Concepts of Operating System

OBJE C TIV E

To introduce Operating System concepts with Linux

environment, and to learn Shell Programming.

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 Course Content
Introduction to O S
Introduction to Li nux
Shel l P ro g ra m m i n g
Process m a n a g e m e n t
Signals
https://www.cdac.in/index.aspx?id=DAC&courseid=0# T h re a d s
Memor y m a n a g e m e n t
Virtual Memor y
Deadlock
S e m a p h o re

Inter p ro c e s s co m m u n i cat i o n

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Text Books

O p e r a t i n g S ys te m s Principles b y A b r a h a m Silberschatz, Peter G alvin & G r e g

G a g n e / Wiley

h ttp s :/ / o s- b ook. com / OS 9/ in d e x. h tml

Unix C o n c e p t s a n d A p p l i c a t i o n s b y S u mitab h a D a s / McG raw Hill

References:

• Modern operating Systems by Andrew Tanenbaum & Herbert Bos/ Pearson

• Principles of Operating Systems by Naresh Chauhan / Oxford University Press

• Beginning Linux Programming by Neil Matthew & Richard Stones / Wrox

• Operating System : A Design-Oriented Approach by Charles Crowley / McGraw Hil

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Introduction to OS
Introduction to O S
▪ What i s O S Introduction to Linux
▪ H ow i s i t di f f e r e nt f r om ot he r appl i c ati on s of t w are ; Shell Programming
Process management
▪ Why i s i t har dw ar e de pe nde nt
Signals
▪ Di f f e r e nt c om pone nt s of O S
Threads
▪ Bas i c c om pute r or gani zat i on r e qui r e d f or O S Memory management
▪ E xam ples of w e l l know n O S i nc l udi ng m obi l e O S , e m be dde d Virtual Memory
s ys t e m O S , R e al T i m e O S , de s kt op O S s e r v e r m ac hi ne O S e t c . Deadlock
▪ H ow ar e t he s e di f f e r e nt f r om e ac h ot he r and w hy Semaphore
Inter process
▪ Func t i ons of O S
communication
▪ U s e r and K e r ne l s pac e and m ode

▪ I nt e r r upts and s ys t e m c al l s

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W hat is Operating S ystem

A n o p e r a t i n g s ys t e m is software that m a n a g e s a c o m p ut e r ’ s har dw ar e.

It al s o p r o v i d e s a b a s i s for a p p l i c a t i o n p r o g r a m s a n d acts as an i nt e r m e di ar y

b e t w e e n the c o m p u t e r user a n d the c o m p u t e r har dw ar e.

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Different components

A c o m p u t e r s ys t e m c a n b e d i v i d e d r o u g h l y into four c o m p o n e n t s :
the har dw are , the o p e r a t i n g s ys t e m, the a p p l i c a t i o n p r o g r a m s , a n d a u s e r

T h e hardware—the central p r o c e s s i n g unit ( C PU ) , the m e m or y , a n d the

i nput /output (I/O) de vi ces —pr ov ides the b a s i c c o m p u t i n g r e s o u r c e s for
the system .

T h e a p p l i c a t i o n programs—a software or p r o g r a m that is d e s i g n e d to

complete a s p e c i f i c task of us ers . E g : wor d p r o c e s s o r s , s p r e a d s h e e t s ,
and web browsers

T h e o p e r a t i n g s ys t e m - is a S y s t e m software p r o v i d e s a pl atf or m for r u n n i n g a n d

operating other software, namely application software. c ont rols the
har dw ar e a n d c o o r d i na t e s its use among the v ar ious a pp l i c a t i o n
p r o g r a m s for the v ar i ous us e r s

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 How is it different from other application software
Application software Os

A system computer program that manages hardware

A computer program which is intended to perform
and software resources and provides common
some task classified along.
services for computer program

it boots up when the user wants and run until the

It runs when the user desires to run the application.
user switches off the machine.

It’s examples are Photoshop, VLC player etc. It’s examples are Microsoft Windows, Linux, MAC

Users interact with application software while using

Users never interact with system software as it
specific applications.
functions in the background.

It is developed by using c++, c, assembly languages. It is developed by using virtual basic, c++, c, java.

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B asic com puter organization required for O S Computer organization is
concerned with the way the
hardware components

RAM operate and the way they are

connected together to form the
computer system.

Input Output
processor The central processing unit
devices devices
(CPU) that processes data

The memory that holds the

programs and data to be
processed, and
Hard disk I/O (input/output) devices as
peripherals that
communicate with the
outside world.

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Types Of Os

Multitasking OS

Multi tasking refers to execution of multiple tasks.

Time-Sharing Operating Systems

Time-sharing operating system e na bl e s p e o pl e l oc a t e d at a different

terminal(shell) to use a single computer system at the same time.

T h e pr o c e s s o r t i m e ( C PU ) w h i c h i s s h a r e d a m o n g m u l t i pl e u s e r s i s t e r m e d a s
time sharing.

Mobile OS

Mobile operating systems are those OS which is especially that

are designed to power smartphones, tablets etc.

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Types Of Os

Real Time Os

A r e al - t i m e o p e r a t i n g s y s t e m ( R T O S ) i s a n o p e r a t i n g s y s t e m w i t h t w o k e y Air bag
deployment
f e a t ur e s : pr e d i c t a b i l i t y a nd d e t e r m i n i s m . I n a n R T O S , r e pe a t e d t a s k s a r e depends on
the rapid
p e r f o r m e d w i t h i n a t i g h t t i m e bo u n da r y . R e al - t i m e s y s t e m s a r e u s e d w h e n response time
t h e r e a r e t i m e r e q u i r e m e n t s t h at a r e v e r y s t r i c t l i k e m i s s i l e s ys t e m s , a i r of a real-time
embedded
traffic control systems, robots, etc. system
with Hard
RTOS
Hard RTOS

T h e s e o pe r a t i n g s ys t e m s g ua r a n t e e t ha t c r i t i c al t as k s b e c om pl e t e d w i t h i n a
range of time.

Soft RTOS

T h i s o p e r a t i n g s y s t e m p r ov i d e s s om e r e l ax a t i o n i n t h e t i m e l i m i t . F o r e x a m pl e
Multimedia systems, digital audio systems etc.
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 Different types of Os

EMBEDDED OS
An embedded system can be thought of as a computer hardware system having software embedded in it.
An embedded system can be an independent system or it can be a part of a large system.
An embedded system is a microcontroller or microprocessor based system which is designed to perform a specific task.
microwave ovens, washing machines and dishwashers,télévision sets, Vidéo Game consoles, set-top boxes, atms etc,Smart Tv

DESKTOP OS

The desktop OS is the environment where the user controls a personal computer .Ubuntu ,Windows 10

It is an operating system designed for usage on servers. It is utilized to give services to a large number of clients.
It is a very advanced operating system that can serve several clients simultaneously.

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Important functions of an Operating System

Process M a n a g e m e n t

Memory M a n a g e m e n t

File Management

Device Management

Protection a n d Security

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 P rocess M anagem ent

In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and for how
much time.
This function is called process scheduling.
An Operating System does the following activities for processor management −
• Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is known as traffic
controller.
• Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
• De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.
• Providing mechanisms for process communication

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M emory M anagement

• The operating system handles the responsibility of storing any data, system programs, and user
programs in memory. This function of the operating system is called memory management.

Memory ma na gement activities

• Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom

Deciding which processes to move into and out of memory

• Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

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File Management

• A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These

di rect ori es may cont ai n f i l es and ot her di rect i ons.

• An Operat i ng Syst em does t he f ol l owi ng act i vi t i es f or f i l e management −

• Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc.

• Deci des who get s t he resources.

• Al l ocat es t he resources.

• De-allocates the resources.

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D evice M anagement

• An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It

does the following activities for device management −

• Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O
controller.

• Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.

• Allocates the device in the efficient way.

• De-allocates devices.

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P rotection and S ecurity

• The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and similar other

techniques. it also prevents unauthorized access to programs and user data.

• Monitors overall system health to help improve performance. records the response time between service requests

and system response to having a complete view of the system health. This can help improve performance by

providing important information needed to troubleshoot problems

• The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and similar other techniques. it also prevents

unauthorized access to programs and user data.

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User space and Kernel space

When the computer system is run by user applications like creating a text document or
using any application program, then the system is in user space

The system starts in kernel mode when it boots and after the operating
system is loaded, it executes applications in user mode.

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 D ual mode of operation
Kernel mode
User mode
The operating system puts the CPU in user mode when a user The operating system puts the CPU in kernel mode when it is
program is in execution executing in the kernel
When system runs a user application like creating a text At system boot time, the hardware starts in kernel mode.
document or using any application program, then the system is in on as well.
user mode. The operating system is then loaded and starts user applications
in user mode.
When CPU is in user mode, the programs don't have direct
access to memory and hardware resources. The CPU can execute certain instruction only when it is in the
kernel mode. These instruction are called privilege
instruction
To provide protection to the hardware, we have privileged
system will be in a safe state even if a program in user mode
instructions which execute only in kernel mode
crashes.

If a program crashes in kernel mode, the entire system will be

halted.

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System Calls

A system call is a method for a computer program to request a service from the kernel of
the operating system on which it is running.

W h e n a p r o g r a m in user m o d e r e qui r es a c c e s s to R A M or a har dw ar e re s our c e , it must ask

the ker nel to p r o v i d e a c c e s s to that re sour c e . This is d o n e via s o m e t h i n g c a l l e d a s ys t e m
call.

S ys t e m calls are the only entry poi nt s into

the ke r ne l system .

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System Calls

S y s tem calls are m a d e by the us e r level p r o g r a m s in the

fo l l o w i n g situations:

C re a t i n g , o p e n i n g , c l o s i n g a n d d e l e t i n g files in the file

system.

C r e a t i n g a n d m a n a g i n g new p r o c e s s e s .

C r e a t i n g a co n n e c t i o n in the network, s e n d i n g a n d

re c e i v i n g p a c ket s .

R e q u e s t i n g a c c e s s to a ha rdwa re d ev i c e , like a m o u s e or a

printer.

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Introduction
to Linux
Linux Topics
Introduction to Linux

Working basics of file system

Commands associated with files/directories & other basic commands.

Operators like redirection, pipe

What are file permissions and how to set them

Permissions (chmod, chown, etc); access control list; network

commands (telenet, ftp, ssh, sftp, finger)

System variables like – PS1, PS2 etc. How to set them

 LinuxOS

• Linux is the best-known and most-used open source operating system.

• Used in computers, servers, mobile devices and embedded devices etc

History

▪Linux Free and Open-Source Software

▪Linux kernel - Operating System Kernel released by Linus Torvalds

▪Linux is a Unix-like operating system

▪Published under GNU General Public License Free and Open Source software
The users have the freedom to run,
copy, distribute, study, change and
improve the software

Tux - Symbol of Linux

Free and open-source software (FOSS)

FOSS :computer software that can be classified as both free software and open-source softw are
• Free software

The freedom to run the software for any purpose Freedom to study

Freedom to change
Freedom to distribute the software
• Open-source software
Computer softw are with its source code made available with a license .
The copyright holder provides the rights to study, change, and distribute the
software to anyone and for any purpose.
GNU General Public License

• The license was originally written by Richard Stallman of the Free

Software Foundation (FSF) for the GNU Project.

• FSF - non-profit organization founded by Richard Stallman to support

the free software movement

• GNU's not Unix . Pronunciation ‘gnoo’

• GNU Project

• Linux Kernel Published under GNU General Public License

Linux Flavour/Distros
▪ Linux distributions are OSes based on the Linux Kernel

▪ Red Hat Enterprise Linux -Enterprise Operating System

– The Fedora Project -a community-supported free software project sponsered by Redhat
–The CentOS Project
▪ Debian
–Ubuntu
–Kali

5/10/19 Knowledge Resource Centre 39

Linux flavour/distros
Kali Linux installation

▪Installation using virtual box

▪Memory/RAM 8 GB minimum, up to the system limit

▪Hard Disk 4 GB minimum

The command line

• A text-based interface that allows you to enter commands, execute them, and view the results.
• The linux command line is provided by a program called the shell.

Shell
prompt
 Running Commands

Commands syntax:

▪ command options arguments

▪ Each item is separated by a space

▪ Options modify a command's behavior

–Single-letter options usually preceded by -

–Can be passed as -a -b -c or –abc

– Full-word options usually preceded by –

–Example: ls --help

▪ Arguments are filenames or other data needed by the command

▪ Multiple commands can be separated by ;

 commands
Command Meaning Usage

ls Displays a list of files in the current working directory ls /home

ls -l /home

cd directory Change directories cd home

cd ..
cd -

passwd Change the password for the current user passwd

passwd bob

file filename Display file type of file with name filename file hello.txt

cat textfile Throws content of textfile on the screen cat hello.txt

pwd Display present working directory pwd
date Display date and time date

cal Display calendar cal

which Command to locate executables in the system which ls

exit or ctrl+D terminates the current shell session exit

task Keystroke

Locking the screen Ct rl+Alt+L

logging out select (User) > Log Out

To shut down the Poweroff

system

Powering off or

rebooting the system

Getting help
commands description usage

whatis keyword Displays short descriptions of commands whatis ls

whatis head tail

man [<chapter>] Read built-in manual pages of a command man 5 passwd

<command> man -a passwd
man -f cat
man -k printf
man man

Command --help short explanation about how to use the command ls --help
and a list of available options.

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Reading manuals
• Reading usage information Navigating in man page

• Arguments in [] are optional • Navigate with arrows, PgUp, PgDn

• Arguments in CAPS or <> are variables • /text searches for text
•eg:<filename> means "insert the • n/N goes to next/previous match
filename you wish to use here" • q quits
• Text followed by ... represents a list
• x|y|z means "x or y or z" only one of them
can
be specified.
• -abc means "any mix of -a, -b or -c"
BrowsingFiles
in Filesystem
 Linux File Hierarchy Concepts
• Files and directories are organized into a single-rooted inverted tree structure
• This tree is inverted because the root of the tree is said to be at the top of the
hierarchy,
and the b ranches of directories and subdirectories stretch below the root.
• Filesystem begins at the root directory, represented by a / (forward slash)
character.
• Names are case-sensitive
• Paths are delimited by /
▪ . . refers to parent directory of any particular directory
▪ . refers to current directory
▪ Files and directories starting with ‘.’ are hidden.

e.g - filename = .abc.txt , .file1

 Linux File System Layout

Home Directories: /root,/home/username

User Executables /bin, /usr/bin, /usr/local/bin

System Executables /sbin, /usr/sbin, /usr/local/sbin

Other Mountpoints /media, /mnt

Configuration: /etc
Temporary Files /tmp
Kernels and Bootloader: /boot
Server Data /var, /srv
Files that dynamically change (e.g.
databases, cache directories, log files, pri
nterspooled docume nts, and webs ite
content)
System Information: /proc, /sys
man page hier(7)
Shared Libraries /lib, /usr/lib, /usr/local/lib
Device files /dev
Browsing files in filesystem
command Description Usage

cd directory Change directory To an absolute or relative path:

• cd /home/cdac/Desktop absolute path name
• cd project/docs A path name with a
• cd .. forward slash (/) as the first
• cd – character
• cd
• cd ~
Relative Path specifying only the
mkdir [option] Create directory mkdir folder1 folder2
dir_name mkdir -p food/fruit/citrus/oranges path necessary to reach the file
from the working directory
rmdir [options] Remove empty directory rmdir folder1
dir_name
rm –r dir_name Remove non empty
directory

rm [option] file[s] Remove files rm file1 file2

rm *

touch file[s] create empty files or touch hello.txt

update file
timestamps

5/10/19 Knowledge Resource Centre 21

 Cut,copy and paste..

Command Description Usage

ls [options] [files_or_dirs] Lists the contents of the current ls -a (include hidden files)
directory or a specified directory ls -l (display extra information)
ls -R (recurse through directories
copy files and directories cp –f hello.txt hello1.txt
cp [options] source destination create copy in same directory with different name

cp [options] file1 file2 dest More than one file may be copied if cp –f hello.txt hello1.txt fold
dest is a directory
mv [options] file destination move and/or rename files mv old.txt new.txt -Rename
and directories mv [options] file1 file2 destination

5/10/19 Knowledge Resource Centre 22

Gathering Disk Space
• df command reports the system's disk space usage.
• du command displays the estimated amount of space being used by files in a directory, displaying t
he disk usage of each subdirectory.
Managing users
Command Description
adduser, userdel Standard utilities for adding, modifying, and deleting user accounts.

userdel -r Delete existing user along with home userdel –r bob

directory

groupadd, groupmod, groupdel Standard utilities for adding, modifying, and deleting groups.
changing identities

su - creates new shell as root

sudo command runs command as root Sudo useradd bob

id, displays the identity of

the user running the session along with the list of groups
they belong to.
whoami ,w. shows information on the current user
 Changing file permissions
Access Meaning
modeCo
▪ Symbolic & numeric method Code Meaning des
u user permissions 0 or - The access right that is supposed to be on this place is not
▪ chmod [-R] mode file
g group permissions granted.

–chmod 640 myfile o permissions for 4 or r read access is granted to the user category defined , to read a
others file or list a directory's contents
–chmod ugo+r myfile 2 or w write permission is granted to the user category , to write to a
file or create and remove files from a directory
1 or x execute permission is granted to the user category , to execute a
program or change into a directory and do a long listing of the
directory

command to execute permission to user = chmod u+x

group=chmod g+x
other=chmod o+x
Input output redirection
Redirections Operato Description Usage
r
Std output > Redirects output of cat file1 >file2
redirection a command to file
Pipe | Redirects output of one ls |grep hello.txt
command as input to other echo "test email" | mail -s "test"
[email protected]
>> Redirect output and append cat file1>> file2
it to file
Input < Redirects input tr ‘a-z’ ‘a-z’ <hello.txt
redirection
Std error 2> Redirects error to file ls 2> tmp
redirection ls > dirlist 2>&1
Tee command Writing to output and files date | tee file1 file2
simultaneously
Sending Multiple <<word Redirect multiple lines from
Lines to STDIN keyboard to STDIN
with <<WORD
Text processing tools
cat filenames It reads data from files, cat hello.txt
and outputs their contents cat file1 file2

less filename View file one page at a less hello.txt

time
head [option] filename Display the first 10 lines head hello.txt
of a file head –n hello.txt

tail [option] filename Display the last 10 lines tail hello.txt

of a file tail –f hello.txt

grep [options] PATTERN print lines matching a grep 'john' /etc/passwd

[FILE...] pattern date --help | grep year
grep –v ‘bash' /etc/passwd
-Ax
-Bx
cut Display specific columns cut -d: -f1 /etc/passwd
of file grep root /etc/passwd | cut -d: -f7
Use -f to specify the column to print
Use -c to cut by characters
 Shell.

•Shell :It is a command language interpreter

•Backward compatible with sh(standard unix shell).

•To find all available shells in your system type following command:
•$ cat /etc/shells
•echo $SHELL : Show which shell is used.
Software installation
Installing new software
▪ software comes in packages
▪Extra software may be found on your installation CDs or on the
Internet.
▪Package formats
–RPM packages
–DEB (.deb) packages
▪RPM
–The redhat package manager, is a powerful package manager that can be used to
install, update and remove packages
▪DEB (.deb) packages
–package format is the default on Debian GNU/Linux
Installing package using RPM

Rpm format To install a rpm package rpm -ivh <packagename>

<name>-<version>- -v verbose message
<release>.<architecture>.rpm -h makes rpm print a progress
bar

To query package, whether it is rpm -q <packagename>

installed or not rpm -qa | grep vim

To uninstall a package rpm -e <packagename>

Automating package management and updates
Purpose Debian/ubuntu Redhat/centos/fedora
Tool Apt-get Advanced Package Yum Yellowdog Updater, Modified
Tool

Upgrade Installed apt-get upgrade yum update

Packages
Find a Package apt-cache search search_string yum search search_string

Install a Package apt-get install package yum install package

from Repositories
Install a Packagefrom sudo dpkg -i package.deb yum install package.rpm
the Local Filesystem
Remove Installed apt-get remove package yum remove package
Package
 Operating System

Pr ocess Mana gement

 Process management

• A process is a program in execution.

• A process is an ‘active’ entity, as opposed to a program, which is considered to be a ‘passive’

entity.

• A single program can create many processes when run multiple times
 How does a process look like in memory?

• When a program gets loaded into the memory, it is said to as a process.

• process memory is divided into four sections ─ stack, heap, text and data.

Stack

• The process Stack contains the temporary data such as method/function

parameters, return address and local variables.

Heap

• This contains dynamically allocated memory to a process during its run time.

Text

• Code segment, also known as text segment contains The text section
comprises the compiled program code

Data

• This section contains the global variable

 Process Life Cycle/state
When a process executes, it passes through different states.
States Description

• New: In this state, the process is being created. it is the program

which is present in secondary memory that will be picked up
by OS to create the process.

• Ready: Process is Ready to run and is waiting for CPU to execute it.
Processes that are ready for execution by the CPU are
maintained in a queue for ready processes

• Running: The instructions within the process are executed by CPU

• Waiting: Whenever the process requests access to I/O or needs input

from the user,the process enters a waiting state. The process
continues to wait in the main memory and does not require
CPU. Once the I/O operation is completed the process goes to
the ready state

• Terminated: In this state, the process has finished executing.

 System Process

•Each process is started by another process known as its parent process.

• A process so started is known as a child process.

• When Linux starts, it runs a single program, the prime ancestor and process number 1, init.
 Process Table and Process Control Block (PCB)

• The Process table is like a data structure

describing all of the processes that are currently

loaded with.

• A Process Control Block is a data structure

maintained by the Operating System to keep track

of every process.

• The PCB is identified by an integer process ID (PID)

• Also called Task Controlling ,Task Struct,

• The PCB is maintained for a process throughout its

lifetime, and is deleted once the process

terminates.
 Process representation
• The kernel stores the list of processes in a circular doubly linked list called the task list.

• Within the Linux kernel, a process is represented by a structure called task_struct

 Process scheduling
• The process scheduling is the activity of the process manager that handles the removal of the

running process from the CPU and the selection of another process

• Why do we need scheduling?

• A typical process involves both I/O time and CPU time.

• In a uniprogramming system , time spent waiting for I/O is wasted and CPU is free during this

time.

• In multiprogramming systems, one process can use CPU while another is waiting for I/O.

• This is possible only with process scheduling

 Process Scheduling Queues
• The OS maintains all PCBs in Process Scheduling Queues. •Job queue - This queue keeps all the
processes in the system. In starting, all the
• The OS maintains a separate queue for each of the process states. processes get stored in the job queue. It is
maintained in the secondary memory.
• PCBs of all processes in the same execution state are placed in the

same queue. •Ready queue –

This queue keeps a set of all processes
• When the state of a process is changed, its PCB is unlinked from
residing in main memory, ready and
its current queue and moved to its new state queue. waiting to execute. A new process is
always put in this queue. This queue is
generally stored as a linked list

•Device queue.- Processes waiting for a

device to become available are placed in
Device Queues. There are unique device
queues available for each I/O device.
 Process schedulers

• Schedulers selects the jobs to be submitted into the system and decide which process to

run.

• Schedulers are of three types

• Long-Term Scheduler

• Short-Term Scheduler

• Medium-Term Scheduler
 Process schedulers
Long-term scheduler (Job scheduler)
Short-term scheduler (CPU scheduler)
• selects which processes should be brought into the ready queue
• selects which process should be executed next and
• Select a process from sec.memory to ready queue in memory
allocates CPU.
• Long-term scheduler is invoked infrequently (seconds, minutes)
• Allocates Cpu to a process in memory
• The long-term scheduler controls the degree of multiprogramming
• Short-term scheduler is invoked frequently

Medium-term scheduler

• Medium-term scheduler can be added if degree of

multiple programming needs to decrease

• Remove process from memory, store on disk, bring back

in from disk to continue execution: swapping

 I/O-bound process and CPU bound process
Processes can be described as either:

I/O-bound process –

If a process doesn't carry out many calculations, but it does do a lot of input/output operations, it's called an I/O-

bound process.

E g: office applications are mostly I/O bound

CPU-bound process –

If a process does a lot operations using CPU, it's called a CPU-bound process

E g: image resizing is a kind of CPU-bound task

 Dispatcher

• Dispatcher is responsible for loading the process selected by Short-term scheduler on the

CPU (Ready to Running State) Context switching is done by dispatcher only.

• A dispatcher does following:

1) Switching context.

2) Switching to user mode.

3) Jumping to the proper location in the newly loaded program.

 Context switch
• A context switch is the mechanism to store and restore the state or

context of a CPU in process control block so that a process

execution can be resumed from the same point at a later time

• When the scheduler switches the CPU from executing one process to

execute another, the state from the current running process is stored

into the process control block. After this, the state for the process to

run next is loaded from its own PCB and used to set the PC, registers,

etc. At that point, the second process can start executing.

 Non-preemptive or preemptive

Preemptive scheduling

The scheduling in which a running process can be interrupted if a high priority process enters

the queue and is allocated to the CPU is called preemptive scheduling.

non-preemptive scheduling

The scheduling in which a running process cannot be interrupted by any other process is

called non-preemptive scheduling. Any other process which enters the queue has to wait

until the current process finishes its CPU cycle.

 Process scheduling

• A Process Scheduler schedules different processes to be assigned to the CPU based on

particular scheduling algorithms

• First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling

• Shortest-Job-Next (SJN) Scheduling

• Priority Scheduling

• Round Robin(RR) Scheduling

• Multiple-Level Queues Scheduling

• These algorithms are either non-preemptive or preemptive

 Scheduling Criteria
• CPU utilization – keep the CPU as busy as possible

• Throughput – # of processes that complete their execution per time unit. For long
processes, this rate may be one process per hour; for short transactions, it may be ten
processes per second

• Turnaround time – amount of time to execute a particular process. The interval from the
time of submission of a process to the time of completion is the turnaround time.
Turnaround time is the sum of the periods spent waiting to get into memory, waiting in the
ready queue, executing on the CPU, and doing I/0.

• Waiting time – amount of time a process has been waiting in the ready queue

• Response time – amount of time it takes from when a request was submitted until the first
response is produced, not output (for time-sharing environment)

Scheduling Algorithm Max CPU utilization Min turnaround time

Optimization Criteria Max throughput Min waiting time
Min response time
First Come First Serve (FCFS)

• Jobs are executed on first come, first serve basis.

• It is a non-preemptive, pre-emptive scheduling algorithm.

• Its implementation is based on FIFO queue.

• Poor in performance as average wait time is high

• Convoy effect - short process behind long process

– Consider one CPU-bound and many I/O-bound processes

FCFS Non Premptive ,arrival time
Completion Time:
PNo AT BT CT TAT WT ? At what time the process is going to get completed
? ?
Turn Around Time:
The time interval between the ct and at. CT-AT
1 0 4
The interval from the time of submission of a
process to the time of completion
2 1 3 Waiting Time
Amount of time a process has been waiting in the
ready queue
3 2 1
TAT=WT+BT So WT=TAT-BT

4 3 2

5 4 5
 PN AT BT CT TAT WT
O ? ? ?

TAT=CT-AT
1 0 4 4 4 0
WT = TAT - BT

2 1 3 7 6 3

3 2 1 8 6 5

4 3 2 10 7 5

5 4 5 15 11 6
Shortest-Job-Next (SJN) Scheduling
• Also called SJF
• From the process arrived it PNO AT BT CT ? TAT ? WT ?
chooses the shortest job.

1 1 7
• Both premptive and non TAT=CT-AT
premptive WT = TAT - BT
2 2 5

3 3 1

4 4 2

5 5 8
Non preemptibve
PNO AT BT CT TAT ? WT ?
?

1 1 7 8 7 0

2 2 5 16 14 9

3 3 1 9 6 5

4 4 2 11 7 5

5 5 8 24 19 11
 Priority scheduling

• Priority scheduling is a non-preemptive algorithm

• Each process is assigned a priority. Process with highest

priority is to be executed first and so on.

• Processes with same priority are executed on first come

first served basis.

• Priority can be decided based on memory requirements,

Problem  Starvation – low priority processes
may never execute time requirements or any other resource requirement

Solution  Aging – as time progresses increase

the priority of the process
Priority Scheduling
 Round Robin Time quantum :2

• Round Robin is the preemptive process scheduling

PROCESS AT BT
algorithm.

• Each process is provided a fix time to execute, it is called P1 0 4

a quantum.

P2 1 5
• Once a process is executed for a given time period, it is

preempted and other process executes for a given time

P3 2 2
period.

• Context switching is used to save states of preempted P4 3 1

processes

P5 4 6

P6 6 3
 Example of RR with Time Quantum = 2
Time quantum :2
Ready queue
PROCESS AT BT Process AT BT
p1 0 4
P1 0 4
P2 1 5
P3 2 2
P2 1 5 p1 2
p4 3 1
P3 2 2
p5 4 6
P4 3 1 p2 3
p6 6 3
P5 4 6 P1-P2-P3-P1-P4-P5-P2-P6-P5-P2-P6-P5 p5 4
READY QUEUE
P6 6 3
p2 1
p6 1
p5 2
Time Quantum and Context Switch
Time

Turnaround Time Varies With The Time Quantum

 Multiple-Level Queues Scheduling
• Ready queue is partitioned into separate queues , eg:
– foreground (interactive)
– background (batch)
• Priorities are assigned to each queue.
• Each queue can have its own scheduling algorithms.
• Scheduling must be done between the queues:
– serve all from system processes,foreground then from background.
– Possibility of starvation.
 Operations on Processes

System must provide mechanisms for:

• process creation
• process termination
 Process Creation
Parent process create children processes, which, in turn create other processes,
forming a tree of processes
Generally, process identified and managed via a process identifier (pid)

Resource sharing options

Parent and children share all
resources
Children share subset of parent’s
resources
Parent and child share no resources
Execution options
Parent and children execute
concurrently
Parent waits until children terminate Commonly a process required resources like CPU time,
memory, I/O devices and files to accomplish the task
Process creation and termination system call

Process creation :fork,exec

Process wait: wait
Process termination: exit
 Process creation

Process
creation •creates a new process by duplicating the calling process .
fork() •The new process - child, is an exact duplicate of the calling process,
•Calling process- parent,
Return Value
•Negative Value: creation of a child process was unsuccessful.
•Zero: Returned to the newly created child process.
•Positive value: Returned to parent or caller.(returns the process identifier
(pid) of the child process in the parent,)

9/28/2021
 Process creation
exec() exec #include <unistd.h>
• replaces the current running process with a new process.
• An exec function replaces the current process with a new process specified by the
pathor fileargument.

•int execlp(const char *file, const char *arg, …, NULL );

•process which is a copy of the one that calls it, while exec replaces the current
process image with another (different) one.

KNOWLEDGE RESOURCE CENTRE 10/16/19

Process void exit(int status)
termination Process executes last statement and then asks the operating system to delete it
exit() using the exit() system call.

#include <sys/wait.h>
Wait() pid_t wait (int *status_ptr) or pid = wait(&status);
• The parent process wait for termination of a child process
• The call returns status information and the pid of the terminated process
–This status value is zero if the child process explicitly returns zero status.
wait(&status)
–If it is not zero, it can be analyzed with the status analysis macros.
WEXITSTATUS(stat)
–The status_ptr pointer may also be NULL, where, wait(NULL) ignores the
child's return status.
• If no parent waiting (did not invoke wait()) process is a zombie
• If parent terminated without invoking wait , process is an orphan
• A process whose parent process no more exists i.e. either finished or
terminated without waiting for its child process to terminate is called an
orphan process.
Zombie and orphan process
Zombie

A zombie process is a process whose execution is completed but it still has an entry in the process table. Zombie processes

usually occur for child processes, as the parent process still needs to read its child’s exit status. Once this is done using the

wait system call, the zombie process is eliminated from the process table.

Orphan

If parent terminated without invoking wait , process is an orphan

A process whose parent process no more exists i.e. either finished or terminated without waiting for its child process to

terminate is called an orphan process.

9/28/2021
 End

9/28/2021
 Operating System:
Signals &Threads

Threads
 signal

• Signals are standardized messages sent to a running program to trigger specific

behavior, such as quitting or error handling

• When a signal is sent, the operating system interrupts the target process’ normal flow

of execution to deliver the signal. If the process has previously registered a signal

handler, that routine is executed. Otherwise, the default signal handler is executed. 1
 Signal Names and Values

• Kill -l
 Sending Signals

When you press the Ctrl+C key, a SIGINT is sent to the process and as per defined default

action process terminates.

• use the kill command

• kill -signal pid

• int kill(pid_t pid, int signum);

 Handling Signals
• int signal(int signum, void (*handler)(int))

• //(SIGINT, SIG_DFL); //Setting SIGINT to default behavoiur

• the first argument is the signal number, such as SIGSTOP or SIGINT,

• second is a reference to a handler function whose first argument is an int and returns void.

• Default Actions of Signals

• Each signal has a default action.

• The default action for a signal is the action that a process performs when it receives a signal.

• Term : The process will terminate

• Ign : The process will ignore the signal

• Stop : The process will stop, like with a Ctrl-Z

 Threads

⚫ A thread is a basic unit of CPU utilization; it comprises a thread ID, a

program counter, a register set, and a stack.

⚫ A thread is also known as lightweight process.

⚫ The idea is to achieve parallelism by dividing a process into multiple

threads.

⚫ For example, in a browser, multiple tabs can be different threads.

⚫ MS Word uses multiple threads: one thread to format the text, another

thread to process inputs, etc.

Process vs Thread?
• The primary difference is that threads within the same process run in a shared memory
space, while processes run in separate memory spaces.

• Threads are not independent of one another like processes are, and as a result threads
share with other threads their code section, data section, and OS resources (like open
files and signals). But, like process, a thread has its own program counter (PC), register
set, and stack space.
Advantages of Thread over Process

1. Responsiveness: If the process is divided into multiple threads, if one

thread completes its execution, then its output can be immediately
returned.
2.Faster context switch: Context switch time between threads is lower
compared to process context switch. Process context switching requires
more overhead from the CPU.

3. Effective utilization of multiprocessor system: If we have multiple

threads in a single process, then we can schedule multiple threads on
multiple processor. This will make process execution faster.

4. Resource sharing: Resources like code, data, and files can be shared
among all threads within a process.
Note: stack and registers can’t be shared among the threads. Each thread
has its own stack and registers.
 Types of threads

⚫ User levelthread
⚫ management done by user-level threads library
⚫ Three primary thread libraries:
⚫ POSIX Pthreads posix-portable operating system interface
⚫ Windows threads
⚫ Java threads
⚫ Kernel level thread
⚫ kernel threads are implemented by OS.
 Multi threading models
Many operating systems support kernel thread and user thread
in a combined way
⚫ Many to many model.
⚫ Many to one model.
⚫ one to one model
 Many to many
⚫ In this model, we have multiple user threads multiplex to
same or lesser number of kernel level threads.
⚫ Number of kernel level threads are specific to the machine.
⚫ advantage of this model is if a user thread is blocked we can
schedule others user thread to other kernel thread.
⚫ Thus, System doesn’t block if a particular thread is blocked.
 Many to One Model
multiple user threads mapped to one kernel thread.
In this model when a user thread makes a blocking system call entire process
blocks.

As we have only one kernel thread and only one user thread can access kernel
at a time, so multiple threads are not able access multiprocessor at the same
time.
 One to One Model

⚫ In this model, one to one relationship between kernel and user thread.
⚫ In this model multiple thread can run on multiple processor.
⚫ Problem with this model is that creating a user thread requires the
corresponding kernel thread.
 Thread usage

int pthread_create(pthread_t *thread, pthread_attr_t *attr,

void*(*start_routine)(void *),
void *arg);

⚫ pthread_t variable, in which the thread ID of the new thread is stored

To ⚫ pthread_attr_t *attr this object controls details of how the thread

Creates a thread
interacts with the rest of the program NULL -default attribute.

⚫ void*(*start_routine)(void *),:The function the thread has to start

executing

⚫ void *arg:the arguments that are to be passed to this function.

⚫ Eg: pthread_create(&tid2,NULL,thread2,NULL);
 Thread termination and waiting

When a thread terminates, it void pthread_exit(void *retval);

calls the pthread_exit
function
This function terminates the
calling thread

pthread_join is the thread int pthread_join(pthread_t th, void

equivalent of wait that **thread_return);
processes use to collect
child processes. ⚫ first-the thread for which to wait
⚫ second -return value of the thread on
which we want to the parent thread
to wait.
⚫ pthread_join(tid1,NULL);
 End

9/29/2021
Operating System: Process Synchronisation
Semaphores
 Process Synchronization

•Processes are categorized as one of the following two types:

•Independent process : execution of one process does not affects
the execution of other processes.
•Cooperative process : execution of one process affects the execution of
other processes.
•Process synchronization problem arises in the case of cooperative process
also because resources are shared in cooperative processes.
•Race condition
•Several processes access and process the manipulations over the same data
concurrently, then the outcome depends on the particular order in which
the access takes place.
 Critical Section

• The Critical section code can be accessed by only one process at a time

• In the Critical section, there are many variables and functions that are shareable among

different processes.
 Any solution to the critical section problem must satisfy three
requirements

Software solution to CSP

• Mutual Exclusion : If a process is executing in its critical section, then no other process is allowed to

execute in the critical section. Semaphore

• Progress : If a process is not executing its own critical section, then it should not stop any other

process to access the Critical Section.

• Bounded Waiting : Bounded waiting means that each process must have a limited waiting time. It

should not wait endlessly to access the critical section.

 Semaphore
s
• A semaphore is a variable used to help threads to work together without interfering with each other.
 Semaphore
• A semaphore is an integer variable, which can be accessed only through
two operations wait() and signal(). wait(S)
{
• Two types of semaphores : binary semaphores and counting semaphores. while (S<=0);//no operation
S--;
• Binary semaphores }

• Binary semaphores take only the values between 0 to 1.

• Its value is initialized to 1

• Counting semaphores.

• Counting semaphores have the non-negative integer value.

• the semaphore count is used to indicate the number of available

resources.

• It can be used to control access to a given resource

 Binary Semaphore
working

s=0 S=1

S=0
Counting semaphore
 Semaphore implementation
POSIX Semaphore
Semaphores in Linux
#include <semaphore.h> POSIX-semaphore:
sem_init(),sem_wait(),sem_post(),sem_getvalue(),
Semaphore datatype sem t sem_destroy()
SystemV -semaphore
semget(),semop(),semctl()
 Semaphore implementation
sem_init() initialize an semaphore
int sem_init(sem_t *sem, int pshared, unsigned int
value);
#include <semaphore.h>

pshared :
• indicates whether this semaphore is to be
shared between the threads of a process, or
between processes
• 0, semaphore is shared between the threads of
a process, else nonzero
Value :specifies the initial value for the semaphore.
sem_init() returns 0 on success; on error, -1 is returned,
sem_wait(sem_t *sem); lock a semaphore
If the semaphore's value is greater than zero, then the
decrement and lock semaphore. If the semaphore
currently has the value zero, then the call blocks until
becomes grater than 0

int sem_post(sem_t *sem); sem_post - unlock a semaphore

int sem_destroy(sem_t *sem); sem_destroy - destroy an semaphore

 Binary Semaphore
sem_init(&sem, 0, 1); working
sem_wait(&sem); sem_post(&sem);
For counting
sem

For binary semaphore

 Mute
x
 A mutex is a mutual exclusion lock. Only one thread can hold the lock.

 Mutexes are used to protect data or other resources from concurrent access

#include <pthread.h> Initialize a mutex .

int pthread_mutex_init(mutex, pthread_mutexattr_t *attr );

Lock a mutex.

int pthread_mutex_lock(pthread_mutex_t *mutex);

int pthread_mutex_unlock(pthread_mutex_t *mutex); Unlock a mutex.

Producer-Consumer
problem
• The Producer-Consumer problem is a classic problem this is used for multi-process
synchronization i.e. synchronization between more than one processes.

• In the producer-consumer problem, there is one Producer that is producing something

and there is one Consumer that is consuming the products produced by the Producer.
The producers and consumers share the same memory buffer that is of fixed-size.

• Criteria’s that s hould be s atisfied

• If the buffer is full, then the producer shouldn't be allowed to put any data into the
buffer.

• If the buffer is empty, then the consumer shouldn't be allowed to take any data from
the
buffer.

• The producer and consumer should not access the buffer at the same time.
Solution problems can be solved with the
help of semaphores

In the producer-consumer problem, three semaphore variables can be

used to solve problem

while() is used to produce data, again and again

produce() function is called to produce data by the producer.
wait(E) will reduce the value of the semaphore variable "E" by one,when the producer produces something
and value of the empty space in the buffer.
wait(S) is used to set the semaphore variable "S" to "0" so that no
other process can enter into the critical section.
append() function is used to append the newly produced data in the buffer.
signal(s) is used to set the semaphore variable "S" to "1"
signal(F) is used to increase the semaphore variable "F" by one because after adding the d ata into the buffer
Thank you
 Operating System:
Threads

Threads
 Threads

 A thread is a basic unit of CPU utilization; it comprises a thread ID, a

program counter, a register set, and a stack.

 A thread is also known as lightweight process.

 The idea is to achieve parallelism by dividing a process into multiple

threads.

 For example, in a browser, multiple tabs can be different threads.

 MS Word uses multiple threads: one thread to format the text, another

thread to process inputs, etc.

Process vs Thread?
• The primary difference is that threads within the same process run in a shared memory
space, while processes run in separate memory spaces.

• Threads are not independent of one another like processes are, and as a result threads share with
other threads their code section, data section, and OS resources (like open files and signals).

• But, like process, a thread has its own program counter (PC),stack space.
Advantages of Thread over Process

1. Responsiveness: If the process is divided into multiple threads, if one

thread completes its execution, then its output can be immediately
returned.
2. Faster context switch: Context switch time between threads is lower
compared to process context switch. Process context switching requires more overhead from the
CPU.

3. Effective utilization of multiprocessor system: If we have multiple

threads in a single process, then we can schedule multiple threads on multiple processor. This will
make process execution faster.

4.Resource sharing: Resources like code, data, and files can be shared among all threads within a
process.
Note: stack and registers can’t be shared among the threads. Each thread
has its own stack and registers.
• Three primary thread libraries:
POSIX Pthreads
Windows threads
Types of threads
Java threads
 Kernel level thread
 kernel threads are implemented by OS.
User level thread
 Multi threading models

• All the threads must have a relationship between them (i.e., user
threads and kernel threads).
• Many operating systems support kernel thread and user thread in a
combined way

• Many to many model.

• Many to one model.
• one to one model
 Many to many

 In this model, we have multiple user threads multiplex to same or

lesser number of kernel level threads.
 Number of kernel level threads are specific to the machine.
 advantage of this model is if a user thread is blocked we can
schedule others user thread to other kernel thread.
 Thus, System doesn’t block if a particular thread is blocked.
 Many to One Model
multiple user threads mapped to one kernel thread.
In this model when a user thread makes a blocking system call entire process
blocks.

As we have only one kernel thread and only one user thread can access kernel
at a time, so multiple threads are not able access multiprocessor at the same
time.
 One to One Model

 In this model, one to one relationship between kernel and user thread.


In this model multiple thread can run on multiple processor.

 Problem with this model is that creating a user thread requires the
corresponding kernel thread.
 Thread Implementation
To create a thread
#include <pthread.h>
pthread_create (thread, attr, start_routine, arg)
To compile in Linux
 thread the thread ID of the new thread is stored

gcc filename.c -lpthread

To  attr it controls details of how the thread interacts with
Creates a thread the rest of the program NULL -default attribute
.

 start_routine:The function the thread has to start executing

 arg:the arguments that are to be passed to this function.

 Thread termination and waiting

When a thread terminates, it #include <pthread.h>

calls the pthread_exit function pthread_exit (status)
This function terminates the
calling thread

pthread_join is the thread int pthread_join(thread,thread_return);

equivalent of wait that
processes use to collect child  first-the thread for which to wait
processes.  second -return value of the thread on
which we want to the parent thread to
wait.
 pthread_join(tid1,NULL);
 End

9/29/2021
 Operating System:
Memory
management

Memory management
 Functionality of memory management


Keep track of every memory allocation

Track whether a memory is allocated or not

Track how much memory is allocated.

It takes the decision which process will get memory and when.

Updates the status of memory location when it is freed or allocated.

Protection : ensuring that user address space should not use kernel address space.
 Memory management

Two main functions of os in memory management


How the process in secondary memory will allocated to main memory .

The address translation.

logical address is genearated by cpu can be used to access sec
memory, but to access main memory it require
physical address.
 Goal of memory management


Space utilization

Fragmentation : there is chance of loss memory due to fragmentation
 Keep fragmentation as small as possible.

How to run larger program in smaller memory
area  Assume pgm 1000kb -run process in 500kb.
 Done by using virtual memory.
 How the process in secmemory will allocated to main memory

• Main memory usually has two partitions −

• Low Memory − Operating system resides in this memory.
• High Memory − User processes are held in high memory.

• Memory management technique.

• Contiguous
• Non contiguous
• Process parts are stored distributed in memory
• Segmentation ,Paging
 Memory allocation policies
• Non –contiguous :
• break the process into pieces and Keep them in different
areas of memory.
• Segmentation ,Paging
• Contiguous
• Process as unit is completely stored .
• Allocation of process brought from secmemory to main memory
must be placed contiguous.
•Contiguous allocation is one early method
• It suffers from external fragmentation where u have the requested
memory is available ,but they are not contiguous for ur process to store.

Fixed size partioning & Variable size partitioning
Contiguous memory allocation policy :Fixed size partioning


For memory allocation ,memory is divided into fixed size partitions of
different size

Fixed size will be fixed which cannot be changed

When a partition is free, a process is selected from the input queue and is
loaded into the free partition. When the process terminates, the partition
becomes available for another process

Degree of multiprogramming is bound by no of partitions.

1 process= 1 partition

• If a process of 4kb it will be kept in the 5k

sized so rest 1kb is waste ,which is known
as internal fragmentation…
• Partition cannot be reused i.e only 1
process allowed in 1 partition
 Variable size partitioning


Variable size partitioning

large block of memory is available as the process arrives its allocated
 The entire partition is not divided into fixed size.so it does not suffers from
internal fragmentation.
 Hole – block of available memory; holes of various size are scattered
throughout memory
 When a process arrives, it is allocated memory from a hole large enough to
accommodate it
 Dynamic Storage-Allocation
FIRST | BEST | WORST | algorithms

•
In both fixed size and variable partition schemes there are 3 algorithms which can be used to
allocation.

They are first fit,best fit,worst fit.
• First-fit:
•Allocate the first hole that is big enough

• Best-fit:
• Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough; must search entire list, unless ordered by size
•Produces the smallest leftover hole

• Worst-fit:
•Allocate the largest hole; must also search entire list
•Produces the largest leftover hole

First-fit and best-fit better than worst-fit in terms of speed and storage utilization
 First fit
• First fit: searches the location starting from beginning and select
a hole that big enough to hold our request

50 150 300 350 600

P1-300
P2-25
50 25 125 300 300 50 600
P3-125 p2 P3 p1 p4
P4-50
 Best fit
Searches the entire list . then choose the smallest hole that is big enough to
allocate the process

50 125 Free 300 300 25 25 600

p3 25 p1 p2 Fre
e

here last p4 cannot be fitted here it suffers from external fragmentation.

The best fit is the good algorithm for fixed size partitioning and best fit perform
worst for variable size.
 Worst fit

search entire memory and allocate largest block.

50 25 125 300 300 50 600

P2 p3 p1 p4
Compaction

• Compaction is a technique to collect all the free memory present in form of

• fragments into one large chunk of free memory, which can be used to run other
processes.

• It does that by moving all the processes towards one end of the memory and
• all the available free space towards the other end of the memory so that it becomes
contiguous.
• Compaction is one of the solutions to External Fragmentation.
 Address translation in contiguous memory allocation

Two main functions of os in memory management


How the process in secondary memory will allocated to main memory .

The address translation.

logical address is generated by cpu can be used
to access sec memory, but to access main memory it require
physical address.
 Address translation

The cpu access main memory, but the address it (cpu) generates is
logical address which can be used to access secondary memory.
 The main memory can be accessed using physical address so
the logical address has to be converted to physical address.


In contiguous policy it is easy to know the address because we take a
process from sec memory in a contiguous fashion and place it in the
main memory so we know the base address we could calculate the rest
address.


In non contiguous it will be difficult ,since the entire process is divided
into different fragments and placed in the memory .
 Logical vs. Physical Address Space

Logical address – generated by the CPU; also referred to as virtual address

Physical address – address seen by the memory unit
During compile-time and load-time ,memory address binding logical and physical addresses
are same.
differ in execution-time address-binding scheme
Logical address space is the set of all logical addresses generated for a program
Physical address space is the set of all physical addresses generated for a program
 Address translation in contiguous memory allocation

The process in s.m (sec memory) is loaded to main memory.

Memory-Management Unit
Does the runtime mapping logical to physical address space.
Done with the help of relocation register.
relocation register contains the base address of the process in main memory .
The logical address generated by CPU can be added with the base address in the RR to get the physical address.
Limit register contains the size of the process in main memory.
If the system illegally or intentionally produce a logical address,which gets added with BA and produce a physical address , which is not
the address of current process .it will become an illegal access to other process location so for these reason we have a limit
register LR.
If the system illegally or intentionally
Relocation register
produce a logical address,which gets
added with BA and produce a physical
address , which is not the address of
current process .it will become an illegal
access to other process location so for
these reason we have a limit register LR.
 Adress translation
but if cpu generate 150 it cannot be added because if we add it will be greater and some
other location so its not allowed.

1
150

100
 Numericals

LR RR

P0 450 500 1200

P1 300 275 550
P2 210 212 880
 Disadvantage of contiguous poilcy

External Fragmentation – total memory space exists to satisfy a request, but it is

not contiguous
Internal Fragmentation – allocated memory may be slightly larger than requested
memory; this size difference is memory internal to a partition, but not being
used
 Non- Contiguous memory management policy

In Non- Contiguous memory management policy two approaches

Paging
Segmentation
 paging

The sec memory is divided into
fixed size same partitions or
blocks ,which are called pages.

The main memory is also divided into
fixed size partitions of same size called
frames.

Both size of frame and page will be
same i.e if page is 1kb the frame also
will be 1kb.
 Pages and frames

There are 4 processes in
the system that is P1, P2,
P3 and P4 of 4 KB
each. Each process is
divided into pages of 1
KB each so that one
page can be stored in
one frame.

The process in sec
memory can be splitted
into pages and placed in

the main memoy
frames.
eliminate the external
fragmentation.
 The address translation with paging.


The cpu generates logical address which can be used to access sec.memory.

The logical address can be divided into page number (p)+
instruction offset(d).

the cpu generates address in such a format say it want to access
the pagenumber 2 instruction (offset )number 24,

We can find it from main memory in different way.
 Method one


Method one

the base address of the process is given in this scenario (the address of
first page).

in this approach the first page contain pointer to sec.page and sec.page
contain pointer to next ,like link list.

so there is no need of knowing all the page number.

So by looking at page1 we can find where page 2 is stored and then find
instruction 24.

But this mechanism the access will be very slow.
•
Pagetable
Method 2:In this method we have a pagetable
which is a datastructure (not a hardware)
which contains the base address of each pages
of a process in main memory.
• Each process will be having separate page
table.
• The no of pages a process has that much
entry
will be there in page table.
• The page table is nothing but the index to
framenumber of page stored in main memory
• page
so when
number
cpu generates
2 and instruction
a logical offset
address35,it
saywill
i.e How does it knows the address of page
access the pagetable.
table.?from the PTBR.(a register holding the
• From page table at index p2 we get frame address of page table)it is stored in PCB
number(or base address where the page is
Process Control Block.
stored in mainmemory ) add it with d
(instruction offset) to get the physical address
to access the mainmemory.
 Advantag
e
• The paging mechanism is actually
introduce to reduce external
fragmentation,
• Disadvantage

• but by paging mechanism it

require 2 time access memory
if you want to access
something from memory.so it
increases the time.
 Translation look aside
• buffer
To reduce this timing we can use
Translation look aside buffer.small fast look
TLB
• When a logical address is
generated by the CPU, its page
up hardware cache.
number is presented to the TLB.
• When a page is accessed from pagetable first • If the page number is
time. Its info will be stored in the TLB. found( TLB hit),its frame
• The number is immediately available
tlb contain page number
and framenumber. and is used to access memory

•The TLB contains only a few of the page- • If the page number is not in the TLB
table entries. (TLB miss)
• page table is accessed and
frame number is obtained and
memory is accessed .
• If the TLB is already full of entries, • In addition, add the page number
the operating system must select one and
for replacement. frame number to the TLB, so that they
• During the context switch the TLB will be found quickly on the next
will be cleared and a new process reference.
pages will be kept in TLB.
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• When a logical address is
generated by the CPU, its page
number is presented to the TLB.
• If the page number is
found( TLB hit),its frame
number is immediately available
and is used to access memory

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 Segmentation
•In segmentation, secondary memory and main
memory are divided into partitions called
segments of unequal size.
•The size of partitions depend on the length of
modules.
• Segment Table- Segment table is a table that
stores the information about each segment of
the process.
• Base Address: It contains the starting physical
address where the segments reside in memory.
• Limit: It specifies the length or size of
◦the segment.
•No internal fragmentation, but external
fragmentation

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 Segmentation Address
translation
• cpu generates->Segment Number and Segment Offset (logical address)
•For the generated segment number, corresponding entry is located in the segment
table
• segment offset is compared with the limit (size) of the segment.
• If valid ,segment offset is added with the base address of the segment.

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 Virtual memory

Virtual Memory is a storage allocation scheme in which secondary
memory can be addressed as though it were part of main memory


When the RAM is low,

With virtual memory, the system looks at RAM for areas that have not been
used recently and copy them onto the hard disk. This frees up space in RAM
to load the new application.

The area of the hard disk that stores the RAM image is called a page file. It
holds pages of RAM on the hard disk, and the operating system moves
data back and forth between the page file and RAM. On a Windows
machine, page files have a .SWP extension.
 Demand Paging
The process of loading the page into memory on demand (whenever page fault occurs) is
known as demand paging.

How the page is brought

1. If CPU try to refer a page that is currently not available in the main memory, it generates
an interrupt indicating memory access fault. Page fault

2. The OS puts the interrupted process in a blocking state. For the execution to proceed the
OS must bring the required page into the memory.
cpu
3. The OS will search for the required page in the logical address space.

4. The required page will be brought from logical address space to physical address space.
The page replacement algorithms are used for the decision making of replacing the page
in physical address space.

5. The page table will updated accordingly.

6. The signal will be sent to the CPU to continue the program execution and it will place the
process back into ready state.
DirtyBi t
t
In
In order to reduce the page fault service time, a special bit called the dirty bit will be associated with each page .

The dirty bit is set to 1 whenever it is modified.while selecting a victim page using page replacement algorithm. This value is
tested ,if it is set to 1 means that page has modified after swapped in ,so the page have to be written into sec memory.
 Page replacement algorithms

1. Find the location of the page requested by ongoing process on the disk.

2. Find a free frame. If there is a free frame, use it.

3. If there is no free frame, use a page-replacement algorithm to select any existing frame to

be replaced, such frame is known as victim frame.

4. Write the victim frame to disk. Change all related page tables to indicate that this page is no longer

in memory.

5. Move the required page and store it in the frame. Adjust all related page and frame tables to

indicate the change.

6. Restart the process that was waiting for this page.

 First-In-First-Out (FIFO) Algorithm

• This is the simplest page replacement algorithm. In this algorithm, operating system
keeps track of all pages in the memory in a queue, oldest page is in the front of the
queue. When a page needs to be replaced page in the front of the queue is selected
for removal

• Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1

• 3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)

 Belady’s Anomaly
• FIFO suffers from belady’s anomaly.
• belady’s anomaly:
• increasing the number of page frames results in
an increases the number of page faults for a given
memory access pattern.
• 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

3
frames

4
frames

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 Optimal Algorithm
• Replace page that will not be used for longest period of time
• In this algorithm, pages are replaced which would not be used for the longest duration
of time in the future.
• 9 page faults
• 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
 LRU
• this algorithm replaces the page which has not been referred for a long time.
This algorithm is just opposite to the optimal page replacement algorithm. In this,
we look at the past instead of staring at future.
• Associate time of last use with each page
• 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1

• 12 faults – better than FIFO but worse than OPT

• Generally good algorithm and frequently used
 Thrashing

• A process that is spending more time paging than executing is said to be thrashing. In other

words it means, that the process doesn't have enough frames to hold all the pages for its

execution, so it is swapping pages in and out very frequently to keep executing. Sometimes, the

pages which will be required in the near future have to be swapped out.
DEADLOCK
IN OS
DEADLOCK

 Deadlock is a situation where a set of processes are blocked because each process is holding a

resource and waiting for another resource acquired by some other process.

Process 1 is holding Resource 1 and waiting for resource 2

which is acquired by process 2, and process 2 is waiting for resource 1 2
 METHODS FOR HANDLING
DEADLOCK
Deadlock
prevention or To ensure that deadlocks never occur, the system can use eit
avoidance: Deadlock prevention or a deadlock-avoidance scheme.

Deadlock
detection and Allow the system to enter a deadlocked state,
recovery detect it, and recover

ignore the
problem ignore the problem altogether and pretend that
altogether deadlocks never
occur in the system.

TEACH A COURSE 3
NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR DEADLOCKS
▪ Mutual Exclusion

A resource can only be shared in mutually exclusive manner. Only one process can access
resource at a time

▪ Hold and Wait

A process waits for some resources while holding another resource at the same time.

▪ No preemption

The process which once scheduled will be executed till the completion. A resource can be
released only voluntarily by the process holding it after that process has finished its task

▪ Circular Wait

All the processes must be waiting for the resources in a cyclic manner so that the last process
is waiting for the resource which is being held by the first process

Deadlock happens only when Mutual Exclusion, hold and wait, No preemption and circular wait holds simultaneously
TEACH A COURSE 4
  To ensure that deadlocks never occur, the system can use either a
deadlock prevention or a deadlock-avoidance scheme.

TEACH A COURSE 5
 DEADLOCK PREVENTION

▪ Deadlock can be prevented by eliminating any of the necessary conditions for deadlock.
Eliminate Mutual Exclusion
▪ if we can be able to violate resources behaving in the mutually exclusive manner then the deadlock can be prevented.
Eliminate No Premption
▪ Preempt resources from the process when resources required by other high priority processes.
Eliminate Hold and Wait:
▪ In this condition, processes must be stopped from holding single or multiple resources while simultaneously waiting for one or
more others.
Eliminate Circular Wait
▪ This ensures that not a single process can request a resource which is being utilized by some other process and no cycle will be
formed
. Process can request for resource in an increasing order only. Set of numbers are assigned to resources.

TEACH A COURSE 6
 ELIMINATE
CIRCULAR WAIT

▪ This ensures that not a single process can request a resource which is being utilized
by some other process and no cycle will be formed
• Process can request for resource in an increasing order only. Set of numbers are
assigned to resources.

TEACH A COURSE 7
 Deadlock Avoidance
• The request for any resource will be granted only if the resulting state of the system doesn't cause any
deadlock in the system.
• For every resource allocation ,the safe state or unsafe state is checked
• Its done using bankers algorithm

TEACH A COURSE 8
 BANKERS ALGORITHM

• Bankers’s Algorithm is resource allocation and deadlock avoidance algorithm which test all the request made by
processes for resources, it checks for the safe state, if after granting request system remains in the safe state it
allows the request and if there is no safe state it doesn’t allow the request made by the process.

• Banker’s algorithm is named so because it is used in banking system to check whether loan can be sanctioned to a
person or not.

• the bank would never allocate its money in such a way that it can no longer satisfy the needs of all its customers. The
bank would try to be in safe state always

TEACH A COURSE 9
 BANKERS ALGORITHM

Inputs to Banker’s Algorithm:

1.Max need of resources by each process.

2.Currently, allocated resources by each process.
3.Max free available resources in the system.
The request will only be granted under the below condition:
1.If the request made by the process is less than equal to max need to that process.
2.If the request made by the process is less than equal to the freely available resource in the system.

TEACH A COURSE 10
 Available
indicating the number of available resources of each type.
Allocation :
defines the number of resources of each type currently allocated to each process.
Max
defines the maximum demand of each process in a system
Need (Remaining):
indicates the remaining resource need of each process

TEACH A COURSE 11
 BANKERS ALGORITHM:: TOTAL AVAILABLE IS A=10,B=5,C=7
proces Allocated Max.Need Available Need
s [maxneed – allocation ]

A B C A B C A B C A B C

p1 0 1 0 7 5 3 3 3 2 7 4 3

p2 2 0 0 3 2 2 5 3 2(2) 1 2 2

p3 3 0 2 9 0 2 7 4 3 (4) 6 0 0

p4 2 1 1 4 2 2 7 4 5 (5) 2 1 1

p5 0 0 2 5 3 3 7 5 5 (1) 5 3 1

P2→P4→P5→P1→P3 10 5 7 (3)

TEACH A COURSE 12
 DEADLOCK DETECTION AND RECOVERY IN OS

• If a system does not employ either a deadlock-prevention or deadlock-avoidance algorithm, then

there are chances of occurrence of a deadlock.

• In order to get rid of deadlocks, The OS periodically checks the system for any deadlock.

• In case, it finds any of the deadlock then the OS will recover the system using some recovery
techniques.

• The OS can detect the deadlocks with the help of Resource allocation graph.

TEACH A COURSE 13
DEADLOCK
DETECTION

▪ If resources have single instance:

▪ In this case for Deadlock detection can be done by checking for cycle in the Resource Allocation
Graph. Presence of cycle in the graph is the sufficient condition for deadlock.

TEACH A COURSE 14
DEADLOCK RECOVERY
Recovery methods

1. Killing the process: killing all the process involved in the deadlock. Killing process one by one. After killing each process
check for deadlock again keep repeating the process till system recover from deadlock.

2. Resource Preemption: Resources are preempted from the processes involved in the deadlock, preempted resources are
allocated to other processes so that there is a possibility of recovering the system from deadlock.

TEACH A COURSE 15
STARVATION Deadlock Starvation

▪ Starvation is the problem that occurs when

All processes keep waiting for each
High priority processes keep executing
high priority processes keep executing and other to complete and none get
and low priority processes are blocked
executed
low priority processes get blocked for

indefinite time
Resources are blocked by the Resources are continuously utilized by
processes high priority processes
▪ In starvation resources are continuously

utilized by high priority processes. Problem

It can be prevented by avoiding the
of starvation can be resolved using Aging. It can be prevented by Aging
necessary conditions for deadlock

In Aging priority of long waiting processes

is gradually increased.

TEACH A COURSE 16
 Approaches to Interprocess Communication
The different approaches to implement interprocess communication are given as follows −

•Pipe
A pipe is a data channel that is unidirectional. Two pipes can be used to create
a two-way data channel between two processes. This uses standard input and
output methods. Pipes are used in all POSIX systems as well as Windows
operating systems.
•Shared Memory
Shared memory is the memory that can be simultaneously accessed by multiple
processes. This is done so that the processes can communicate with each other. All
POSIX systems, as well as Windows operating systems use shared memory.
•Message Queue
Multiple processes can read and write data to the message queue without being
connected to each other. Messages are stored in the queue until their recipient
retrieves them. Message queues are quite useful for interprocess communication and
are used by most operating systems.
 Named Pipe or FIFO

• It is an extension to the traditional pipe concept on Unix. A traditional pipe is

“unnamed” and lasts only as long as the process.
• A named pipe, however, can last as long as the system is up, beyond the life of the
process. It can be deleted if no longer used.
• Usually a named pipe appears as a file and generally processes attach to it for inter-
process communication. A FIFO file is a special kind of file on the local storage which
allows two or more processes to communicate with each other by reading/writing
to/from this file.
• A FIFO special file is entered into the filesystem by calling mkfifo() in C. Once we have
created a FIFO special file in this way, any process can open it for reading or writing,
in the same way as an ordinary file. However, it has to be open at both ends
simultaneously before you can proceed to do any input or output operations on it.