PAPER OF DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

THE NATURE OF REFERENCE IN TEXT AND IN DISCOURSE

Arranged by group 7

1. Alifah Az-zahra (2111040124)

2. Lutfia Aida Yahya (2111040260)
3. Muhammad Fahrizal Tanjung (2111040188)

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

FACULTY TARBIYAH AND TEACHER TRAINING
RADEN INTAN STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY LAMPUNG
2023/2024
 FOREWORD

Praise and gratitude the author prays to the presence of God Almighty because of the
abundance of His grace and gifts so that the authors can compile this paper on time. This
paper
was made to fulfill discourse analysis course in the English Education Study Program,
Faculty of
Tarbiyah Teaching Training, Raden Intan State Islamic University, Lampung. This paper
discusses the nature of reference in text and in discourse. .

In the preparation of this paper, the author faced many challenges and obstacles but with
the help of various parties these challenges could be overcome. Therefore, the authors would
like to express their deepest gratitude to all those who have helped in the preparation of this
paper, hopefully their assistance will receive a worthy reply from God Almighty.

The author realizes that this paper is still far from perfect, both in terms of the form and
material. Constructive criticism from readers is very much hoped for for the improvement of
the
next paper. Finally, hopefully this paper can provide benefits to all of us

Bandar Lampung, Mei 10 2024

 TABLE OF CONTENT

FOREWORD............................................................................................................................ 2
TABLE OF CONTENT........................................................................................................... 3
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................... 4
A. Background..................................................................................................................... 4
B. Problem formulation........................................................................................................4
DISCUSSION........................................................................................................................... 5
A. What is “text”.................................................................................................................. 5
B. Discourse Reference........................................................................................................ 7
C. Pronouns in Discourse................................................................................................... 10
CLOSING............................................................................................................................... 13
A. Conclusion.....................................................................................................................13
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................... 14
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

A. Background
The study of language encompasses a broad range of elements, from the structure and
meaning of words to the way sentences are constructed and how they convey meaning
within various contexts. One key aspect of this study is understanding how reference
functions both in text and discourse. At the core, reference is the means by which
language points to or represents something in the world or in the text itself. This paper
delves into the intricate nature of reference, examining its role and mechanisms in
both text and discourse, with a focus on cohesion, endophora, substitution, and the
dynamics of discourse reference.

B. Problem formulation
1. How do cohesive devices, such as lexical cohesion and grammatical cohesion,
contribute to the coherence and unity of texts in discourse analysis?
2. What are the mechanisms and roles of endophora, including anaphora and
cataphora, in establishing reference relationships within a text or
conversation?
3. How can the dynamics of discourse reference, including the use of pronouns
and noun phrases, be studied to enhance our understanding of communication
strategies across different languages and cultures?
 CHAPTER 2
DISCUSSION

A. What is “text”
Within discourse analysis, "text" goes beyond just written or spoken words on a page.
It refers to a unit of communication that creates meaning through its internal structure
and its relationship to the broader context. Here's how cohesion, endophora, and
substitution contribute to understanding text in discourse:
1. Cohesion
Cohesion refers to the mechanisms that bind sentences and paragraphs
together, creating a unified and coherent whole. It's like the glue that holds the
text together. Examples of cohesive devices include:

● Reference: Using pronouns (he, she, it), determiners (the, this, that), or
synonyms to refer back to previously mentioned entities.
● Lexical cohesion: Repeating words or using synonyms and related
words to create a thematic flow.
● Connectives: Using words like "and," "but," "therefore," or "however"
to show relationships between ideas.
● Grammatical cohesion: Using parallel structures, verb tense
consistency, and other grammatical features to connect sentences.

Example:
The scientist (reference) conducted a series of experiments to understand
(connective) the effects of climate change on coral reefs. These (reference)
reefs are vital ecosystems that support a wide variety of marine life. (lexical
cohesion - "reefs" connects back to "coral reefs")

Explanation:
- Reference: "The scientist" refers back to someone previously
mentioned, likely in the introduction.
- Connective: "to understand" shows the purpose of the experiments.
- Lexical Cohesion: "These" refers back to "coral reefs" to avoid
repetition.
2. Endophora:
Endophora is a specific type of reference within a text. It refers to words or
phrases that point to other elements within the same text. There are two main
types:

● Anaphora: Referring back to something previously mentioned. For

example, "The scientist conducted the experiment. She then analyzed
the results."
● Cataphora: Referring to something that will be mentioned later. For
example, "I'll tell you a story. It involves a brave knight."

Example:
a. John told a joke. It was hilarious! (Cataphora) Everyone in the room
burst out laughing.
Explanation:
Cataphora: "It" refers forward to the upcoming joke, creating
suspense and anticipation.
b. We hiked for miles until we reached the summit. The view from there
(Anaphora) was breathtaking.
Explanation:
Anaphora: "The view from there" refers back to "the summit,"
reminding the reader of the location.

Understanding endophora helps us follow the flow of information and build a

mental model of the text.

3. Substitution:
Substitution involves replacing words or phrases with other expressions that
have similar meanings. This can be done for various reasons, such as to avoid
repetition, add emphasis, or clarify meaning. Some examples include:

● Using synonyms: "The house was dilapidated (falling apart)."

 ● Using hyponyms (more specific terms): "The canine (dog) wagged
its tail."
● Using superordinate terms (more general terms): "The felines (cats)
chased the string."
Example:
a. The king (superordinate term) was a wise and benevolent ruler. His
(reference) subjects adored him.
Explanation:
- Superordinate term: "King" is a broader term encompassing the
specific ruler.
- Reference: "His" refers back to "king" to avoid repetition.
b. The storm (hyponym) raged for hours, battering the coast with
ferocious winds (synonym) and relentless rain (synonym).
Explanation:
- Hyponym: "Storm" is a more specific term than the general
concept of bad weather.
- Synonym: "Ferocious winds" and "relentless rain" provide a
more vivid description of the storm without simply repeating
"storm."

Substitution contributes to the richness and variety of the text while

maintaining the overall meaning.

How it all works together:

By analyzing cohesion, endophora, and substitution, we gain a deeper understanding
of how text works within the context of discourse. These features show how
sentences are linked, information flows, and meaning is constructed through language
choices. They all contribute to creating a coherent and purposeful piece of
communication.

B. Discourse Reference
Substitution is a cohesive device where a word or phrase is replaced by another, often
to avoid repetition. This can involve nominal, verbal, or clausal substitutions,
contributing to the text's cohesion by maintaining its flow and readability without
redundancy. Discourse reference, also known as referential cohesion, is a linguistic
concept that refers to how different parts of a text or conversation refer to the same
entities or ideas. It's about maintaining coherence and clarity by connecting pronouns,
noun phrases, and other referring expressions to their antecedents or previously
mentioned entities.
1. Reference and Discourse representations
In the realm of discourse, representations are the mental models that
individuals construct to understand and interact with the world around them.
Reference plays a crucial role in building these models, as it helps to link
linguistic elements to the concepts and entities they represent.
a. Reference Representation: This pertains to how language refers to
entities or objects in the world. In other words, it's about how language
points to or identifies things. There are different types of reference
representations:
i. Direct Reference: When a word or phrase directly refers to a
specific entity. For example, in the sentence "John is eating an
apple," "John" directly refers to a particular person.
ii. Anaphoric Reference: When a word or phrase refers back to
something previously mentioned in the discourse. For example,
in the sentence "Jane bought a new car. It's red," "it" refers back
to "a new car."
iii. Cataphoric Reference: When a word or phrase refers to
something mentioned later in the discourse. For instance, in the
sentence "It was huge. The elephant took up the entire room,"
"it" refers to the elephant, which is mentioned later.
iv. Exophoric Reference: When a word or phrase refers to
something outside the immediate text or conversation, often
relying on context or shared knowledge. For example, in the
sentence "Look at that!," "that" refers to something visible in
the environment.

b. Discourse representation : This involves how meanings are

constructed and maintained across a stretch of language, such as a
 conversation or a text. It includes understanding how different parts of
a conversation or text relate to each other and how they contribute to
the overall meaning. Discourse representation encompasses

2. Referring expressions
are linguistic elements used to identify or refer to entities, objects, or
concepts in discourse. These expressions play a crucial role in
communication by allowing speakers or writers to direct attention to
specific referents. There are various types of referring expressions,
each serving different purposes and contexts.

a. Definite Noun Phrases: These refer to specific entities that are

uniquely identifiable within a given context. Definite noun phrases
typically include definite articles like "the." Examples include:
● "The Eiffel Tower is located in Paris."
● "Pass me the salt, please."

b. Indefinite Noun Phrases: These refer to non-specific entities or

entities whose identity is not known or important to the speaker.
Indefinite noun phrases often include indefinite articles like "a" or "an."
Examples include:
● "Can you lend me a pen?"
● “I have an umbrella”

c. Demonstratives: Demonstratives point to specific entities in space or

time, often using words like "this," "that," "these," and "those." They
rely on the physical or temporal context to convey meaning. Examples
include:
● "Those shoes look comfortable."
● “That book is interesting”

Proper Nouns: Proper nouns refer to specific entities by name. They

are capitalized and typically denote specific people, places,
organizations, or titles. Examples include:
 ● "I visited New York City last summer."
● “Medan is big city”

Pronouns: Pronouns replace nouns or noun phrases that have been

mentioned earlier in the discourse. They help avoid repetition and
maintain cohesion in the conversation or text. Examples include:
● "Mary went to the store. She needed to buy some groceries."
● “John bought a new car. It’s blue.”

C. Pronouns in Discourse
From a formal point of view, pronouns are, as we demonstrated in Chapter 5, the
paradigm examples of expressions used by speakers to refer to 'given' entities.
Pronouns are typically uttered with low pitch in spoken discourse and, as such, are
types of referring expressions which, in Chafe's terms (1976), are phonologically and
lexically 'attenuated'. Because of their lack of 'content', they have become the crucial
test-case items for any theory of reference.
1. Pronouns and antecedent nominals
Pronouns are often used in text and discourse to refer back to previously
mentioned nouns (antecedents). The correct interpretation of pronouns
requires understanding their connection to these antecedent nominals, which
can be influenced by grammatical rules and contextual cues.
Example : The movie theater was showing a double feature, and it was a
great way to spend the evening.
(Movie theater is the antecedent, and it is the pronoun referring back to the
theater.)

2. Pronouns and antecedent predicates

Just as pronouns can refer to antecedent nominals, they can also relate to
predicates mentioned earlier in the discourse. This relationship helps to
maintain coherence by linking different statements and actions to the same
subjects or objects.
Example: The heavy rains caused flooding in the streets, and this
disrupted traffic for hours.
 In this example, the pronoun "this" refers to the consequence of the heavy
rains, which is the flooding. The predicate is "caused flooding in the streets,"
and the pronoun is used to emphasize the impact of the flooding.

3. Pronouns and ‘new’ predicates

Pronouns can introduce new predicates into the discourse, expanding on
previously mentioned subjects or objects. This use of pronouns is essential for
developing ideas and arguments within a text, allowing for a more dynamic
and flexible way of referring to entities and actions.
Example: Traveling the world solo can be daunting, but doing so allows
you to experience different cultures in a unique way.
In this example, "doing so" refers back to the entire clause "traveling the world
solo." This pronoun avoids repetition and emphasizes the action itself.

4. Interpreting pronominal reference in discourse

the interpretation of pronominal references within discourse is a complex
process that involves both linguistic knowledge and contextual understanding.
Factors such as proximity, salience, and the overall coherence of the discourse
influence how pronouns are linked to their referents.
Example: The scientist conducted a groundbreaking experiment. She was
thrilled with the results, which had the potential to revolutionize
medicine. Her colleagues were skeptical at first, but they were soon
convinced of the significance of her findings

Pronoun Analysis:
● "She" (second sentence): This pronoun refers to the scientist
mentioned in the first sentence.

● "Her" (third sentence): This pronoun also refers to the scientist.

● "They" (fourth sentence): This pronoun refers to the scientist's

colleagues, who were initially skeptical but later became convinced.
Interpretation:
In this passage, the pronouns effectively connect the different parts of the text,
allowing us to follow the story of the scientist's groundbreaking experiment
and its impact on her colleagues. The pronouns help us understand that the
scientist is the central figure in the narrative and that her work has significant
implications.
 CHAPTER 3
CLOSING

A. Conclusion
The nature of reference in text and discourse is a multifaceted aspect of language
study that touches upon the mechanisms of cohesion, the roles of endophora and
substitution, and the dynamics of discourse reference. Understanding these elements
is crucial for both the production and comprehension of coherent and meaningful
language. As we continue to explore the intricacies of reference, we deepen our
understanding of how language functions as a tool for representation, communication,
and thought.
 REFERENCES

Halliday, M.A.K., & Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. London: Longman.

Levinson, S.C. (1983). Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Van Dijk, T.A. (1977). Text and Context: Explorations in the Semantics and Pragmatics of
Discourse. London: Longman.
Gundel, J.K., Hedberg, N., & Zacharski, R. (1993). "Cognitive status and the form of
referring expressions in discourse." Language, 69(2), 274-307.