000
µm wavelength) (infrared) radiations.

• Ordinary glass is unsatisfactory, as it absorbs infrared radiations.

• The practical radiation pyrometers are sensitive to a limited wavelength band of radiant
energy (0.32 to 0.40 µm)
 Fery’s total radiation pyrometer
• The total radiation pyrometer contains a tube that houses the components of this pyrometer.
• One end of the tube is open to receive radiations from the temperature source or hot object whose
temperature is to be determined, and the other end has a sighting hole (which contains an
adjustable eyepiece).
• Inside the tube an adjustable lens (whose position can be adjusted by rack and pinion mechanism
to make total radiation fall on the receiving element) and a radiation receiving element
(thermocouple) are present. The thermocouple is connected to a millivoltmeter which is calibrated
in terms of temperature.

• Calibrated against known temperatures in the range of

700-2000°C.
• Useful in fixed locations where the emissivity and
optical paths are well known and constant.
• Useful to measure temp. of large furnace in metal
industries.
• The signal is electrical so can be used for control
applications.
• The theory underlying the operation of total pyrometers is that the rate of radiation from a body A (source)
to a body B (pyrometer), i.e. EA/B is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law :
𝑬𝑨Τ𝑩 = 𝑪𝜺𝝈 𝑻𝟒𝑨 − 𝑻𝟒𝑩
Where EA/B: energy received by the pyrometer in W/m-2
C: geometrical factor to adjust the relative shapes of the two bodies
𝜺: emissivity of the detector disc which varies from 0.05 to 1.0 (for theoretical black body)
σ: Stefan-Boltzmann constant (= 56.7x10-12 kW/(m2-K4)
TA and TB : steady state absolute temperature of the source and the pyrometer detector disc
 Selective Radiation Pyrometer
• The principle is based on Planck’s law which states that the energy level in the radiations from a hot
body are distributed in the different wavelengths.
• It states that electromagnetic radiation from heated bodies is not emitted as a continuous flow but is
made up of discrete units or quanta of energy, the size of which involves a fundamental physical
constant (Planck's constant).
• As the temperature increases, the emissive power shifts to shorter wavelengths.
• The Planck's distribution equation is:
𝒄𝟏 𝝀−𝟓
𝑾= 𝒄𝟐
𝒆 ൗ𝝀𝑻 −𝟏
• Where c1: 3.740x10-12 (W-cm2)
c2: 1.4385 (cm-°C)
λ: wavelength (cm)
W: energy level associated with wavelength at temperature T (W/cm3)
• Also called monochromatic brightness
radiation pyrometer.
• Most accurate of all radiation
pyrometers.
• Used at temp. greater than 700°C.
• Used to realize International Practical
Temperature Scale above 1064°C.
• Accuracy is ±5°C in the range of 850-
1200°C.
• And for extended range of 1100 -
1950°C, accuracy is better than ±10°C.
 Seebeck Effect
A circuit formed from two dissimilar metals
joined at both ends, develops an EMF (voltage)
proportional to the difference in the two
junction temperatures.
So, if the temperature of one junction is kept at
a known value, the temperature of the other
junction can be determined by the amount of
voltage produced.

Peltier Effect
The Peltier effect is the reverse phenomenon of
the Seebeck effect; the electrical current flowing
through the junction connecting two materials will
emit or absorb heat per unit time at the junction to
balance the difference in the chemical potential of
the two materials
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