BEEE (B.

TECH, 1ST YEAR)

Prepared By
Dr. Sachidananda Sen
1
Asst. Professor, EEE Dept.
 SYLLABUS
UNIT V
Applications of Diodes
 Qualitative analysis of: Diode as a switch,
 Half wave rectifier, Full wave Bridge rectifier;

 Zener diode as voltage regulator,

 Illustrative problems,

 Varactor diode,

 Tunnel diode,

 LED,

 photodiode,

 solar cells,

 Filters – C, RC, LC, LCL, and CLC (π) filters.

 APPLICATIONS OF DIODE: AS A SWITCH
 It is assumed that the forward resistance of the diode is
usually so small compared to the other series elements of the
network that it can be ignored.
 In general, a diode is in the “on” state if the current established
by the applied sources is such that its direction matches that of the
arrow in the diode symbol, and VD ≥ 0.7 V for silicon, VD ≥ 0.3 V
for germanium, and VD ≥ 1.2 V for gallium arsenide.
 For each configuration, mentally replace the diodes with resistive
elements and note the resulting current direction as established by
the applied voltages (“pressure”).
 If the resulting direction is a “match” with the arrow in the
diode symbol, conduction through the diode will occur and the device
is in the “on” state.
 The description above is, of course, contingent on the supply having
a voltage greater than the “turn-on” voltage (VK) of each diode.
 If a diode is in the “on” state, one can either place a 0.7-V drop
across the element or redraw the network with the VK equivalent
circuit.
 DIODE AS A SWITCH

• Once the basic

behavior of a device
is understood, its
function and
response in an
infinite variety of
configurations can
be examined.
• The analysis of
electronic
circuits can
follow one of two
paths: using the
actual
characteristics or
applying an
approximate model
for the device.
 DIODE AS A SWITCH: SERIES CONFIGURATION
 It is simply preferred to include the 0.7-V drop across each
“on” diode and open state for each diode in the “off” condition.
 Initially, however, the substitution method will be used to ensure
that the proper voltage and current levels are determined.
 The network is then redrawn as shown in figure b with the
appropriate equivalent model for the forward-biased silicon diode.
 The resulting voltage and current are as follows:

Series diode configuration

(a) Determining the state of the diode;
(b) Substituting the equivalent model for the “on” diode.
 DIODE AS A SWITCH: SERIES CONFIGURATION
 In figure (left) the diode has been reversed.
 Mentally replacing the diode with a resistive element as
shown in figure (middle) will reveal that the resulting current
direction does not match the arrow in the diode symbol.
 The diode is in the “off” state, resulting in the equivalent
circuit of figure (right).
 Due to the open circuit, the diode current is 0 A and the
voltage across the resistor R is the following:
 SERIES CONFIGURATION
 Ques 1: For the series diode configuration in figure,
determine VD, VR, and ID.
 SERIES CONFIGURATION
 Answer 1: Since the applied voltage establishes a
current in the clockwise direction to match the arrow
of the symbol and the diode is in the “on” state,
 SERIES CONFIGURATION
 Ques 2: Repeat earlier example with the diode reversed.
 Answer 2: Reversing the diode, we find that the
direction of I is opposite to the arrow in the diode symbol
and the diode equivalent is the open circuit no
matter which model is employed.
 The result is the network shown in figure, where ID = 0 A
due to the open circuit.
 Since VR = IRR, we have VR = (0)R = 0 V.

 Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the closed loop

yields
 SERIES CONFIGURATION
 An open circuit can have any voltage across its
terminals, but the current is always 0 A.
 A short circuit has a 0-V drop across its terminals, but
the current is limited only by the surrounding network.
 In the next example the notation given in figure will be
employed for the applied voltage.
 It is a common industry notation and one with which the
reader should become very familiar.

Source notation
 SERIES CONFIGURATION
 Ques 3: Determine Vo and ID for the series
circuit of figure. Assume turn-on voltage for
red LED diode to be 1.8 V.
 SERIES CONFIGURATION
 Answer 3: An approach similar to that applied in earlier case
will reveal that the resulting current has the same direction
as the arrowheads of the symbols of both diodes, and the
network results because E = 12 V > (0.7 V + 1.8 V) = 2.5 V.
 Note the redrawn supply of 12 V and the polarity of Vo across
the 680-ohm resistor. The resulting voltage is
 SERIES CONFIGURATION
 Ques4: Determine ID, VD2, and Vo for the circuit
shown in figure.
 SERIES CONFIGURATION
 Answer 4: Removing the diodes and determining the
direction of the resulting current I result in the circuit of
figure.
 There is a match in current direction for one silicon diode
but not for the other silicon diode.
 The combination of a short circuit in series with an
open circuit always results in an open circuit and
ID = 0 A, as shown in figure.
SERIES CONFIGURATION
 SERIES CONFIGURATION
 Ques 5: Determine I, V1, V2, and Vo for the series dc
configuration of the figure.
 SERIES CONFIGURATION
 Answer 5: The sources are drawn and the current direction
indicated as shown in figure.
 The diode is in the “on” state and the notation appearing in next
figure is included to indicate this state.
 Note that the “on” state is noted simply by the additional VD = 0.7 V
on the figure.
SERIES CONFIGURATION
 PARALLEL CONFIGURATION
Ques 6: Determine Vo, I1, ID1, and ID2 for the parallel
diode configuration of figure.
 PARALLEL CONFIGURATION
Answer 6: For the applied voltage the “pressure” of the source
acts to establish a current through each diode in the same direction
as shown in figure.
• Since the resulting current direction matches that of the arrow in
each diode symbol and the applied voltage is greater than 0.7
V, both diodes are in the “on” state.
• The voltage across parallel elements is always the same and
 PARALLEL CONFIGURATION
 Ques 7: Determine the currents I1, I2, and ID2 for the
given network.
 PARALLEL CONFIGURATION
 Answer 7: The applied voltage (pressure) is such as to turn both
diodes on, as indicated by the resulting current directions in the
network.
 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
 The diode analysis will now be expanded to include time-varying
functions such as the sinusoidal waveform.
 Over one full cycle, defined by the period T of figure, the average
value (the algebraic sum of the areas above and below the axis) is
zero.
 The circuit of figure, called a half-wave rectifier, will generate a
waveform vo that will have an average value of particular use in
the ac-to-dc conversion process.
 When employed in the rectification process, a diode is typically
referred to as a rectifier.

Half-wave rectifier
 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
 During the interval t = 0 → T/2 in figure a the polarity of the
applied voltage vi is such as to establish “pressure” in the
direction indicated and turn on the diode with the polarity
appearing above the diode.
 Substituting the short-circuit equivalence for the ideal diode
will result in the equivalent circuit of figure a, where it is
fairly obvious that the output signal is an exact replica of
the applied input signal.
 The two terminals defining the output voltage are connected
directly to the applied signal via the short-circuit equivalence
of the diode.
 For the period T/2 → T, the polarity of the input vi is as
shown in figure b, and the resulting polarity across the ideal
diode produces an “off” state with an open-circuit equivalent.
 The result is the absence of a path for charge to flow, and
vo = iR = (0)R = 0 V for the period T/2 → T.
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
 The input vi and the output vo are sketched together in
figure below for comparison purposes.
 The output signal vo now has a net positive area above the
axis over a full period and an average value determined by

The process of removing one-half

the input signal to establish a dc
level is called half-wave rectification.

Half-wave rectified signal

 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
 The effect of using a silicon diode with VK = 0.7 V is
demonstrated in the given figure for the forward-bias region.
 The applied signal must now be at least 0.7 V before the diode can
turn “on.” For levels of vi less than 0.7 V, the diode is still in an
open-circuit state and vo = 0 V.
 When conducting, the difference between vo and vi is a fixed level of
VK = 0.7 V and vo = vi – VK.
 The net effect is a reduction in area above the axis, which reduces
the resulting dc voltage level.

Effect of VK on half-wave rectified signal

 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
 If the diode is connected in reverse direction, the
following analysis is performed.

If turn-on voltage
(VK) is ignored.
 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
 If turn-on voltage is considered.

 The peak inverse voltage (PIV) [or PRV (peak reverse voltage)]
rating of the diode is of primary importance in the design of
rectification systems.

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, it is

fairly obvious that the PIV rating of
the diode must equal or exceed
the peak value of the applied
voltage.
 FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER: CENTRE-TAPPED*
 A popular full-wave rectifier appears in figure with only two diodes
but requiring a center-tapped (CT) transformer to establish the
input signal across each section of the secondary of the transformer.
 During the positive portion of vi applied to the primary of the
transformer, the network will appear with a positive pulse across
each section of the secondary coil.
 D1 assumes the short-circuit equivalent and D2 the open-
circuit equivalent, as determined by the secondary voltages and
the resulting current directions.

Center-tapped transformer
full-wave rectifier.
FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER: CENTRE-TAPPED*

Network conditions for the positive region of vi

Network conditions for the negative region of vi

 FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER: BRIDGE
 The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be
improved 100% using a process called full-wave rectification.
 The most familiar network for performing such a function
appears in figure with its four diodes in a bridge
configuration.
 During the period t = 0 to T/2 the polarity of the input is as
shown in figure (right). The resulting polarities across the
ideal diodes are also shown to reveal that D2 and D3 are
conducting, whereas D1 and D4 are in the “off” state.

Network for the period 0 → T/2 of the input voltage

 FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER: BRIDGE
 The net result is the configuration, with its indicated
current and polarity across R.
 Since the diodes are ideal, the load voltage is vo = vi, as
shown in the same figure.

 For the negative region of the input the conducting diodes are
D1 and D4, resulting in the configuration of next figure.
 The important result is that the polarity across the load
resistor R is the same as in the above figure, establishing a
second positive pulse.
 FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER: BRIDGE

 Over one full cycle the input and output voltages will appear as
shown in below figure.
 FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER: BRIDGE
 If silicon rather than ideal diodes are employed as shown in
figure, the application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the
conduction path results in

 For the indicated loop the maximum voltage

across R is Vm and the PIV rating is defined by
 FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER: BRIDGE
 Ques 8: Determine the output waveform for the network
given below and calculate the output dc level and the
required PIV of each diode.
 FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER: BRIDGE
 Answer 8: Redrawing the network results in the configuration of
figure shown below.

 The effect of removing two diodes from the bridge configuration is

therefore to reduce the available dc level to the following:

Resulting output
 ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
 The analysis of networks employing Zener diodes is quite similar to
the analysis of semiconductor diodes in previous sections.
 First the state of the diode must be determined, followed by a
substitution of the appropriate model and a determination of the
other unknown quantities of the network.
 Figure reviews the approximate equivalent circuits for each region
of a Zener diode assuming the straight-line approximations at each
break point.
Note that the forward-
bias region is included
because occasionally an
application will skip
into this region also.

Approximate equivalent circuits for

the Zener diode in the three
possible regions of application.
 ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
 The use of the Zener diode as a regulator is so common that
three conditions surrounding the analysis of the basic Zener
regulator are considered.
 The analysis provides an excellent opportunity to become
better acquainted with the response of the Zener diode to
different operating conditions.
 The basic configuration appears in figure.
 The analysis is first for fixed quantities, followed by a fixed
supply voltage and a variable load, and finally a fixed load
and a variable supply.

Basic Zener regulator

 ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Vi and R fixed
 The simplest of Zener diode regulator networks appears in figure.
The applied dc voltage is fixed, as is the load resistor.
 The analysis can fundamentally be broken down into two steps.

 1. Determine the state of the Zener diode by removing it

from the network and calculating the voltage across the resulting
open circuit.
 Application of the voltage divider rule results in

 If V ≥ VZ, the Zener diode is on, and the appropriate equivalent

model can be substituted. If V < VZ, the diode is off, and the
open-circuit equivalence is substituted.

Determining
the state of the
Zener diode
 ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
 2. Substitute the appropriate equivalent circuit and solve for
the desired unknowns.
 For the given network, the “on” state will result in the equivalent
network shown below.
 Since voltages across parallel elements must be the same,

 The Zener diode current must be determined by an application

of Kirchhoff’s current law. That is,
Substituting the Zener
equivalent for the “on”
situation

The power dissipated by the Zener

diode is determined by

that must be less than the PZM

specified for the device.
 ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
 Ques 9: a. For the Zener diode network of the figure,
determine VL, VR, IZ, and PZ.
 b. Repeat part (a) with RL = 3 k-ohms.
 ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
 Answer 9: a. Following the suggested procedure, we redraw the
network as shown below. Applying voltage divider rule gives

 Since V = 8.73 V is less than VZ = 10 V, the diode is in the “off” state,

as shown on the characteristics graph.
 Substituting the open-circuit equivalent results in the same network
as in figure, we find that

Resulting operating Determining V for the regulator

point for the network
 ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
 Answer 9: b. Applying voltage divider rule gives

 Since V = 12 V is greater than VZ = 10 V, the diode is in the “on”

state and the network of figure results.
 Applying the defined equations yields

Network of figure
The power dissipated is in the “on” state

which is less than the specified PZM = 30 mW.

 ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Variable Vi, Fixed RL
 For fixed values of RL in figure, the voltage Vi must be
sufficiently large to turn the Zener diode on.
 The minimum turn-on voltage Vi = Vi,min is determined by

 The maximum value of Vi is limited by the maximum Zener

current IZM. Since IZM = IR – IL,

 Since IL is fixed at VZ/RL and IZM is the maximum value of IZ,

the maximum Vi is defined by
 ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
 Ques 10: Determine the range of values of Vi that will
maintain the Zener diode in the figure in the “on” state.
 ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
 Answer 10: Following the earlier procedures and the
derived equation, we can obtain the following:

VL versus Vi for
the regulator
 ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Fixed Vi, Variable RL
 Due to the offset voltage VZ, there is a specific range of
resistor values (and therefore load current) that will
ensure that the Zener is in the “on” state.
 Too small a load resistance RL will result in a voltage VL
across the load resistor less than VZ, and the Zener
device will be in the “off” state.
 To determine the minimum load resistance that will turn
the Zener diode on, simply calculate the value of RL
that will result in a load voltage VL = VZ. That is,

 Solving for RL, we have

 ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Fixed Vi, Variable RL
 Any load resistance value greater than the RL
obtained, will ensure that the Zener diode is in the “on”
state and the diode can be replaced by its VZ source
equivalent.
 The condition establishes the minimum RL, but in turn
specifies the maximum IL as

 Once the diode is in the “on” state, the voltage

across R remains fixed at

 and IR remains fixed at

 ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Fixed Vi, Variable RL
 The Zener current

 Resulting in a minimum IZ when IL is a maximum and a

maximum IZ when IL is a minimum value, since IR is
constant.
 Since IZ is limited to IZM as provided on the data sheet,
it does affect the range of RL and therefore IL.
 Substituting IZM for IZ establishes the minimum IL as

 and the maximum load resistance as

 ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
 Ques 11: a. For the network shown, determine the
range of RL and IL that will result in VRL being
maintained at 10 V.
 b. Determine the maximum wattage rating of the diode.
 ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
 Answer 11: a. To determine the value of RL that will turn the
Zener diode on, apply equation of minimum resistance

 The voltage across the resistor R is then determined by

 and the magnitude of IR:

 The minimum level of IL is then determined by

 finding the maximum value of RL:

 ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
 A plot of VL versus RL appears in figure a and for VL
versus IL in figure b.
 SPECIAL DIODES: VARACTOR
 Varactor (also called varicap, VVC [voltage-variable capacitance],
or tuning diodes) are semiconductor, voltage-dependent
variable capacitors.
 Their mode of operation depends on the capacitance that exists at
the p–n junction when the element is reverse-biased.
 Under reverse-bias conditions, there is a region of uncovered
charge on either side of the junction that together make up the
depletion region and define the depletion width Wd.
 The transition capacitance CT established by the isolated
uncovered charges is determined by

Varicap diode:
(a) equivalent
circuit in the
reverse-bias
region;
(b) symbols
 SPECIAL DIODES: VARACTOR
 As the reverse-bias potential increases, the width of the
depletion region increases, which in turn reduces the transition
capacitance.
 The characteristics of a typical commercially available varicap diode
appear in the figure below.
 Note the initial sharp decline in CT with increase in reverse bias.
The normal range of VR for VVC diodes is limited to about 20 V.
 In terms of the applied reverse bias, the transition capacitance is
given approximately by

Varicap characteristics:
C (pF) versus VR
 SPECIAL DIODES: TUNNEL DIODE
 The tunnel diode was first introduced by Leo Esaki in 1958.
 Its characteristics, shown in figure, are different from any diode
discussed thus far in that it has a negative-resistance region.
 In this region, an increase in terminal voltage results in a reduction
in diode current.

Tunnel diode: equivalent circuit

Tunnel diode
characteristics Tunnel diode: symbols
 SPECIAL DIODES: TUNNEL DIODE
 The tunnel diode is fabricated by doping the semiconductor
materials that will form the p–n junction at a level 100 to several
thousand times that of a typical semiconductor diode.
 This results in a greatly reduced depletion region, of the
order of magnitude of 10^−6 cm, or typically about 1/100 the
width of this region for a typical semiconductor diode.
 It is this thin depletion region, through which many carriers
can “tunnel” rather than attempt to surmount, at low forward-
bias potentials that accounts for the peak in the curve.
 For comparison purposes, a typical semiconductor diode
characteristic is superimposed on the tunnel-diode characteristic.
 This reduced depletion region results in carriers “punching
through” at velocities that far exceed those available with
conventional diodes.
 The tunnel diode can therefore be used in high-speed
applications such as in computers, where switching times in
the order of nanoseconds or picoseconds are desirable.
 SPECIAL DIODES: LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)
 As the name implies, the light-emitting diode is a diode that gives off
visible or invisible (infrared) light when energized.
 In any forward-biased p–n junction, within the structure and
primarily close to the junction, there is a recombination of holes
and electrons.
 This recombination requires that the energy possessed by the
unbound free electrons be transferred to another state.
 In all semiconductor p–n junctions some of this energy is given off in
the form of heat and some in the form of photons (light).
 In Si and Ge diodes the greater % of the energy converted during
recombination at the junction is dissipated in the form of heat within
the structure, and the emitted light is insignificant.
 For this reason, silicon and germanium are not used in the
construction of LED devices.
 On the other hand, diodes constructed of GaAs emit light in the
infrared (invisible) zone during the recombination process at the p–n
junction. They have sufficient number of photons to create visible light.
 Eg. Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP), Gallium Phosphide (GaP).
 SPECIAL DIODES: LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)
 The basic construction of an LED appears in figure with the
standard symbol used for the device.
 The external metallic conducting surface connected to the
p-type material is smaller to permit the emergence of the
maximum number of photons of light energy when the device is
forward-biased.

Note that the

recombination of the
injected carriers due to
the forward-biased
junction results in
emitted light at the site
of the recombination.

(a) Process of
electroluminescence
in the LED;
(b) graphic symbol
 SPECIAL DIODES: PHOTODIODE
 The photodiode is a semiconductor p–n
junction device whose region of operation is
limited to the reverse-bias region.
 The basic biasing arrangement, construction,
and symbol for the device appear figure.
 The reverse saturation current is
normally limited to a few microamperes.
 It is due solely to the thermally generated
minority carriers in the n- and p-type
materials.
 The application of light to the junction will
result in a transfer of energy from the
incident traveling light waves (in the
form of photons) to the atomic structure,
resulting in an increased number of minority
carriers and an increased level of reverse
current. Photodiode: (a) basic biasing arrangement
and construction; (b) symbol
 SPECIAL DIODES: PHOTODIODE
 This is clearly shown in figure for different intensity levels.
 The dark current is that current that exist with no illumination.

 Note that the current will only return to zero with a positive
applied bias equal to VT.
• An increase in light intensity will result in a similar
increase in reverse current.
The energy associated with each
photon is directly related to the
frequency of the traveling wave:

where h is called Planck’s constant =

6.624*10^-34 joule-seconds

Photodiode characteristics
 SPECIAL DIODES: SOLAR CELL
 In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the solar cell
as an alternative source of energy.
 When we consider that the power density received from the sun at
sea level is about 100 mW/cm^2 (1 kW/m^2 ), it is certainly an
energy source that requires further research and development to
maximize the conversion efficiency from solar to electrical energy.
 The basic construction of a silicon p–n junction solar cell appears
in figure. As shown in the top view, every effort is made to ensure
that the surface area perpendicular to the sun is a maximum.

Solar cell: (a) cross

section; (b) top view
 SPECIAL DIODES: SOLAR CELL
 Also note that the metallic conductor connected to the p-type
material and the thickness of the p-type material are such that
they ensure that a maximum number of photons of light energy will
reach the junction.
 The current for a single-cell silicon solar cell will increase in
an almost linear fashion with the intensity of the incident light as
shown in figure.
 Double the incident light will double the resulting current and so on.
The plot is for the maximum
Effect of light
current generated for a
intensity on the
particular level of incident
short-circuit current
light.
Since maximum conditions
result when the output is
short-circuited, the label for
the resulting current is ISC.
Under short-circuit conditions
the output voltage is 0 V as
shown in the same figure.
 FILTERS
 Block diagram containing the parts of a typical power supply
and the voltage at various points in the unit is shown figure.
 The ac voltage, typically 120 V rms, is connected to a
transformer, which steps that ac voltage down to the level
for the desired dc output (5 V to 12 V).
 A diode rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified voltage,
which is initially filtered by a basic capacitor filter to
produce a dc voltage.
 This resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage
variation.

Block diagram showing parts of a power supply

 FILTERS
 A regulator circuit can use this dc input to provide a dc voltage that
not only has much less ripple voltage, but also remains at the
same dc value even if the input dc voltage varies somewhat or the
load connected to the output dc voltage changes.
 This voltage regulation is usually obtained using one of a number
of popular voltage regulator IC units.
General filter consideration
 A rectifier circuit is necessary to convert a signal having zero average
value (ac supply) into one that has a nonzero average (dc supply).
 The output resulting from a rectifier is a pulsating dc voltage and
not yet suitable as a battery replacement.
 Such a voltage could be used in, say, a battery charger, where
the average dc voltage is large enough to provide a charging current
for the battery.
 For dc supply voltages, such as those used in a radio, stereo
system, computer, and so on, the pulsating dc voltage from a
rectifier is not good enough.
 A filter circuit is necessary to provide a steadier dc voltage.
 FILTERS: VOLTAGE REGULATION AND RIPPLE VOLTAGE
 Figure shows a typical filter output voltage, which will be used to
define some of the signal factors.
 The filtered output has a dc value and some ac variation (ripple).
 Although a battery has essentially a constant or dc output voltage,
the dc voltage derived from an ac source signal by rectifying
and filtering will have some ac variation (ripple).
 The smaller the ac variation with respect to the dc level, the better
is the filter circuit’s operation.
Consider measuring
the output voltage of a
filter circuit using a dc
voltmeter and an ac
(rms) voltmeter.
Filter voltage waveform
showing dc and ripple voltages

Ripple is defined as
 FILTERS
 Ques 12: Using a dc and ac voltmeter to measure the output signal
from a filter circuit, we obtain readings of 25 V dc and 1.5 V rms.
Calculate the ripple of the filter output voltage.
 Answer:

Voltage regulation
 Another factor of importance in a power supply is the amount the
dc output voltage changes over a range of circuit operation.
 The voltage provided at the output under no-load condition (no
current drawn from the supply) is reduced when load current is
drawn from the supply (under load).
 The amount the dc voltage changes between the no-load and load
conditions is described by a factor called voltage regulation.
 FILTERS
 Ques 13: A dc voltage supply provides 60 V when the
output is unloaded. When connected to a load, the output
drops to 56 V. Calculate the value of voltage regulation..
 Answer:

 If the value of full-load voltage is the same as the no-load

voltage, the voltage regulation calculated is 0%,
which is the best expected.
 This means that the supply is a perfect voltage source for
which the output voltage is independent of the
current drawn from the supply.
 The smaller the voltage regulation, the better is the
operation of the voltage supply circuit.
 FILTERS: RIPPLE FACTOR OF RECTIFIED SIGNAL
 Although the rectified voltage is not a filtered voltage, it
nevertheless contains a dc component and a ripple component.
 We will see that the full wave rectified signal has a larger
dc component and less ripple than the half-wave rectified
voltage.
Half-wave:
 For a half-wave rectified signal, the output dc voltage is

 The rms value of the ac component of the output signal can be

calculated to be

 The percentage ripple of a half-wave rectified signal can

then be calculated as
 FILTERS: RIPPLE FACTOR OF RECTIFIED SIGNAL
Full-wave:
 For a full-wave rectified voltage the dc value is

 The rms value of the ac component of the output signal can be

calculated to be

 The percentage ripple of a full-wave rectified signal can

then be calculated as

 In summary, a full-wave rectified signal has less ripple

than a half-wave rectified signal and is thus better to apply to
a filter.
 TYPES OF FILTERS: CAPACITIVE FILTER
 A very popular filter circuit is the capacitor-filter circuit shown in
figure.

 A capacitor is connected at the rectifier output, and a dc

voltage is obtained across the capacitor.
 Figure a shows the output voltage of a full-wave rectifier before the
signal is filtered, whereas figure b shows the resulting waveform
after the filter capacitor is connected at the rectifier output.
Capacitor filter: (a) capacitor filter
circuit; (b) output voltage waveform.
 TYPES OF FILTERS: CAPACITIVE FILTER
 Time T1 is the time during which diodes of the full-wave
rectifier conduct, charging the capacitor up to the peak rectifier
voltage Vm.
 Time T2 is the time interval during which the rectifier
voltage drops below the peak voltage, and the capacitor
discharges through the load.
 Since the charge– discharge cycle occurs for each half-cycle
for a full-wave rectifier, the period of the rectified waveform is T/2.

• The filtered voltage, as shown

in figure, shows the output
waveform to have a dc level
Vdc and a ripple voltage Vr
(rms) as the capacitor charges
and discharges.

Output voltage
waveform.
 TYPES OF FILTERS: RESISTIVE-CAPACITIVE (RC) FILTER
 It is possible to further reduce the amount of ripple across a filter
capacitor by using an additional RC filter section as shown in figure.
 The purpose of the added RC section is to pass most of the dc
component while attenuating (reducing) as much of the ac
component as possible.

 Similarly, replacing the resistor with inductor will result into

LC filter.
 Combination of C and RC gives rise to (CRC) or π filters because of
its shape. On a similar note we can obtain CLC type π filters by
using inductor in place of resistor.
 TYPES OF FILTERS: RESISTIVE-CAPACITIVE (RC) FILTER
 Figure shows a full-wave rectifier with capacitor filter
followed by an RC filter section.
 The operation of the filter circuit can be analyzed using
superposition for the dc and ac components of the signal.

Full-wave rectifier
and RC filter circuit
TYPES OF FILTERS: INDUCTIVE-CAPACITIVE (LC), LCL, Π FILTER
 LC filter circuit:

 LCL (T) filter circuit:

 π (CLC) filter circuit: