General Biology 1

Student Laboratory Manual

Summer 2019
Bio111L General Biology I

Table of Experiments

Week 1 Experiment Title Pages

Day 1  The Scientific Method Pages 2 to 5
 Metrics Pages 6 to 9
Day 2  Solubility in Water Pages 10 to 12
 Acids, Bases, and pH Pages 13 to 15

Week 2 Experiment Title Pages

Day 1  The Microscope Pages 16 to 21
 Eukaryotic Cell Structure Pages 22 to 24
 Organic Substances in Cells Pages 25 to 28

Day 2  Enzymes in Living Tissues Pages 29 to 32

Week 3 Experiment Title Pages

Day 1  Diffusion across the Membrane and Osmosis Pages 33 to 37
 Anaerobic Respiration in Fungi Pages 38 to 42
Day 2  Chlorophyll Pages 43 to 44
 The Cell Cycle and Mitosis Pages 45 to 48

Week 4 Experiment Title Pages

Day 1  DNA: The Foundation of Life Pages 49 to 55
 DNA Extraction Pages 56 to 57
 Gel Electrophoresis/DNA Fingerprinting Pages 58 to 60

Day 2  Patterns of Inheritance Pages 61 to 68

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Bio111L General Biology I

Week 1, Day 1
Name:

Experiment 1: The Scientific Method

Background
The scientific method refers to a set of techniques for investigating natural phenomena. It
involves observing natural phenomenon and asking a question. Next comes making a
hypothesis (tentative answer), and predictions based on the hypothesis. Then comes carrying
out experiments to test those predictions to determine whether or not the original hypothesis is
correct. If conducted properly, knowledge acquired from these investigations provides our
most reliable understanding of nature.

Observations and questions asked at the start of any scientific investigation are based on
curiosity of personal observations or derived from unexplained data from previous studies.
While common questions refer to explanations of specific observations such as “Why can birds
fly but we cannot?”, the scientific method can also include questions as open-ended as “Can
we find a cure for all types of cancer?” or even those that aim to reconstruct past events like
“What happened in this ancient site a million years ago?”.

Let’s follow an example study to help illustrate the scientific method. An investigator observed
that patients with a particular cancer tended to also have a high intake of artificial sweetener.
She then questioned “Is there a link between artificial sweeteners and cancer?”

Hypotheses are then formulated based on previous knowledge or experiences about the natural
phenomenon. The hypothesis aims to explain the observations and questions in a testable way.
To be scientifically useful, however, it has to be falsifiable. This means that one can envision
an experimental result that conflicts with predictions derived from the hypothesis; otherwise, it
cannot be meaningfully tested.

In our example study, the investigator hypothesized that artificial sweeteners increased the risk
for cancer.

Predictions are logical consequences of the hypothesis. They state what the outcome should
be if the hypothesis is true. One or more of them could be derived from the same hypothesis.
The more specific and measurable they are, the more easily they can be tested.

In our example study, the prediction is that more rats that were fed sweeteners would develop
cancer compared to the rats not fed sweeteners.

Usually the hypothesis is written as the “if” statement and is followed by the prediction which
is the “then” statement. For example, if artificial sweeteners increased the risk for cancer,
then more rats that were fed sweeteners would develop cancer compared to the rats not fed
sweeteners.

Experiments, or hypothesis-testing, are the next step that investigates whether the real world
behaves as predicted by the hypothesis. If observations of the real world agree with the
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predictions, confidence in the hypothesis increases; otherwise, it decreases. Note that

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agreement does not assure that the hypothesis is true because future experiments may reveal
different results. Knowledge in science is never absolute. They are as good as the most
recent evidence. The most reliable way to test hypotheses is by conducting experiments that
minimize potential errors, preferably through the use of appropriate control groups. A
control group is a group that is not exposed to the variable being tested. It serves as a
comparison to the experimental group which is exposed to the variable being tested. Any
difference in outcome between the two groups is due to the variable being tested. In this
experiment, the independent variable is the one being tested. The outcome, or what is
being measured, is the dependent variable.

In our example study, 100 rats were tested. All conditions were the same except that the
investigator fed 50 rats with the sweeteners (experimental group) and 50 rats without sweetener
(control group). The independent variable is the amount of sweetener. The dependent variable
is the number of rats that got cancer. In this case, 15 rats in the experimental group got cancer.
Two rats in the control group got cancer.

Do our results support our hypothesis and prediction? If artificial sweeteners increased the risk
for cancer, then more rats that were fed sweeteners would develop cancer compared to the rats
not fed sweeteners. Yes, our results match the prediction therefore we support the hypothesis.

Results include the data that are the facts or values collected from the experiment. In the rat
cancer study, the results are the numbers of rats with and without cancer for each group.

Discussion and Conclusions are interpretations made based on the results. When discussing
the data, scientists compare the actual results to the original prediction that is based on the
hypothesis. If the results and prediction match, then the hypothesis is supported. Otherwise, the
hypothesis is rejected, and needs to be revised. The conclusion can address the applications and
greater importance of the study.

In the above study, the discussion addresses that the hypothesis that artificial sweeteners
increased the risk of cancer was supported. In conclusion, these findings are important because
it suggests that one might choose to not intake as much artificial sweeteners.

Purpose
 Review the steps of the scientific method
 Analyze a case study that used the scientific method

Materials
Case study: The Strange Case of BeriBeri

Procedure
1. Read the case study.
2. Answer the questions.

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Bio111L General Biology I

The Strange Case of BeriBeri

In the late 1800s, several diseases were known to be caused by bacteria. In 1887, a
strange nerve disease called beriberi attacked people in the Dutch East Indies. Symptoms
included weakness and loss of appetite. Victims often died of heart failure. Scientists
hypothesized that beriberi might also be caused by bacteria infecting the blood. To test this
hypothesis, they injected one group of chickens with bacteria from the blood of patients with
beriberi. These injected chickens became sick with beriberi. However, another group of
chickens that were not injected with the bacteria also became sick with beriberi.
Dr. Eijkman noticed that the chickens had eaten whole-grain rice before the experiment
began, but they were fed polished-grain rice during the experiment. He discovered that
polished rice lacked a vitamin called thiamine.

Discussion/Conclusion

1. What was the observation and question asked that led to this investigation?

2. What was the hypothesis and prediction?

3. Briefly describe the experiment that the scientists performed to test the hypothesis
and prediction.

a. What were the independent and dependent variables?

b. Describe the experimental group.

c. Describe the control group.

d. What were the results?

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4. Explain why the hypothesis cannot be supported by the experimental results.

5. Write an alternative hypothesis that may explain these experimental results.

6. Describe an experiment to test this new hypothesis.

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Bio111L General Biology I

Week 1, Day 1
Name:

Experiment 2: Metrics
Background
In the United States our measurements are usually based on the imperial system from
Great Britain. This British system of measurements which includes units such as feet, pounds
and gallons has deep historical roots. For example, the foot is thought to be the length of the
th
foot of King Henry I of England in the 12 century whereas the pound is based on the Roman
word libra (lb) which is the equivalent to the weight of 7,000 grains. Scientists, however,
decided to adopt a different measurement system because of its tremendous advantages. The
metric system (see table 1), the most commonly used system worldwide, not only covers a
large scale, its measurements are also in consistent units of 10 (see table 2) which makes
calculations simpler.

Table 1. Basic Units of Measurement in the Metric System

Measurement Basic Unit Abbreviation
Length Meter M
Mass Gram G
Volume Liter L

Table 2. Unit Conversions in the Metric System

Prefix Nano Micro Mili Centi Deci Basic Kilo
Unit
Abbreviation n µ m c d m, g, l k
Fraction 1/1,000,000,000 1/1,000,000 1/1000 1/100 1/10 1 1000
of basic
Decimal 0.000000001 0.000001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 1000
of basic

Since many people in the United States are used to the imperial system, we must become
familiar with the metric system. Often we need to convert between the two systems. Below are
some helpful conversions.

Conversions Between Imperial and Metric Systems

1 kg = 2.2 pounds
1 km = 0.62 miles
1 m = 39.37 inches
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 l = 1.06 quarts

The following activity will help you review the scientific method as well as work with the metric
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system.

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Title:

Background
Observation and question: People have observed that a person with a longer upper or lower
limb tends to be taller. We then asked the question: “Is there a constant ratio of upper limb length
to height?” The upper limb spans from the armpit to the end of the fingertip.

Hypothesis and prediction: If the ratio of upper limb length to the height of the person is
constant, then all subjects will have the same ratio for upper limb length to height.

Purpose
 Use the metric system
 Review steps of the scientific method

Materials
1 meter stick 3-4 human subjects 1 calculator

Procedure
1. Pick one subject.
2. Subject puts right arm straight out (parallel to the ground).
3. Measure upper limb length (from arm pit to the end of the finger tip) in cm.
4. Record measurement in Table 1 below.
5. If subject does not know height, then measure height in inches and cm.
6. Practice converting height in inches to cm. Show work below.
7. Record height in cm in Table 1 below.
8. Calculate ratio of upper limb to height and record in Table 1 below.

Results

Table 1. Comparison of Limb Length to Height in Subjects

Subject Measured Height* Ratio of upper limb
Upper (cm) to Height = Upper
Limb Limb Length (cm) /
Length (cm) Height (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
* 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters
Show work converting height from inches to cm for one subject:

Subject 1, 2, 3 and 4 had a ratio of upper limb length to height of , , and

respectively.

Average of all class subjects’ ratio of upper limb length to height was .

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Discussion/Conclusion (~1 sentence each):

1. Do your results support or reject the original hypothesis? Explain your answer.

2. Based on an analysis of your data and the class data, what conclusions can you make?

3. Describe one future experiment you would like to do to extend or make these findings more
reliable.

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Metric System Practice Problems (Optional)

Note: For metric system, know how to convert within the metric system (ie. meters to mm, mg
to grams). Also, know how to convert between the metric and imperial system.

1. A pen is approximately 12 (µm mm cm m). Circle one.

2. A chair is approximately 2 (nm cm m km) high. Circle one.

3. Convert the value on the left into the unit indicated on the right of the equation
below. Show work.

a. 2,346 m = km

b. 5 ft, 9 in = cm (1 inch = 2.54 cm)

c. 6 km = miles (1 km = 0.62 miles)

d. 208 mL = L

e. 2.67 kg = g

f. 80 nm = m

4. Joe weighs 152 pounds. What is his weight in kg? Show work. (1 kg = 2.2 pounds)

5. Mary’s height is 175 cm. Mark’s height is 5 ft 6 in. Who is taller?

Explain and show work. (1 inch = 2.54 cm)
(Hint: convert Mary’s height into inches, OR convert Mark’s height into cm)

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Week 1, Day
2 Name:

Experiment 3: Solubility in Water

Background
Organisms are made up of mostly water. The human body, for example, may be up to
70% water. This is because water is used for numerous functions such as digestion, absorption,
transport, insulation, temperature buffer and medium for metabolic reactions. However, it will
not be able to perform these tasks unless molecules dissolve in it. Hence, most of the
molecules that are inside the body of organisms are water soluble (can dissolve in water).
These water soluble molecules mix well with water because they are alike; they have a
charge and are said to be polar. The charges on polar molecules like water and the molecules of
the soluble substances attract each other, making these soluble substances hydrophilic (water-
loving). In contrast, the lipids of the cell membrane are nonpolar or hydrophobic (water-
hating) and serve as a barrier to the passage of polar molecules across the membrane.
Lipid substances such as vegetable oil and steroids are nonpolar. They are soluble in other
lipids but not in water. Such nonpolar molecules are, therefore, able to diffuse into the cells
by passing through the lipid layers of the membrane.
Detergents have a special property. They can literally act as a bridge between the polar
and nonpolar worlds. One end of the detergent molecule is polar and dissolves in water; the
other end is nonpolar and can dissolve in fats and oils. Molecules such as detergent that have
both polar and nonpolar regions are called amphipathic.

Hypotheses and predictions

 If a substance is polar, then it will dissolve in polar substances such as water.
 If a substance is nonpolar, then it will not dissolve in water, but instead will dissolve
in nonpolar substances such as oil.

Purpose:
 To demonstrate solubility of different substances in water.
 To determine the effect of adding detergent to a mixture of water and a
nonpolar substance.

Materials
Water
Vegetable oil
Potassium permanganate (KMnO4)
Detergent
Capped Test tube
Scoops for detergent & potassium permanganate (KMnO4)

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Procedure

1. Pour 5 ml of water into a test tube.

2. Add 5 mL of vegetable oil into a test tube. Cap the test tube. Shake the tube gently. Let
rest for one minute. Record your observations in the table.
3. Using forceps, add 2 crystals of KMnO4 into the same tube. Be careful not to add too
many. Cap and shake the tube gently. Record your observations in the table.
4. Add a pinch of detergent to the same tube. Shake the tube gently and immediately
record your observations in the table.
5. Wash out the test tube & return to proper place.

Results

Table 1. Results of combining various substances with water

Solvent Substance Observations Is the Is the
Added (number of substance substance
layers, color of added soluble added
layer/s) in water? soluble in
Yes or No oil?
Water Oil
Yes

Water + Oil KMnO4

Water + Oil Detergent

+ KMnO4

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Discussion/Conclusion

1. a. Did oil dissolve in water? (Y/N)

b. Explain the observation/s that support/s your answer in part A.

c.Is oil polar, nonpolar or both?

2. a. Did the KMnO4 dissolve in the water? In the oil?

b. Explain the observation/s that support/s your answers in part A.

c. Is KMnO4 polar, nonpolar or both?

3. Detergents are said to be amphipathic. What does this term mean?

4. a. Did the detergent dissolve in the water? In the oil?

b. Explain the observation/s that support/s your answer in part A.

c. Is detergent polar, nonpolar or both?

5. Using your knowledge of detergent’s molecular form, explain how detergent “cleans” our
greasy, dirty dishes?

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Week 1, Day
2 Name:
Experiment 4: Acids, Bases and pH
Background
You encounter acids and bases in everyday life. For example, orange juice is acidic
while bleach is basic. It is important to understand acids and bases in biology because both
greatly affect chemical reactions in living organisms.
+
Acids are chemical compounds that increase the amount of hydrogen ions (H ) in a
+ +
solution by releasing H . Bases, on the other hand, decrease the amount of H in solution by
+ + -
accepting H . Pure water (H2O), some of the molecules naturally separate into H and OH .
+ -
Thus, there is a small amount of free H in its solution that equals the amount of OH . This
+
condition is considered neither acidic or basic, but neutral. If there is a surplus of H compared
+
to pure water, the solution is acidic. If the amount of H is less than that of pure water, the
solution is basic.
The degree of acid or base in a solution is measured by the pH scale. The pH scale runs
+
from zero to fourteen. The value of pH depends on the amount of H in the solution. pH values
below 7 represent an acidic solution. The lower the pH value, the more acidic a solution is
+
and the greater the amount of H . A pH of 7 is neutral (e.g. pure water). pH values above 7
indicate basic solutions. The higher the pH value, the more basic solution a solution is and the
+
lower the amount of H . Because each pH value is actually an exponent of 10, for each whole
number increment in pH, you change by a factor of 10. For example, a solution that has a pH
+
of 5 is 10 times more acidic because it has 10x more H than a solution of pH of 6. A solution
+
with pH of 11 is 10 times more basic because it has 10x less H than a solution of pH of 10.
The pH value of a solution can be measured by pH meters or by certain dyes. Each of
these dyes undergoes a color change at a different point in the pH scale. A careful selection of
dyes permits determination of a broad range of pH. These are used to make pH paper. When
dipped in a solution, the pH paper will change color depending on the pH of the solution. By
comparing the color to a reference color chart, you can indicate the approximate pH of the
solution.

Figure 1. The pH scale of acidity and basicity.

Buffers are important chemicals that keep a stable pH in organisms to maintain

+
homeostasis. A buffer keeps a stable pH by releasing or accepting H . For example, when acidic
substances are added to blood or saliva, the buffer present in blood or saliva will bind to
+
excess H to help neutralize the acidity. On the other hand, when basic substances are mixed
+
with them, the buffer will release more H to help neutralize the basicity.
The tests you perform in this exercise will introduce you to the pH scale and demonstrate
some pH values encountered in biology.
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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Purpose
 Perform pH tests
 Understand the pH scale
 Discuss pH values encountered in biology

Materials
pH paper with reference color chart
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) (diluted and concentrated)
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) (diluted and concentrated)
Distilled water
Samples: Lemon, Disinfectant, Vinegar, Apple Juice, Milk, Tap Water

Procedure
1. Take one strip of pH paper and dip it into the liquid sample.
2. Compare the color with the reference color chart.
3. Record the pH of the sample in the table below.
4. Indicate whether the pH is acid, basic or neutral.
5. Repeat for each sample.

Table 1. pH Values of Different Samples

Substance pH Acidic, Basic or Neutral
HCl diluted
HCl concentrated
NaOH diluted
NaOH concentrated
Water
Lemon
Bleach
Vinegar
Apple Juice
Milk
Baking soda

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Discussion/Conclusion

1. Is the pH of a hydrochloric acid (HCl) solution greater than or less than the pH of water?

2. Compare the pH of the two acid solutions (diluted and concentrated).

a. HCl (diluted) pH =
HCl (concentrated) pH=
+
b. Which HCl solution has more H ? diluted or concentrated (circle one)
c. Which HCl solution is more acidic? diluted or concentrated (circle one)
d. As the solution becomes more acidic, does pH value increase or decrease? Why?

3. Compare the pH of two basic solutions (diluted and concentrated).

a. NaOH (diluted) pH =
b. NaOH (concentrated) pH =
+
c. Which solution has less H ? diluted or concentrated (circle one)
d. Which solution is more basic? diluted or concentrated (circle one)
e. As the solution becomes more basic, does the pH value increase or decrease? Why?

4. pH levels vary in different parts of your body.

a. Your stomach has a pH of 2. Is your stomach acidic, basic or neutral?
b. Human blood has a pH of 7.45. Is blood acidic, basic or neutral?
c. Your stomach (normal pH 2) drops to a pH of 1.8 because you drank too many cups
of coffee. You take an anti-acid pill such as Alka Seltzer. Why does it relieve your
upset stomach? Is Alka Seltzer acidic or basic?

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Week 2, Day
1 Name:

Experiment 5: The Microscope

Background
Biological objects are often so small that they cannot be viewed with the naked eye. We
must use microscopes to study them. In this lab we will use the compound light microscope. A
light microscope uses light illuminated from below that passes through the object in order to
view it. Often, the objects are dyed so you can visualize them better. The compound
microscope is “compound” because it uses two magnifiers, or lens. The objective lenses
magnify the image first, and then the ocular lens (or eyepiece) magnifies it again. Microscopes
do not work like simply turning on a television. You have to know a few things about how
they operate to make them work well for you. It is completely possible to look through a
microscope and not see the object you are viewing at all.
Now that we know the background of the microscope, let’s identify parts and look at
some specimen, the object that you are viewing.

Purpose
 Identify parts of the microscope and their functions.
 Use the microscope to view specimen.

Materials
Microscopes Lens paper and solution Slides: e, cross fibers

Procedure
1. Identify parts of the microscope. Please locate and review the following terms. Label
these terms on figure 1 on the next page.

Base, Arm: support microscope; use to carry

Light source: a bulb that directs a beam of light up through object
Light control: adjusts amount of light emitted from bulb
Diaphragm lever: adjusts amount of light passing through for best contrast
Coarse adjustment knob: bring specimen into approximate focus
Fine adjustment knob: bring specimen into final focus
Stage with clip: holds and secures slide
Stage adjustment knobs: move slide right/left and towards/away
Ocular lens (or eyepiece): magnifies specimen (usually 10x)
Nosepiece: rotates objective lens
Objective lens: magnifies specimen
1. Scanning Power: magnifies 4X; used to scan the whole slide
2. Low Power Objective (LPO): magnifies 10X; used to see more detail
3. High Power Objective (HPO): magnifies 40X or 43X; used to see even
greater detail

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Please label the parts on the figure below that were listed previously.

Figure1. Compound Light Microscope

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2. Understand terminology. In order to talk about the microscope in a scientific manner,

we need to understand some common terminology.

Total Magnification is the final magnification after the image passes through all of the
lenses. It is calculated by multiplying the magnification of the objective times the
magnification of the eyepiece. Please fill in table below:

Table 1. Objective Lens and Magnification

Objective Magnification Magnification Total
Lens of Objective of Ocular Lens Magnification
Lens
Scanning
Low
High

Field of view is what you see when you look into the eyepiece. When drawing what you
see in the field of view, be sure to draw the size of the image relative to the field of view
and the details of the specimen. As the magnification increases, the area seen in the field of
view decreases. Less of the specimen is seen because it is more zoomed in on.

Resolution is the shortest distance at which two points can be distinguished. The higher the
resolution, the better the discrimination between two points which produces a finer image.
As the magnification increase , thes resolution also increases.

Depth of field is the range of depth that can be in focus on the specimen. When the depth
of field is smaller, less depth is in focus on the specimen. As the magnification increases,
the specimen is more zoomed in so the depth of field decreases.

3. Carrying the microscope

A. Always use both hands, one hand at the arm and the other under the base.
B. Carry it vertically, close to the body.
C. Make sure cord is tightly wrapped.
D. Place the microscope at least 4 inches (about 10 cm) from the edge of the table.
Never place it on an uneven surface!

4. Care and storage of microscope

A. Use the microscope assigned to you (usually matching your desk number,
if applicable).
B. Check the microscope for the following conditions at the start and end of use:
1. General cleanliness of the microscope
2. Scanning power objective clicked in place
3. Lens & stage at closest point
4. No slide left on stage
5. Mechanical stage centered
6. Cover on the microscope
7. Cord properly wrapped

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C. Use only lens paper to clean optical parts of the microscope, i.e. lenses.

5. Procedure to view objects

Practice this procedure with the slide with the letter “e”. Then repeat with the cross fibers
slide focusing on the intersection of the 3 fibers.
A. Center specimen: Place slide securely on stage with the clip and center
specimen using your naked eye and stage adjustment knobs.
B. Use coarse adjustment knob: Check to make sure scanning power objective is in
place and the lens and stage are at its closest point. Look into eye piece. Slowly
turn coarse focus knob. Keep turning the knob in the same direction until image
comes into focus.
i. If you turned the knob all the way and missed the image, stop looking into the
ocular lens and turn the coarse focus knob all the way back to starting
position. Repeat previous step, but this time turn the knob more slowly.
ii. To check if you are focused on the right image, move the slide and you
should observe corresponding movement of image.
C. Use fine adjustment knob to obtain sharp focus of image.
D. Adjust light: Use your light control and/or diaphragm lever to receive
greatest amount of light. As you increase magnification, you receive less
light.
E. Center specimen. Look through the eyepiece and use the arrow pointer in your
field of view.
F. Switch to Low Power Objective (LPO): Do NOT move any knobs when
switching the objectives! Gently rotate the revolving nosepiece and click the LPO
in place.
G. Use coarse adjustment knob, then fine adjustment knob to sharpen focus.
H. Adjust light and center specimen.
I. Switch to High Power Objective (HPO): When on the high power
objective, NEVER use the coarse focus knob because the lens can hit the
slide.
J. Then use fine adjustment knob only and adjust light as needed.
K. Store microscope properly: When you are finished, return microscope to
storage conditions (follow points listed above in care for microscope above).
Bio111L General Biology I Lab
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Discussion/Conclusion

1. You put the letter “e” on the stage oriented as if you were reading it regularly. You look
through the eyepiece.
a. Draw how the “e” appears in your field of view at scanning, low and high power
objectives. Be sure to draw the size of the image relative to the field of view and
the details of the specimen.

Scanning power Low power High power

Total magnification: x Total magnification: x Total magnification: x

b. As the magnification increases, what happens to the

i. Field of view? Increase or decrease (circle one)
ii. Resolution? Increase or decrease (circle one)
iii. Amount of light? Increase or decrease (circle one)

c. What happens to the orientation of the “e” in the field of view?

d. If you move the object to the right on the stage, which way does it move in the field
of view?

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

2. You put the cross fibers on the stage. You look through the eyepiece.
a. Draw how the fibers appear in your field of view at scanning, low and high
power objectives. Be sure to label the different colors.

Scanning power Low power High power

Total magnification: x Total magnification: x Total magnification: x

b. How many fibers are in sharp focus simultaneously under the

i. Scanning lens?
ii. Low power?
iii. High power?

c. As the magnification increases, what happens to the

i. Depth of field? Increase or decrease (circle one)

3. Based on the two exercises above, why should you never start viewing your specimen on
the high power objective lens?

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Week 2, Day 1
Name:

Experiment 5 (continued): Eukaryotic Cell Structure

Background
Cells come in all different sizes and shapes. They are classified into two major groups
based on structure. Prokaryotic cells are much smaller and do not contain any membrane-
bound organelle. Eukaryotic cells are larger and contain numerous membrane-bound
organelles.
Prokaryotic cells will be examined in the laboratory exercise that will survey the diversity of
life on earth. This laboratory exercise will focus on the structure of the two most common
types of eukaryotic cells: plant and animal cells.

Purpose
 Prepare wet mounts of plant and animal cells for microscope observation.
 Use the light microscope to compare and contrast the structure of plant vs. animal cells.

Materials
Microscope Cover Microscope
slides Elodea slips Medicine
plant Toothpick dropper
Methylene blue (or iodine) stain
Procedure:
1. Work in groups of 4. Two students prepare one slide for the plant cell.
The other two students prepare one slide for the animal cells.
2. After preparing and focusing your slide, each student should view both
the plant and animal slides.

Procedure for plant cell

You will create your own wet mount of an Elodea leaf by following the procedure below.
1. Put a drop of water on the center of a slide.
2. Cut an extremely small piece of an Elodea leaf and place it on the water.
3. Place a coverslip onto the slide.
4. Use the SCANNING objective to locate the specimen. Focus the image.
5. Switch to low power. Cells should be visible but too small to observe
organelles. Refocus and adjust lighting if necessary.
6. Switch to high power and refocus. (Remember, do NOT use the coarse adjustment
knob at this point.)

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7. Sketch the cell at low and high power. Label observed organelles.

Low Power High Power

Total Magnification: x Total Magnification: x

Procedure for animal cell

Choose one student to look at their cheek cells as an example of animal cells! Follow the
procedure below to create your own cheek cell slide.
1. Put a drop of methylene blue on a slide. Caution: methylene blue will stain clothes and skin.
2. Gently scrape the inside of your cheek with the flat side of a toothpick.
3. Stir the end of the toothpick in the stain and then throw the toothpick away.
4. Place a coverslip onto the slide by lowering it at a 45degree angle to prevent formation of
air bubbles.
5. Use the SCANNING objective to focus. You probably will not see the cells at this power
If you suspect cells, move them to the center of your field of view.
6. Switch to low power. Cells should be visible, but they will be small and look like
clear purplish blobs. Refocus and adjust lighting if necessary.
7. Once you think you have located a cell, move it to the center of your field of view. Then,
switch to high power and refocus. (Remember, do NOT use the coarse adjustment knob
at this point.)
8. Sketch the cell at low and high power. Label the observed organelles.

Low Power High Power

Total Magnification: x Total Magnification: x

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Discussion/Conclusion

1. Why is methylene blue (or iodine) necessary when preparing the cheek cell slide? Why
was it not used for the Elodea slide?

2. Describe the shape of the plant cell. The light microscope used in the lab is not
powerful enough to view all organelles within the cell. List the organelles that were
visible.

3. Describe the shape of the cheek cell. What organelles of the cell were visible?

4. List visible similarities and differences between plant and animal cells.

5. What observations support the claim that plant and animal cells are eukaryotic?

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Week 2, Day 1
Name:

Experiment 6: Organic Substances in Cells

Background
Organic substances are carbon-rich and energy-rich molecules that make up cells.
They are classified into four major types. Carbohydrates consist of repeated units of H-C-OH
and include monosaccharides such as glucose sugar and polysaccharides such as starch.
Proteins are a diverse group of large molecules consisting of chains of amino acids. They
include enzymes such as catalase, carrier molecules such as hemoglobin and hormones such
as insulin. Lipids dissolve in organic solvents but are insoluble in water. They include fats
and steroids.
Nucleic acids such as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) are organic
substances made up of chains of nucleotides.
When we eat, the food that we consume consists of organic substances made by other
organisms. It nourishes our body because these organic substances provide our cells energy
(mainly from carbohydrates and fats) and appropriate “raw materials” (mainly from proteins)
required to make specific biomolecules our body needs.

Hypothesis and prediction: If a food sample contains organic substances, then a test for the
presence of those substances using specific reagents will be positive.

Purpose: test for the presence of two types of carbohydrates (glucose, starch) and protein in
food samples.

Materials
Benedict’s solution Sugar solution Beakers
Iodine solution (diluted) Starch solution Stirring rods
Ninhydrin reagent (1%) Protein solution Wax Pencil
Food samples (diced) Disposable droppers Test tube
racks
Procedure

Testing the reagents (demonstration by the instructor)

A specific reagent is used to test for the presence of a specific organic substance such
as glucose, starch or protein. To determine which reagent can test for the presence of a specific
organic substance, we have to show the reagent reacting in a characteristic way with that
organic substance (e.g., specific color change) and not reacting in the same way with other
substances.
To demonstrate this process, the instructor will test three reagents: iodine, Benedict’s
solution and ninhydrin. From these tests, you will discover what organic substance (ie.
glucose, starch and protein) each reagent tests for.

Record the original color of the reagents below:

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab
Iodine Benedict’s Ninhydrin

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

The instructor will then add the reagents, one at a time, to sugar, starch and protein solutions
to show whether a chemical reaction occurs.
The student will record the final color of the mixture in Table 5.1.
Table 1. Final Color of Reagents with Organic Substances

Reagents Benedict’s Iodine Ninhydrin

Organics Solution
Sugar

Starch

Protein

Interpret the previous table, determine the appropriate reagent for each organic substance and fill
in the table below.

Table 2. Reagent Test for Organic Substances

Organic substance Reagent Expected color change

Sugar

Starch

Protein

Testing for the presence of organic substances in food samples

Now that you know which reagent can test for the presence of glucose, starch and
protein, you can determine which of those organic substances are present in food.

1. Prepare a water bath (beaker half-full with tap water) on a hot plate.
2. Take three samples of one type of food about the size of a small pea.
3. Grind the food into fine pieces then place the ground food into two separate test tubes and
one sample into a petri dish. Mark one of the tubes “B” for Benedict’s and the other tube
“N” for ninhydrin. Label the petri dish “I” for iodine.
4. Add one dropper full Benedict’s reagent to the food sample in tube “B” and one dropper
full ninhydrin to the food sample in tube “N”.
5. Heat tube “B” for 5 min. and tube “N” for 7 min. in the water bath. Record the color in
the table below.
6. Add iodine drops to cover the food sample in the petri dish. Wait 5 min. and record color
in the table below.
7. Choose another food sample and repeat steps 1-6.
8. Pool class results. The instructor will record the results from each group on the board so
each student can record data for all food samples tested in class.
9. Dispose food samples in a designated tub then wash the test tubes and petri dish.
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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Table 3. Observed color for food samples with reagents

Reagents Benedict’s Iodine Ninhydrin

Food Sample
Ground Beef
Hot Dog
Potato
Chips
Bread
Lettuce
Almond
Apple

Table 4. Presence or absence of organic substances in food samples

Organics Glucose Sugar Protein
Food Sample (+ or -) (+ or (+ or -)

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Discussion/Conclusion
1. Name example(s) for each item below and which organic substances are found in them
Table 5. Different Types of Foods and Organic Substances
Type of food sample Food sample Organic substance(s) present
unprocessed animal samples
unprocessed plant samples
processed food samples from animals
processed food samples from plants

2. Compare and contrast organic substances found in plants versus animals.

3. Compare and contrast organic substances found in unprocessed versus processed foods.

4. Which types of food should be avoided by an overnourished (obese) person? Briefly

justify your answer.

5. Which types of food should be eaten by a person who wants to build up his/her
muscles? Briefly justify your answer.

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Week 2, Day 2
Name:

Experiment 7: Enzymes in Living Tissues

Background
Enzymes are present in all living tissues because they are critical for chemical reactions.
Without enzymes, reactions such as breaking down a sugar molecule would occur too slowly to
be useful, perhaps not even in your lifetime. Enzymes are catalysts, which are molecules that
speed up chemical reactions. They typically speed up chemical reactions by a very large
factor, from 10,000 to 1,000,000 times.
Since enzymes are proteins, they consist of chains of amino acids folded together in a
specific 3D shape. If enzymes lose their shape, they lose their ability to bind to their substrates,
and their ability to function as a catalyst. This change in the specific 3D shape is called
denaturation.
This laboratory will demonstrate the presence of catalase, an enzyme located inside
both animal and plant cells, and study its properties. Catalase breaks down toxic hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) into water (H2O) and oxygen (O2). The H2O2 is the substrate for catalase.
Water (H2O) and oxygen (O2) are the products. Oxygen (O2) is a gas that creates bubbles that
are detectable and an indication that the reaction occurred.

Catalas
e
(enzyme
)
H2 O2 H2O + O2
(substrate) (products)

Hypothesis and prediction: If catalase is present in the cells and functioning, then catalase
will break down H2O2 and oxygen gas (O2) will be released.

Purpose
 To determine the presence of the enzyme, catalase, in plant and animal tissues inside
the cell.
 To determine the effect of temperature on enzyme activity.

Materials
Ground potato (raw and boiled) Test tube racks
Ground liver (raw and boiled) Test Tubes
Hydrogen peroxide (3%) Forceps
Glass stir rods Disposable
pipettes Ruler with mm markings

Procedure
Set-up test tubes: Obtain 5 test tubes and label them H2O2 only, RL (for raw liver), CL
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Bio111L General Biology I Lab
(for cooked liver), RP (for raw potato) and CP (for cooked potato).

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Next, you will test these conditions.

1. Test the control condition.
Pour 5 ml (about one dropper full) of H2O2 into a test tube. Observe and record amount of O2
gas bubbles in table below.
2. Test for catalase enzyme in raw liver.
1. Drop a small piece of liver (about the size of a pea) into a clean test tube and mix.
2. Pour 5 ml (about one dropper full) of H2O2 into a test tube.
3. If O2 gas bubbles form, record the maximum height (in mm) that the bubbles reach
within 10 seconds.
4. Observe and record observations (relative size of bubbles) in the table below.

3. Test for catalase enzyme in boiled liver.

Repeat steps 1-4 above with cooked liver.

4. Test for catalase enzyme in raw potato.

Repeat steps 1-4 above with cooked liver.

5. Test for catalase enzyme in boiled potato.

Repeat steps 1-4 above with cooked liver.

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Results

Table 9.1. H2O2 Reactions with Liver and Potato

Condition Observations Maximum height (mm)
of bubbles of bubbles after10 sec.
H2O2

Raw liver
+ H2O2
Boiled
liver
+ H2O2
Raw potato
+ H2O2

Boiled
potato
+ H2O2

In the figure below, draw a bar graph of your results of the maximum height of bubbles after
10 seconds for each condition.
Maximum Height of Bubbles (mm)

H 2O 2 Raw
Boiled Raw Boiled potato
liver
liver potato + H2O2
+ H2O2
+ H2O2 + H2O2

Condition

Figure 9.1. Maximum Bubble Height for Reactions with Liver, Potato and H2O2

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Discussion/Conclusion

1. What is the reaction catalyzed by catalase?

a. What is the substrate:
b. What are the products? and

2. Recall that the 4 main organic substances are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic
acids. Which organic substance are enzymes such as catalase made of?

3. Let’s look at the presence of functional catalase in living tissues.

a. What is the control condition and why do we need it?

b. Was catalase present in animal cells? Explain which result(s) supports your
answer.

c. Was catalase present in plant cells? Explain which result(s) supports your
answer.

d. Was catalase functional in raw tissues? Explain which result(s) supports

your answer.

e. Was catalase functional in boiled tissues? Explain which result(s) supports

your answer.

f. Explain why the results were the same or different in raw and boiled tissues.

4. Do your results support your hypothesis? Explain.

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Week 3, Day 1
Name:

Experiment 8: Diffusion Across a Membrane and Osmosis

Background
Diffusion refers to the movement of molecules from an area of higher to one of lower
concentration. It is the result of natural random movement of molecules and hence does not
require energy. In the body of an organism, diffusion is a common means of transport. For
instance, gases and other solutes diffuse into and out of cells of many organisms. For diffusion
to occur, two conditions need to be met. First, there must be a difference in concentration of a
substance. Second, the membrane must be permeable to the substance. For example, if the
concentration of a substance is higher outside of cells than inside and the cell membrane is
permeable to the diffusing molecules, then the substance diffuses into the cells. (If there is equal
concentration then substances diffuse in and out).
Cells are able to keep molecules from leaking out or prevent unwanted molecules from
coming in by having selectively permeable (or semi-permeable) membranes. Water, gases and
other small uncharged molecules are generally able to easily diffuse across. The cell
membrane, however, is impermeable to many others, particularly large organic molecules.
This process of water diffusing across a semi-permeable membrane is called osmosis.
The net (overall) movement of water across the membrane has a tremendous impact on cells
since water is the medium of transport in and out of cells. If the solution outside of cells has a
lower solute concentration (hypotonic) and therefore a higher water concentration relative to
the solution inside the cell, then net movement of water will diffuse into the cells. The result is
an increase in the volume of cytosol that will cause the cell to swell. If the cell does not have a
cell wall or some other means of protecting the membrane, it will burst! On the other hand, if
the solution outside has a higher solute concentration (hypertonic) and therefore a lower water
concentration than inside the cell, then the net movement of water will diffuse out of the cells
causing the cell to lose water and shrink. Outside solutions with the same solute concentration
as the inside the cell (isotonic) will have a zero net movement of water, and hence, minimal
impact.

Hypotheses and predictions

 If the concentration of a substance is higher on one side of the membrane and the
membrane is permeable to the substance, then substance will diffuse to the other side
of the membrane.
 If membranes are more permeable to small molecules, then small molecules will
diffuse across the membrane more rapidly than large molecules.
 If osmosis occurs, then cells will gain water and swell when placed in
hypotonic environment and lose water and shrink when placed in hypertonic
environments.

Purpose
 Demonstrate diffusion of substances across a model cellulose membrane.
 Determine the effect of molecular size on the permeability of a model
cellulose membrane.
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Bio111L General Biology I Lab
 Demonstrate osmosis in both a model cell and living cell.

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Materials

Diffusion of starch and iodine across a membrane

Cellulose (dialysis) tubing (cut to 10cm) Test tube Rubber bands or tubing clips
Starch solution Iodine (dropper) One 250 ml beaker

Osmosis
potato cork borer 10% salt solution tap water Two 250 ml beakers

Procedure
Set up for diffusion of starch and iodine across membrane
1. Obtain 1 piece of cellulose tubing approximately 10 cm in length. Open the tubing
by wetting it and rubbing. Tie a knot at one end of the tubing.
2. Pour the STARCH solution into the tubing almost to the top. Tie a knot, rubber band or
clip the open end. Rinse the outside of the tube to remove any residual starch. Make sure
the tubing does not leak. Record the initial color in the tubing in Table 8.1 below.
3. Fill the beaker halfway with tap water. Put tubing into beaker. Then add enough iodine
to turn the water a distinct yellow/amber color. Record initial color of water in beaker A
in Table 8.1 below. Place beaker aside for the rest of the lab period.

Observation of osmosis in potato

1. Obtain two 250 ml beakers. Label one beaker 10% salt. Label the other beaker water.
2. Fill the two beakers with their respective solutions.
3. Use the cork borer to obtain two columns of potato. Determine initial turgidity (how hard or
soft) by gently giving the potato columns a squeeze. Turgid potato will be firm or hard
whereas flaccid potato will feel soft or soggy. This is the “control” condition with the
potato out of water. Record observation in Table 8.4.
4. Place one potato column in each beaker.
5. Allow the potato to stay in the beakers for at least 20 min.
6. Remove the potato columns and determine final turgidity. Record observation in Table 8.4.

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Results

Diffusion of starch and iodine across membrane

Table 8.1. Observed color changes in diffusion of starch and iodine
Location Color
Initial color of tubing

Initial color of water in beaker after

adding iodine
Color of tubing at end of lab period.

Color of water in beaker at end of lab period.

Osmosis in Potato
Table 8.2. Turgidity of potato in salt solution and water
Outside environment of potato Turgidity (turgid or flaccid?)
Control (out of water)
10% salt solution
Water

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Discussion/Conclusion

Diffusion of starch and iodine across membrane

1. a. Did the iodine molecules diffuse across the membrane? Yes or No?

b. What results in Table 8.1 support your conclusion?

c. Explain why iodine diffused or did not diffuse based on difference in concentration of
iodine, size of iodine molecules and permeability of tubing membrane.

2. a. Did the starch molecules diffuse across the membrane? Yes or No?

b. What results in table 8.1 support your conclusion?

c. Explain why starch diffused or did not diffuse based on difference in concentration
of starch, size of starch molecules and permeability of tubing membrane.

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Osmosis
3. a. Was the potato in the “water” beaker placed in a hypertonic, isotonic or
hypotonic environment?

b. What direction did the water move?

c. What results in table 8.2 support your conclusion?

d. Why did the water move in that direction?

4. a. Was the potato in the “salt water” beaker was placed in a hypertonic or
hypotonic environment?

b. What direction did the water move?

c. What results in table 8.2 support your conclusion?

d. Why did the water move in that direction?

5. Even though the potato cells have lost or gained water in each of the experiments, the
overall size of the potato columns did not change. Why not?

6. If you don’t want a soggy salad, why should you wait to put the dressing on just
before eating it? Explain using the concept of osmosis.

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Week 3, Day 2
Name:

Experiment 9: Anaerobic Respiration in Fungi: From Sugar to Alcohol

Background
How do we get our energy? Like fungi, we are heterotrophs, which means we cannot
make our own food. Instead, we must get our food from the environment. Fungi do the same.
They absorb their food in the form of sugar. Fungi must then convert the stored energy in sugar
(ie. glucose) into the usable form of energy in ATP. This process can be carried out with
(aerobic) or without (anaerobic) oxygen gas. Fermentation is the process of an organism
converting chemical energy from sugar into ATP without oxygen gas. Depending on the type of
organism, specific fermentation products are produced. The fungi, Baker’s yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae), famously ferments sugars to produce ethanol alcohol in bread,
beers, wines and other alcoholic drinks.
The fermentation process is useful in the field of biotechnology. Recombinant DNA
technology allows us to insert genes of interest into the yeast plasmid DNA. When the yeast
goes through fermentation, it will produce our desired product of interest from the inserted
gene.
Many products can be manufactured using this method such as foods (ie. cheese, milk, yogurt),
pharmaceuticals (drugs), hormones, proteins, vaccines and other products.
In yeast, alcohol is the natural fermentation product and occurs according to this
metabolic pathway:
C6H 12O 6 ethanol alcohol + CO2 + energy (2
ATP) glucose carbon
“food” dioxide

In this exercise, yeast will be allowed to consume sugar containing protein under
anaerobic conditions to demonstrate fermentation. We will monitor the release of the end-
products, ethanol alcohol and carbon dioxide (CO2).

Hypothesis and prediction: If yeast is given sugar in the absence of oxygen gas, then they will
go through the process of fermentation to produce ethanol, carbon dioxide and ATP.

Materials
2.1 g baker’s yeast.
2.4 g Sugar in the Raw™
100 mL water
150 mL Shaker Flask
100 mL graduated cylinder
Trough
Rubber Stopper
Tubing (silicone)
Timer
Filter paper
Beaker
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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Procedure
Flask Preparation
1. Add 100 mL of water to shaker flask. Warm up to 37ºC. If water reaches over 40ºC,
then let it cool down to under 40ºC.
2. Add yeast and sugar, one at a time, to the shaker flask with 100 mL warm water.
Gently swirl flask in between.
Apparatus Set-up
3. Completely fill 100 ml graduated cylinder with water past the 100 mL mark all the
way to the top.
4. Attach tubing to the trough. Fill tubing with water. Hold tubing up so water does not
leak out. Then fill trough ¾ full with water.
5. Invert the graduated cylinder and submerge it into the water in the tough over the
outlet. Be careful to keep as much water in the cylinder as possible.
6. Push rubber stopper onto the shake flask. Connect silicon tubing to the shaker flask.

Monitor Fermentation
7. On the Results sheet attached, record the starting CO2 volume in the graduated
cylinder in the Table 1 and Figure 1. This is run time 0 and begins when you insert
the rubber stopper and tubing onto the shaker flask.
8. Continue to record the CO2 volume in the graduated cylinder every 2 minutes for
30 minutes.
Note changes occurring inside the flask (ie. color, movement, volume) during
fermentation.
9. After experiment is completed, filter out the yeast using the funnel and filter paper.
After a thin layer of filtrate is present at the bottom of the beaker, observe the filtrate
for evidence of ethanol production.
Note: Human consumption of this experiment’s product is NOT ALLOWED!

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Results
Table 1. Yeast Fermentation Over Time
Run CO2 Observations (color, movement, volume)
Time released
(min.) (mL)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30

Describe filtered product (odor, color, transparency):

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Record your data on the graph below. Put time on the X-axis and CO2 released on the Y-axis.
Be sure to label your axes.

y-axis

x-axis

Figure 1. Yeast Fermentation Over Time

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Discussion/Conclusion
1. Describe all observations that demonstrate that fermentation occurred in this experiment.

2. What were the roles of the yeast, sugar and graduated cylinder in the fermentation
process? Yeast:

Sugar:

Graduated cylinder:

3. Why does carbon dioxide production increase over time?

4. How can yeast fermentation be used in biotechnology to make useful products for humans?

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Week 3, Day
2 Name:

Experiment 10: Function of Chlorophyll

Background
Various pigments are found in leaves. We see these in autumn leaves when the
green starts to fade. In some plants like Coleus, the colors can be seen all the time.
Pigment colors may be bright orange, yellow, red, purple or green. The green pigment is
chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll plays a role in photosynthesis, the process that plants use to convert the
energy of sunlight into chemical energy in carbohydrates. They do this by using CO2 and H20
as raw materials to manufacture glucose. The glucose can then be transported as sucrose (table
sugar) or be stored as starch.
To find out the function of chlorophyll in leaves, various pigments will be extracted one
group at a time to determine their location in the leaf. After all the pigments have been
removed, the leaf will only contain large molecules such as starch. Iodine solution will then be
used to locate starch in the leaf.

Hypothesis and prediction: If chlorophyll is required in photosynthesis, then we predict that

starch (which are products of photosynthesis) will be found in parts of the leaf that contain
chlorophyll.

Purpose: Demonstrate the role of chlorophyll in photosynthesis.

Materials
0
Isopropyl alcohol bath; (60 C) Coleus leaf Forceps
0
Water bath; (78 C) Iodine Beakers

Procedure
1. Obtain a fresh Coleus leaf and draw it. Note where the colors and color patterns are located.

Figure 1. Fresh Coleus leaf

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab
2. Place the leaf into a hot water bath until only the green color is left.

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

3. Place the leaf into alcohol bath until the green color is removed and the leaf is
completely clear.Rinse in water bath and spread the leaf in Petri dish.
4. Saturate the leaf with iodine solution, followed by a rinse in cold water. Diagram the
leaf and note location of color patterns.

Figure 2. Coleus leaf after iodine solution

Discussion/Conclusion
1. The green areas in the leaf contained what pigment?

2. Why do you use hot water to extract the red pigments?

3. Why do you use alcohol to extract chlorophyll?

4. What is the purpose of iodine in this experiment?

5. Blue/purple areas in the leaf after iodine was added contained what molecule?

6. a. Are the blue/purple areas found where the green sites used to be?
b.What does this result imply regarding chlorophyll function in a plant leaf?

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Week 3, Day 2
Name:

Experiment 11: The Cell Cycle & Mitosis

Background
Every hour, millions of your skin cells shed and millions of your red blood cells die.
These cells need to be replaced with new ones to maintain your skin and blood. They are just a
few examples of the many cells that compose a large organism. In addition, growth of
organisms from a single cell to adulthood involves an increase in number of cells. The basic
mechanism by which a body maintains itself, grows or repairs wounds is through cell division.
The cell’s life cycle is an orderly series of events in which one parent cell gives rise to two new
daughter cells, each which contain identical chromosomes to the parent cell. The phases of the
cell’s life cycle are divided into interphase, which has two gap phases in which a cell enlarges
as well as prepares to divide and an S phase, in which DNA is replicated. Mitosis is the
division of the nucleus into two identical ones and is traditionally divided into 4 phases:
prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm and
occurs during telophase. The diagram below helps illustrate the cell cycle”

Figure 1. Cell Cycle

You will be looking for cells undergoing mitosis in prepared slides of sections of fish
blastula and onion (Allium) root tip. These phases of mitosis are continuous and there is no
pause between them so it may be helpful to think of these slides as a snapshot in time. The fish
blastula is a small ball of cells that is formed after the egg is fertilized and is actively growing so
it contains many mitotic animal cells. The onion root tip is actively growing into the ground so
it contains many mitotic plant cells.

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Purpose
 Demonstrate the 4 phases of mitosis using models.
 Observe and draw the 4 phases of mitosis in onion root tip and fish embryo.
 Describe events that occur in each phase of mitosis.

Materials
Mitosis models (2 long chromosome bead strands, 2 short chromosome bead strands, string,
centrioles)
Microscope
Onion (genus Allium) root tip slides
White fish blastula (embryo) slides

Procedure
Using mitosis models
Your instructor will work with each group one at a time, providing each group a model that will
demonstrate mitosis. Your group will be asked to simulate the 4 phases of mitosis and answer
questions about each phase. Your group will be evaluated based on how accurately your group
modeled mitosis and answered the questions.

Observing plant and animal mitosis slides

(Work on these specimens while waiting for the instructor to go to your group to work on
modeling mitosis).
1. Obtain a slide of onion root tip and focus under scanning or low power.
2. Locate the dividing cells.
3. Switch to high power (400x). It is important to have clear focus using high power before you
attempt to identify various stages of mitosis.
4. Under high power magnification, locate cells undergoing the 4 stages of mitosis and draw
each stage in the data fields provided. It you are lucky, more than one phase may be
observed within a single HPO field of view. Draw the size of the cells as accurately as you
can relative to the size of the field. Make sure to draw the image of chromosomes clearly
for each phase.
5. Obtain a slide of fish blastula and focus under scanning or low power.
6. Follow instructions 2-5 above for fish blastula slide.

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab
Allium (onion) Root tip

Prophase 400x Metaphase 400x

Anaphase 400x Telophase/Cytokinesis 400x

Fish blastula (embyo)

Prophase 400x Metaphase 400x

Anaphase 400x Telophase/Cytokinesis 400x

Discussion/Conclusion
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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

1. During what phase of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur?

2. During mitosis, at what phase do chromosomes first become visible?

3. During what 2 phases of mitosis are chromosomes each composed of two chromatids?

4. During what 2 phases of mitosis are chromosomes each composed of one chromatid?

5. How does cytokinesis differ in plants and animals?

6. What is the term used to refer to the “division of the cytoplasm”?

7. Are the two cells created from cell division & mitosis the genetically identical or different?

8. Write the stages of the cell’s life cycle in order, starting with the stage immediately after
cytokinesis.

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Week 4, Day 1
Name:

Experiment 12: DNA: The Foundation of Life

Background

DNA is the foundation of life. All living organisms including humans, monkeys, dogs,
plants, molds and bacteria have DNA. If it’s alive, it has DNA in its cells. What is so important
about DNA?

First, DNA functions as the hereditary molecule that is passed on from one generation of
cells or organisms to the next. DNA can do this because it has the ability to self-replicate
through DNA replication.

Second, DNA functions as the source of information for synthesizing each and every type
of protein the cell may need. In this process called gene expression, information is said to
“flow” from a gene in the DNA to a similar molecule called mRNA which is then used as a
template to make very specific types of proteins. Proteins make up all the tissues which give an
organism its structure (e.g. shape, texture) and function. They also serve as enzymes to enable
most necessary chemical reactions. Proteins are thus extremely critical to life.

DNA has a unique structure that allows it to function as the hereditary molecule and the
foundation for protein synthesis. Briefly, it consists of a double helix structure. Each of the
two strands of the double helix consists of a long string of nucleotides. There are four varieties
of nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a deoxyribose sugar, phosphate group and base.
There are four different types of bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C)
(see Fig. 1 below). In the double helix, the two strands have complementary base-pairs,
which means that each base on one strand pairs specifically to another base on the second
strand. A pairs with T and G pairs with C. These base pairs and therefore the two strands are
held together by hydrogen bonds. This base-pair pattern is common across all life. These
nucleotides can be strung together in different sequences to form the DNA strand. It is this
variation in DNA nucleotide sequence that leads to variation in proteins made by the cells
which leads to the variation seen in different organisms.

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Figure 1. Four nucleotides with deoxyribose sugar, phosphate group and base (adenine,
thymine, guanine and cytosine)

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Purpose
 Model and describe the structure of DNA
 Model and explain the function of DNA in DNA replication and gene expression
 Describe how DNA contributes to the diversity of life

Materials
1 DNA template strand
DNA polymerase
12 DNA nucleotides with
- Bases: A (orange), T (yellow), G (green), C (blue)
- phosphate group (red bead)
- deoxyribose sugar (white
bead) 3 Hydrogen bonds: clear
connectors RNA polymerase
12 RNA nucleotides with
- bases A (orange), U (purple), G (green), C (blue)
- phosphate group (red bead)
- ribose sugar (pink bead)
Large and small subunits of ribosome
tRNAs with amino acids and release factor

Procedure

Activity 1: DNA Replication

To replicate DNA, the two original strands must first separate. These are your template
strands. Then DNA polymerase, an enzyme, uses each strand as a template for building a new,
complementary strand using the base-pairs (A to T, G to C). Each original (“parental” or “old”)
strand is now paired with a new (“daughter”) strand, so there are now two identical DNA
molecules instead of 1. DNA replication is called semi-conservative because each DNA
molecule has 1 strand that is old and 1 strand that is new so half or “semi” of the
molecule is “conserved” or old while the other half is new.

Model the process of DNA replication using pop beads.

1. Take your pre-made template single strand of DNA. This is the “old” strand which
is written below.
2. Place the end of the template strand with the “T” (yellow bead) on the
DNA polymerase.
3. Now, working inside the DNA polymerase, start creating the new replicated strand
by complementary pairing single nucleotides to the old strand (A to T, G to C,
etc.). Write in the nucleotide sequence of the new DNA strand below. Finish until
all DNA nucleotides are paired.
4. Connect the two strands (old and new) using the clear connectors (hydrogen
bonds) to link the bases. Each base pair should be connected, but for simplicity,
use only 3 clear connectors for the entire DNA molecule.
5. Twist your double stranded molecule to the left to demonstrate the “helix”. Fig 2. DNA Replication

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Note: You are only replicating one strand of DNA. In reality, both old strands are replicated.

Old DNA strand T A C G C G A A G A T T

New DNA strand

Activity 2: Gene Expression

Now let’s look at DNA as the foundation for making proteins. DNA is organized into
chromosomes. Each chromosome contains genes, which is a specific sequence of nucleotides
that have the instructions for making one protein. In gene expression, information flows from
the gene on the DNA to RNA to protein in two steps:

Transcription Translation
DNA  mRNA  Protein

a. Transcription: DNA is used to make mRNA (messenger RNA) in the nucleus. Since DNA
and RNA are similar (both consists of nucleotides), this step is said to “transcribe” DNA
into mRNA. For this to occur, first RNA polymerase, an enzyme, unwinds the DNA and
uses one DNA strand as a template and makes a complimentary mRNA strand using base
pairs. This base-pair is the same as for DNA replication, except that A pairs with U instead
of T. After, mRNA is released, edited and exits the nucleus. *Note: mRNA also differs
from DNA because it is single, not double, stranded and uses ribose, not deoxyribose,
sugar.

b. Translation: mRNA is used as a template to synthesize the protein in the cytoplasm. Since
mRNA and proteins consist of entirely different building blocks (nucleotides vs. amino
acids), this step is said to “translate” mRNA into the language of proteins. For this to occur,
first a molecule called the ribosome binds to the mRNA. An mRNA codon (set of 3
nucleotides) within the ribosome binds to an anticodon (complimentary nucleotides to the
codon) on the tRNA molecule. The tRNA brings a specific amino acid according to the
genetic code (see Figure 3 below). Then the next codon on the mRNA goes through the
same steps to bring in another amino acid which then attaches to the previous amino acid.
Translation starts with the mRNA codon AUG. It ends with a release factor bind to a stop
codon (UAA, UAG or UGA). After translation, the string of amino acids, the new protein,
folds into its correct 3D structure.

Model the process of protein synthesis using pop beads.

Transcription:
1. Unwind and disconnect your double stranded DNA molecule into 2 single strands.
2. Take your original single strand of DNA. Place the end with the “T” on top of the “RNA
polymerase” inside the nucleus. Make an mRNA strand using the DNA as the template
strand and complimentary base pairs (recall: AU). Make sure you are using the
nucleotides with the pink bead since RNA contains ribose sugars (pink bead) not
deoxyribose sugar (white bead). Write your mRNA sequence below:

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Old DNA strand: T A C G C G A A G A T T

mRNA sequence w/codons:
anti-codon: release factor
amino
acid:

3. Go until the entire DNA strand is transcribed into mRNA.

4. Move your mRNA strand to the small subunit of the ribosome which is in the cytoplasm.

Translation:
5. Start at the beginning of your mRNA strand with the start codon: AUG, in the center of
the ribosome.
6. Write down the correct anti-codon sequence on the tRNA molecule that pairs with the
codon using base-pairs. Bring in the complimentary tRNA molecule. Write the correct
amino acid that it carries according to the genetic code (see Figure 3).
7. Place the large unit of the ribosome on top of the small subunit of the ribosome, mRNA
and tRNA molecules.
8. Circle the next codon on the mRNA sequence above. Shift your next codon on the
mRNA model to the center of the ribosome. The first tRNA is now shifted to the left end
of the ribosome.
9. Attach the new amino acid to the first amino acid. Remove the old tRNA molecule from
the ribosome.
10. Repeat steps 7, 9 and 10 for the third codon.
11. Stop when you reach your stop codon, UAG. There is no tRNA for this stop codon.
Instead there is a protein called release factor.
12. Detach your amino acid chain of 3 amino acids. This is your new protein!
13. Remove your mRNA strand from the ribosome.
14. Separate the large and small units of the ribosome.

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Figure 3. The Genetic C

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Discussion/Conclusion

1. Replication
a. Where does DNA replication occur in the cell?
b. What molecule serves as template for DNA replication?
c. What enzyme catalyzes the chemical reaction that adds nucleotides to a growing
DNA strand?

2. Gene Expression
Transcription
a. Where does transcription occur?
b. What section of the DNA serves as template for transcription?
c. What molecule is synthesized during transcription?
d. What is the substrate for synthesizing mRNA?
e. What enzyme catalyzes the reaction that adds nucleotides to a growing RNA strand?

Translation
f. Where does translation occur?
g. What molecule serves as template for translation?
h. What molecule is synthesized during translation?
i. What is the substrate for synthesizing proteins?
j. What organelle adds amino acids to the growing polypeptide (protein) strand?

Summary
Fill in the table below with the
1. DNA sequence of your “gene.”
2. sequence of the mRNA strand transcribed from your gene.
3. amino acid sequence of your “protein” translated from your mRNA.
4. name of the two processes of gene expression and their location.

Table 1. Gene Expression

Process Location Molecule Sequence
1. 1. DNA (gene)
mRNA

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2. 2. Protein
(amino acids)
Week 4, Day 1
Name:

Experiment 13: DNA Extraction from Strawberries and Saliva

Background
Today, DNA technology is used for various purposes such as identifying criminals,
performing paternity tests, understanding genetic diseases, engineering food and drugs and much
more. To understand all these applications of DNA technology, we first need to understand the
basics of DNA. Scientists have known about DNA since the mid-1800’s. It wasn’t until the
1950’s, however, that Francis Crick and James Watson with the help of Rosalind Franklin and
Maurice Wilkins understood its role as genetic material. DNA is present in almost every cell of
an organism. For example, if DNA is used to identify individual suspects in a forensic case,
scientists can get DNA from almost any cell such as hair, blood or semen. First, however,
scientists need to extract the DNA from the cells. In this lab, we will perform a simple procedure
to extract DNA from saliva and strawberries.

Materials (DNA extraction)

Detergent salt (NaCl) contact lens fluid chilled ethanol
plastic 5 mL pipettes 20 mL test tubes stirring rods
10 mL human saliva 10 mL blended strawberry mixture (contains detergent and NaCl)

Procedure (DNA extraction)

Collect cells containing DNA in saliva
1. Collect 10 mL of human saliva in 20 mL test tube.

Lyse (break open) the cells to release the DNA

2. Using a plastic pipette, add 3 drops of detergent and mix the detergent with your sample. Be
gentle so that you do not generate too much foam.
3. Let the sample sit for 10 minutes.

Concentrate the DNA in the sample

4. Add a pinch of kitchen salt (NaCl) and mix gently.

Degrade proteins that were released from broken cells

5. With a plastic pipette, add 3 drops of contact lens fluid and mix gently. Let the sample site
for 10 minutes to give the proteases time to do their work.

Precipitate the DNA from the solution

6. Slowly drop 10mL of alcohol down the side of your tube to precipitate DNA. You should see
strings of DNA forming on the detergent solution / alcohol boundary.
7. Try wrapping the stringy DNA with stirring rod.
8. Fill in observations in Table 1 below
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Extract DNA from blended strawberries

9. Collect 10 mL of blended strawberry mixture.
Note: This mixture already contains detergent to lyse (break open) cells and salt (NaCl)
to concentrate DNA.
10. Slowly drop 10mL of alcohol down the side of your tube to precipitate DNA. You should see
strings of DNA forming on the strawberry mixture / alcohol boundary.
11. Try wrapping the stringy DNA with stirring rod.

Results

Table 1: Observations of DNA in human saliva versus blended strawberries

DNA Human Saliva Blended Strawberries

Appearance and
consistency (e.g.
thick, thin, gooey,
color)

Discussion/Conclusion (DNA extraction)

1. What is the role of each of the following in extracting DNA?

a. Saliva and strawberries

b. Detergent

c. Salt

d. Contact solution

e. Alcohol (ethanol)

2. How does a temperature above 60ºC affect DNA?

3. DNA in saliva and strawberries are only 50% similar.

a. How are they 50% different?

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b. Did this difference show up in your observations of your extracted DNA? Please explain

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Week 4, Day 1
Name:

Experiment 14: Gel Electrophoresis and DNA Fingerprinting

Background:

One of the major breakthroughs that resulted from DNA discovery is DNA fingerprinting.
DNA fingerprinting has reshaped forensic science, and brought reliable evidence, which rightfully
placed many criminals behind bars. British geneticist, Dr. Alec Jeffreys, first developed DNA gel
electrophoresis in 1984. By using this procedure, you can distinguish one individual from the other
by the differences in their DNA sequences. Gel electrophoresis is a standard method used to
separate DNA fragments of different sizes. In this method, DNA fragments are cut by restriction
enzymes and then loaded on a gel made of agarose polymer, a chain of sugar molecules. An
electric field is created with a negative and positive end. Since DNA has a negative charge due to
its phosphate group, it will move from the negative to the positive end of the gel. The rate at which
a DNA fragment moves depends on its size. The smaller the DNA fragment, the faster and further
it travels down the gel. The larger the DNA fragment, the slower and less it travels down the gel.
Thus, the DNA fragments are separated based on size alone. Each individual will have different
size DNA fragments due to their different DNA sequences. So the pattern of DNA fragments on
the gel will be unique for each individual.

Materials

Gel electrophoresis apparatus Agarose gel Micropipette Tips

Electrophoresis buffer solution (1xTBE) Power supply Tray for gel
Gel Form
DNA samples (Evidence and Suspects) Micropipettes W

Procedure

1. Make the 1% Agarose Gel by grabbing a 250 mL beaker, filling it with 100 mL 1xTBE buffer
and then adding 1 gram of Agarose powder. Microwave in increments of 30 seconds until the
mixture is clear. Let the mixture cool a little bit. Make sure you are using heat resistant gloves
and that you are wearing proper PPE!

2. Pour the mixture in the tray with comb and side blocks properly placed, and wait for it to set.
3. After the gel is set, carefully remove the comb with two hands, and remove the side blocks
as well.
4. Set-up includes gel electrophoresis apparatus with tray containing agarose gel. Tray ends
match with appropriate ends of the apparatus.
5. Pour in electrophoresis buffer on both side of the tray to cover the gel completely.
6. Load 10 µl of each DNA sample obtained from the different sources into the wells of the gel
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with micropipette. Go in order from left to right with DNA A-D.

7. Connect gel electrophoresis apparatus to power supply. The positive lead (red) should be at
the end opposite from the wells. The negative lead (black) should be at the end with the
wells. Set power supply at 80 V with the setting of “low” select. Turn on. Check for proper
running of the apparatus. You should see gas bubbles forming in the buffer solution.
8. Run gel for about 60 minutes (depending on how much the samples have migrated).
9. Carefully remove the tray with the gel and slide gel into viewing tray.
10. Visualize gel. Record the number and patterns of bands from each sample.

11. Draw and label your DNA wells in Figure 1 below from left to right at the top of the gel:
• Crime Scene DNA A
• Suspect #1 DNA B
• Suspect #2 DNA C
• Suspect #3 DNA D

12. Label the charges (-) and (+) at the appropriate ends of the gel.

13. Document the DNA pattern results on your gel

Crime Scene DNA Suspects’ DNA

A B C D
DNA
Wells

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Questions:

1. In the experimental data on the gel, what does each band represent?

2. Why do different bands travel different lengths?

3. Why does DNA travel down the gel towards the positive charge?

4. Why do most individuals have different band patterns on a gel?

5. According to the data from the gel, who committed the crime? How does the data from the
gel support your answer?

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Week 4, Day 2
Name:

Experiment 15: Patterns of Inheritance

Background
Certain traits, or characteristics, are inherited from your parents. It is possible to predict
the chance that offspring will inherit certain traits because of our understanding of genetics.
DNA is the hereditary molecule that is passed on from one generation to the next. DNA in
humans is organized into two sets of 23 types of chromosomes. Each chromosome contains
genes which are the instructions for the production of proteins which contribute to a specific
trait. Genes come in different forms called alleles. For instance, there are genes for eye color.
Some of the alleles for this gene include blue, green and brown color.
Every cell in the body, including gametes (sperm and egg) has DNA. The male gamete,
sperm, has one set of DNA from the father. The female gamete, egg, has one set of DNA from
the mother. When the sperm fertilizes the egg, the DNA from the father joins the DNA from the
mother so the child has two sets of DNA from both the father and mother. Thus, the child
inherits characteristics from both the father and mother.
Genotype is the genetic make-up of the individual. An individual has two alleles for each
trait because one allele was inherited from the father and the other allele was inherited from the
mother. An individual is homozygous for a trait if he has two identical alleles for the trait. For
example, an individual is homozygous for eye color if he has two alleles for blue color. An
individual is heterozygous for a trait if he has two different alleles for the trait. For example, an
individual is heterozygous for eye color if he has one allele for blue color from one parent and
one allele for brown color from another parent. Phenotype is the outward expression of the
genotype. For example, phenotypes for eye color can be brown, blue or hazel eyes.

There are different patterns of inheritance. Today in lab we will explore:

 Dominant disorder: a disorder coded by a dominant allele. An individual that has at least
one dominant allele for the disorder will have the disorder. Dominant alleles are written
with an upper case letter. Recessive alleles are written as a lower case letter.
 Recessive disorder: a disorder coded by a recessive allele. The individual must have two
recessive alleles (homozygous recessive) to have the disorder. A person is a carrier of the
disorder if he has one allele for the disorder, but does not have the disorder.
 X-linked disorder: The gene for the disorder is located on the X chromosome. All other
traits not on the pair of sex chromosomes, X or Y, are autosomal. X-linked alleles are
written as superscript of X.

In this lab, you will use Punnett Squares, a method that predicts the outcomes of traits for
offspring given the genotype of the parents.

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Purpose
 Use terminology and notation associated with genetics.
 Explain different patterns of inheritance.
 Predict offspring traits based on the parents using Punnett Squares.

Materials
Genetic problems
2 coins (penny, nickel) - labelled

Procedure
These problems are set up to predict the results of a genetic cross between a father and
mother. You are given this procedure to follow so that you can systematically solve them.
1. Write the phenotype of both parents.
2. Write the genotype of both parents. Each parent has two alleles which make up the
genotype.
3. Predict the genotypes of gametes from each parent. Each gamete genotype has only one
allele because it has only one set of DNA.
4. Set up the Punnett Square to predict the results of combining gametes from the parents.
Combining gametes is the equivalent of fertilization when the sperm penetrates the egg.
Place the sperm genotypes across the top two square and the egg genotypes on the side of
the two squares.
5. Predict the genotypes of the offspring by systematically combining a gamete from the
mother with a gamete from the father in the four center boxes. Now you have new
hypothetical organisms, each with two alleles. Each center box represents one
hypothetical offspring.
6. Predict the phenotypes of the offspring based on the genotypes above.
7. Perform a coin toss to model the chance of the parents producing particular offspring.

Autosomal Dominant Disorder: Huntington’s Disease

1. Huntington’s disease is a neurological disease affecting humans. It has a late-onset and

symptoms include involuntary muscle movements due to degeneration of the nervous
system. Huntington’s Disease is an autosomal dominant genetic disorder. A woman with the
phenotype of Huntington’s disease and the genotype Hh has children with a man with a
normal (no Huntington’s Disease) phenotype and the genotype hh. What are the chances that
a particular child will have Huntington’s Disease?

a. Phenotypes of the parents: Mother : Father :

b. Genotypes of the parents: Mother : Father :

c. Gamete genotype(s): Egg :

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Sperm :

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d. Punnett Square:

(sperm)

(egg)

e. List all possible genotypes of offspring of these parents:

a. Which of these genotypes are heterozygous?

b. Which of these genotypes are homozygous?

f. List all the possible phenotypes of offspring of these parents:

g. Calculate the probability of each genotype and phenotype as listed. Fill in table below on the
following page.
h. Table 1: Expected Probabilities for Huntington’sDisease

Genotype Genotype Genotype Phenotype Phenotype Phenotype

probability as a probability as a probability as a probability as
fraction percent fraction a percent
HH

Hh

hh

i. What are the chances a child will have Huntington’s Disease?

Report data as a percentage: as a fraction:

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

We are going to test the ratio of offspring given the parental genotypes above for Huntington’s
Disease by using a coin toss. The procedure is:
1. Obtain two coins. One represents the possible genotype(s) of the egg. The
other represents the possible genotype(s) of the sperm.
2. Get one coin that represents the gametes of the mother. Each side of the coin
represents one allele in a single gamete. Repeat for the father.
3. One student represents the mother and will flip the mother’s coin. A second
student represents the father and will flip the father’s coin at the SAME time.
4. Note the two gametes that are face up. This represents the genotype of the
offspring. Tally this genotype in the table below.
5. Repeat steps 1-4 24 times.

Table 2. Data for Huntington’s Disease

Genotype Total # (Total # Probability Phenotype Total # (total # Probability
genotype genotype from phenotype phenotype from
after 24 / 24) x Punnett after 24 / 24) x Punnett
tosses 100 Square in tosses 100 Square in
in % % in % %
HH

Hh

hh

Did your results from the coin tosses support your prediction from the Punnett Square?
Specify the data you used.

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Autosomal Recessive Disorder: Cystic Fibrosis

2. Cystic fibrosis is lethal autosomal recessive disorder in humans. It is the most common fatal
disorder in the United States. Its hallmark is bacterial infections of the lungs and intestine. A
woman who is a carrier of cystic fibrosis (Cc) has children with a man who is also a carrier
(Cc). What are the chances that a particular child will have cystic fibrosis? What are the
chances that a particular child will be a carrier?

a. Phenotypes of the parents: Mother : Father :

b. Genotypes of the parents: Mother : Father :

c. Gamete genotypes: Egg : Sperm :

d. Punnett Square:
(sperm)

(egg)

e. List all possible genotypes of offspring of these parents:

1. Which of these genotypes are heterozygous?

2. Which of these genotypes are homozygous?

f. List all the possible phenotypes of offspring of these parents:

g. Calculate the probability of each genotype and phenotype as listed. Fill in table on the
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following page.

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

Table 3: Expected Probabilities for Cystic Fibrosis

Genotype Genotype Genotype Phenotype Phenotype Phenotype
probability as a probability as a probability as a probability as
fraction percent fraction a percent
CC

Cc

cc

h. What are the chances a child will have cystic fibrosis?

Report data as a percentage: as a fraction:

i. What are the chances a child will be a carrier of cystic fibrosis?

Report data as a percentage: as a fraction:

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

We are going to test the ratio of offspring given the parental genotypes above for Cystic
Fibrosis by using a coin toss. Obtain the appropriate coins for the mother and father. Follow
the previous coin toss procedure.

Table 4. Data for Cystic Fibrosis

Genotype Total # (Total # Probability Phenotype Total # (total # Probability
genotype genotype from phenotype phenotype from
after 24 / 24) x Punnett after 24 / 24) x Punnett
tosses 100 Square in tosses 100 Square in
in % % in % %
CC

Cc

cc

Did your results from the coin tosses support your prediction from the Punnett Square?
Specify the data you used.X-Linked Recessive Disorder: Color Blindness
C c
3. Color blindness is an X-linked recessive disorder in humans. X is a normal allele. X is a
C c
color blind allele. A woman who is a carrier of color blindness (X X ) has children with a
C
man who is not color blind (X Y). What are the chances that a male child will be
colorblind? What are the chances that a child will be a carrier?

a. Phenotypes of the parents: Mother : Father :

b. Genotypes of the parents: Mother : Father :

c. Gamete genotypes: Egg : Sperm :

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Bio111L General Biology I Lab

d. Punnett Square:

(sperm)

(egg)

e. List all possible genotypes of offspring of these parents:

1. Which of these genotypes are heterozygous?

2. Which of these genotypes are homozygous?

f. List all the possible phenotypes of offspring of these parents:

g. What are the chances a boy will be colorblind?Report data as a percentage:

as a fraction:
h. What are the chances that a girl will be a carrier of colorblindness?
Report data as a percentage:
as a fraction:

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