Phy (Unit 5) (Notes)
Phy (Unit 5) (Notes)
Syllabus
Magnetism
Origin of magnetism
Classification of magnetism on the basis of permeability (qualitative)
Applications of magnetic devices: transformer cores, magnetic sto rage, magneto-optical
recording
Superconductivity
Introduction to superconductivity; Properties of superconductors: zero electrica l
resistance, critical magnetic field, persistent current, Meissner effect
Type I and Type II superconductors
Low and high temperature superconductors (introduction and qualitative)
AC/DC Josephson effect; SQUID: basic construction and principle of worki ng; Applications of
SQUID
Applications of superconductors
Introduction
Magnetic materials play a prominent role in modern technology. They are widely used in
industry, electronics and storage technologies.
Magnetic materials can broadly be classified into soft and hard materials. Soft magnetic
materials are easily magnetized and demagnetized and. They are used in AC applications.
Hard magnetic materials retain magnetism on a permanent basis.
Further, depending on their response to the external magnetic field, magnetic materials can
be broadly classified into three groups: diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic
materials.
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MMIT, Lohgaon, Pune II Engineering Physics [2019-20} II Unit 5 - Magnetism and Superconductivity
4. Magnetization (M)
Magnetization (or intensity of magnetization) is the measure of magnetism of magnetic
materials. It is defined as magnetic moment per unit volume and denoted by M .
The unit of magnetization in SI system is amperes per meter (A/m).
As magnetization is induced by magnetic field, M is proportional to H.
Thus, M oc H or M =x H
Where, xis called as magnetic susceptibility.
8 0 003 14
· · f orce,
Th us, Magnetizing H -- - - M -- · - 2300 -- 198 A/m
µ0 1 2.57 x 10- 7
. . . . µ 1 1 B 0.00314
Re Iat1ve perm1tt1v1ty µr = -
µo
= -
µo
x µ = -µ x -H = 1 2.5 7x1 0- 7 x 198
= 12 .56
0
Example: Diamagnetic Al20 3 is subjected to an expternal magnetic field of 105 Alm. Evaluate
magnetization and magnetic flux density. [Susceptibility of Al20 3 is -Sxl0-5 ).
Solution: Magnetiation M = xH = 5 x 10-5 x 10 5 = 5A/m
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MMIT, Lohgaon, Pune II Engineering Physics [2019-20} II Unit 5 - Magnetism and Superconductivity
Magnetic properties of solids arise due to electrons undergoing different motions in atom.
These motions give rise to magnetic dipole moments.
In general, the magnetic dipole moment of the atom arises because of three sources:
Orbital magnetic
'+'I moment
moment Spin magnetic Spin magnetic
moment
Spinning
electron Total magnetict
moment · 1
= Orbital of electron
orbiting nucleus
Orbital of electron
orbiting nucleus
Each electron is spinning about itself and this gives rise to a magnetic dipole moment.
It can be shown that spin magnetic moment is given by
e
µ 5 = g-S = yS
2m
Where
y = g ...!::._
2m
is called gyromagnetic ratio (g-factor) [For electron g=-2.0023]
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MMIT, Lohgaon, Pune II Engineering Physics [2019-20} II Unit 5 - Magnetism and Superconductivity
(iii) When material is placed in a magnetic field, the atomic dipoles respond to the external
magnetic field.
(iv) In diamagnetic materials, atomic moments are weakly aligned along opposite direction of
external magnetic field .
(v) In paramagnetic materials, atomic moments are weakly aligned along same direction of
external magnetic field .
(vi) In ferromagnetic materials, atomic moments are strongly aligned along same direction of
external magnetic field .
H=O
....... ....
PARAMAGNETIC
H=O H ➔ H=O
fl ...
FERROMAGNETIC
.......
H ➔
Example: Calculate the values of Bohr magneton and nuclear magneton. Hence find their ratio.
Solution:
Bohr magneton: = _ e_h = 1.6x 1 0 - 19 x6.6 3 x 1 0 - 34 = 9 _28 x 10 _2 4 A. m 2
µ B 4rrme 4X3 .14X9. lx1Q- 31
19 34
Nuclear magneton : µ
8
= ...!.!!:..._
4rrmp
= 1.46X3x io- 6 63
x . x io-
27
.14X l.673X l0-
= 5.05 x 10-2 7 A. m 2
24
Thus µ 8 = 9 .zsx io- = 1837.62
' µN s.o sx 10- 27
In accordance with the value of relative permeability the materials are classified as:
1. Diamagnetic Materials:
Diamagnetic materials are substances which when placed in an
external magnetic field develop a weak magnetism in opposite
direction of the external magnetic field. - N
~r :
S ....__
~ :
The atoms have very small magnetic moment
They slightly repel the magnetic lines of forces.
:::: ~ : ---d- -
The examples are bismuth, silver, copper and hydrogen.
The relative permeability of these materials is slightly less than one i.e.µ,< 1
For example the relative permeability of bismuth is 0.00083, copper is 0.000005 and wood is
0.9999995
The diamagnetic susceptibility is very small and negative i.e. x<O. It is due to the repulsion
experienced by diamagnetic materials when placed in a magnetic field.
2. Paramagnetic Materials:
Paramagnetic materials are substances which when placed in a
magnetic field acquire a feeble (small) magnetism in the
direction of the magnetic field.
The atoms are slightly oriented along the direction of the
external magnetic field.
They attract the lines of force slight ly.
The examples are aluminum, tin magnesium etc.
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MMIT, Lohgaon, Pune II Engineering Physics [2019-20} II Unit 5 - Magnetism and Superconductivity
The relative permeability of these materials is slightly above than one i.e.µ,> 1
For example the relative permeability of aluminum is: 1.00000065
The paragmagnetic susceptibility is less than one but positive i.e. x<l. It is due to the slight
attraction of magnetic field when placed in a magnetic field .
3. Ferromagnetic Materials:
Ferromagnetic materials are metallic crystals which when
placed in external magnetic field becomes strongly magnetized
in the direction of the field. These materials are strongly
attracted by a magnetic field.
These materials are strongly oriented along the direction of the
external magnetic field .
They attract the lines of force strongly.
The examples are iron, steel, nickel, cobalt etc.
The relative permeabilities of these materials are much greater than one and dependent on
the field strengths i.e. µ, > 1
For example, the purified iron and many magnetic alloys have relative permeabi lities of iron
and many magnetic alloys is 100,000 or more.
The ferromagnetic susceptibility is greater than one and positive i.e. x»l. It is due to the
large attraction of magnetic field when placed in a magnetic field .
Above the Curie temperature (Tc), ferro-magnetic materials behave as para-magnetic
materials and their susceptibility is given by the Curie-Weiss law, defined as
x = T-Tc
_ c_, where C is material constant, T and Tc are Temperat ure and Curie temperat ures
......
•• •• .....
H ➔
...............
PARAMAGNETIC
H:0 H➔
';.._ ........
JI ........
,,,,,,,., ........
FERROMAGNETIC
H:0
,, ........
........
H➔
3 Response to external
••
Slightly repelled by Sl ightly attracted by Strongly attracted by
magnetic field external magnetic field external magnetic field external magnetic fi eld
4 Relative permeability µ, < 1 µ, > 1 µ,>> 1
(µ,) (Bi : 0.00083) (Al: 1.00000065) (Fe: 1,00,000 or more)
5 Susceptibility {z} Very small and negative Less than one but Very high X»l
i.e. x<0 positive i.e. x<l
6 Effect of temperature x is independent of Obeys Curie law x ex: !. Susceptibility x decrease
T
on susceptibility temperature with temperature in
complex way
7 Curie Point (above No Curie point No Curie point Have defin ite Curie point
which become
paramagnetic)
8 Hysterisis (Lag in Not exhibited Not exhibited Exhibit ed
change on
magnetization)
9 Rententivity Not exh ibited Not exhibited Exh ibit ed
(Residual magnetism)
10 Examples Bismuth, silver, copper, Alumin um, tin Iron, steel, nickel, coba lt
hydrogen, etc magnesium etc etc
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MMIT, Lohgaon, Pune II Engineering Physics [2019-20} II Unit 5 - Magnetism and Superconductivity
4. Antiferromagnetism
Antiferromagnetic materials are crystalline materials.
In the presence of the strong magnetic field,
antiferromagnetic materials are weakly magnetized in
the direction the field . This property of the materials is
called antiferromagnetism.
The magnetic moments of atoms are al igned in opposite
directions and are equal in magnitude. Thus, when t
unmagnetized, their net magnetisation is zero. Antiferromagnetism
Examples of antiferromagnetic substances: MnO, FeO,
CoO, NiO, Cr, Mn
This is the case below a particular temperature, called as Neel temperature (TN) above which
the material behaves as a paramagnet.
Antiferromagnetic materials exhibit a small positive susceptibility x of order of 10-3 and 10-5
from OK to TN and show antiferromagnetic behavior. Above TN, the susceptibil ity show
paramagnetic behavior.
Soft magnetic materials: Magnetic materials, which are easily magnetized and demagnetized are
known as soft magnetic materials. They have high initial permeability due to which they reach
saturation magnetization with a relative ly low applied magnetic field. They are pa rticularly used in
alternating current applications. Susceptibility and permeability are high.
Hard magnetic materials: Ha rd magnetic materials ret ain their magnetism and are difficult to
demagnetize. They have high permeability and a high resistance to demagnetization. They retain
their magnetism even after the removal of the applied magnetic field . Susceptibility and
permeability are low.
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MMIT, Lohgaon, Pune II Engineering Physics [2019-20} II Unit 5 - Magnetism and Superconductivity
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MMIT, Lohgaon, Pune II Engineering Physics [2019-20} II Unit 5 - Magnetism and Superconductivity
Magnetic storage is one of the most widely used digital data storage using a magnetized medium.
Several types of magnetized media are used to store data such as magnetic tape, floppy disks and
hard disk drives. The basic approach to magnetic data storage is almost similar for the different
types of media.
Storage medium
The medium used in magnetic storage devices is coated with iron oxide, which is a ferromagnetic
material. The storage media contains magnetic surface and it is divided into very small regions of
mostly uniform magnetization.
Basic Principle
There are two types of magnetic polarities i.e. N-S and S-N each one used to represent either zero or
one. Computer systems need to store data in digital format consists of binary information i.e. data in
the form of zero and ones. The region where data is to be stored is magnetizied (read as 1). The
unmagnetized region is read as 0.
Fl
Read Head Write Head
generates a magnetic flux. At the gap, the magnetic
Signal
flux forms a fringe pattern. This flux magnetizes
small region of the oxide on the media and
17-fl_-.
magnetization of that area change . The information
is stored on the disk in the form of zero' s
(unmagnetized region) and ones (magnetized
Disk
I[ I IT] I
N S
I [I][I] I
□
00 1 0 1 00 1 1 0
regions).
Direction of disk motion
Reading the data: The read head is moved along the
surface of the storage media. The information stored on the magnetic devices i.e. the regions of
magnetization and demagnetizations are detected by the read head by detecting a varying magnetic
field across the gap.
beam
Magneto-optical recording is a method of
storing and retrieving data using a laser and a
magnet.
A thin film of magnetic material (e.g.
----
Fastmoving
media
Disk Label side
Magnetic field
amorphous Terbium iron cobalt, TbFeCo) lines
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MMIT, Lohgaon, Pune II Engineering Physics [2019-20} II Unit 5 - Magnetism and Superconductivity
Questions on Magnetism
1 or 2 marks each
Explain the terms in brief with unit wherever required
1. Magnetic dipole moment
2. Magnetic field strength (H) [Dec 19, 2ml
3. Magnetization (M) {Dec 19, 2m]
4. Magnetic Susceptibility (x)
5. Magnetic Induction (B)
6. Absolute permeability (µ)[Dec 19, 2ml
7. Relative Permeability(µ,) {Dec 19, 2m]
8. Bohr magneton
6 marks
1. Explain the origin of magnetism.
2. Explain how materials are classified on the basis of permeability.
3. Differentiate between paramagnetism, diamagnetism and ferromagnetism.
4. Explain how the information is recorded and retrieved in magneto-optical recording devices.
{Dec 19, 6m]
5. Explain the process of recording and retrieving the information in magnetic storage devices.
3/4 marks
1. What are the different types oftransformer core? Discuss in brief any two of them and state
their applications.
2. Explain in brief what are paramagnetic materials?
3. Explain in brief what are diamagnetic materials?
4. Explain in brief what are ferromagnetic materials?
5. Explain in brief what are anti-ferromagnetic materials?
6. Explain in brief what are ferrimagnetic materials?
7. Differentiate between paramagnetism, diamagnetism and ferromagnetism. [Dec 19, 4ml
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MMIT, Lohgaon, Pune II Engineering Physics [2019-20} II Unit 5 - Magnetism and Superconductivity
5.2 Superconductivity
- Superconductivity is complete disappearance of electrical resistance (zero electrical
resistance) in some materials when they are cooled below a characteristic temperature. This
temperature is called as transition temperature (Tc) . The zero resistivity means almost
infinite conductivity.
superconductor
A superconductor is a material that exhibits P
superconductivity. Above Tc, the superconducting material
behaves as a normal conductor.
Thus the observed phenomenon is called as
superconductivity.
However, copper, silver and gold which are very good conductor at room temperature do not show
superconductivity.
, h,Lan i«
ElttUOn I ah"
Emining Phonon
n
Cru1ion or Phonon
by Electron I
Eltttron I Approacht:j
"-.
j
Phonon
!~
Abwrpuon of
Electron 2 af1cr Ahsobing
Phonon
El«<ron 2
Phonon cltttron 2
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MMIT, Lohgaon, Pune II Engineering Physics [2019-20} II Unit 5 - Magnetism and Superconductivity
Constant current Voltage developed is measured with voltage probes (2 and 3).
A power supply
Normal state (T>Tc): A voltage is developed across voltage probes and Ohm's law V = IR is obeyed.
Superconducting state (T>Tc): The resistance of superconductor vanishes (R =
0) and hence the
voltage across voltage probes disappear i.e. (V =
0) while current continues to flow.
Persistent Currents
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MMIT, Lohgaon, Pune II Engineering Physics [2019-20} II Unit 5 - Magnetism and Superconductivity
external magnetic field will destroy the superconducting state, so the strength of the crit ical
field is zero. As temperature decreases, the critical field increases generally to a maximum at
absolute zero.
• The critical magnetic field at temperature Tis given by Hc(T) = Hc(O) [ 1 - (ff]
Where, Hc(0) is the critical magnetic field at OK, Tc is critical temperature.
• Critical field at OK, Hc(O), for few materials Nb: 198 mT, Pb: 80.3 mT, Sn : 30.9 mT
At T > Tc= The material is in normal conductor state and not a superconductor. When a magnetic
field is applied to it, the it penetrates through the material.
If, H is external magnetic field and M is magnetization produced within the sample, the n magnetic
induction inside the specimen (B) is given by
B=µ0 (H+M)
At T < Tc:
The material turns a superconductor and as magnetic field is expelled out of
superconductor. The magnetic induction inside the material B=O
Thus O = µ 0 (H + M)
And M -H=
Susceptibility of the material, x =-MH = -1
Perfectly diamagnetism: Magnetic susceptibility is the degree of magnetization of a material in
response to an applied magnetic field. If magnetic susceptibility is negative the material is
diamagnetic. For superconductors, magnetic susceptibility, x = -MH = - l . This indicates t hat
superconductors are characterized by perfect diamagnetism.
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MMIT, Lohgaon, Pune II Engineering Physics [2019-20} II Unit 5 - Magnetism and Superconductivity
5 Variation of
Magnetization
{M}of
superconductor
with applied
Magnetic Field
{HJ
I ..
~
.
N•=•IStor.
"'
Applied Magnetic Field
'
/ Applied Magnetic Field
/
6 States of the Material exists in two states for T<Tc Material exists in three states for T<Tc
material H<Hc - superconductor H<Hc1 - superconductor
H>Hc - conductor Hc1 > H < Hc2 - mixed/vortex state
H>Hc2 -conduct or
7 Change in The materials loses magnetization The materials loses magnetization
magnetization abruptly gradually
8 Critical Highest value for He is about 0.01 to 0.2 Highest value for Hc2 is about 30 Wb/m 2
magnetic field Wb/m 2
9 Type They are known as soft superconductors They are known as hard supercond uctors
10 Applications Not much useful due to low He Useful due to high Hc2
11 Examples Aluminum, lead, mercury, etc Nb-Sn, Nb-Ti, Nb-Zr, Va -Ga, etc
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MMIT, Lohgaon, Pune II Engineering Physics [2019-20} II Unit 5 - Magnetism and Superconductivity
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MMIT, Lohgaon, Pune II Engineering Physics [2019-20} II Unit 5 - Magnetism and Superconductivity
I= le sin (0 + e:V))
2rrt
Construction of SQUID
There are two main types of SQUID: direct current (DC) and radio frequency (RF). A radio frequency
{RF) SQUID is made up of one Josephson junction, which is mounted on a superconducting ring. A
direct current (DC) SQUID consists of two Josephson junctions in parallel, which is more sensitive.
Construction
SQUIDS are usually fabricated from lead or pure niobium. The tunnel barrier is oxidized onto lead or
niobium surface. The entire device is cooled to within a few degrees of absolute zero with liquid
helium. A schematic of a two-junction de SQUID is shown in figure. It consists of two Josephson
junctions arranged in parallel.
Josephson Junction
Superconductor P 1
1
phson junction
a
I
I 'II
I )( )( )( )( )(
I I
I
C -►-( )( )(
B )( )(
,'--+ D
Biasing current Biasing current I I
I )( )( )( )( )(
I
I
ll l l
I
b I
.... ----- _____ .., I
12
Magnetic Field Q Superconductor
Working
A constant de supercurrent is applied to the SQUID. This current is known as bias current which
enters into the SQUID through arm C. It is divided along the paths a and band again merge into one
and leaves through the arm D. Ii and '2 are currents tunneling through Josephson junctions.
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MMIT, Lohgaon, Pune II Engineering Physics [2019-20} II Unit 5 - Magnetism and Superconductivity
• The voltage across the Josephson junction oscillates with the changes in phase at the two
junctions. This voltage depends upon the change in the magnetic flux. Thus, by noting down
the voltage across the junction, the change in flux and corresponding magnetic field can be
measured.
• Total current through parallel Josephson junctions is Ir = 2(10 sin 80 ) cos er/J
he
• Thus, a progressive increase or decrease of the magnetic flux causes the current to oscillate
between a maximum and minimum when the magnetic flux increases by one flux quantum.
• One flux quantum 0 0 = !!:..
2e
= 2.06 x 10- 15 webers.
Thus, a SQUID can detect extremely small magnetic fields of the order of 10·15 Wb (10·11 T). This
sensitivity can further be increased using a flux transformer.
Applications of SQUID
SQUIDS are sensitive magnetometers that detect very small magnetic fields of the order of 10·14 T.
SQUIDs have many applications. Few are as below:
(i) Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a technique for mapping brain activities. It can detect
magnetic fields produced naturally in the brain which is of the order of 10·14 T.
The human heart also produces a feeble magnetic field of the order of 10·14 T which can
also be detected by SQUIDs.
(ii) MRI Scan: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), also known as nuclear magnetic resonance
imaging, is a scanning technique for creating detailed images of the human body. The scan
uses a strong magnetic field and radio waves to generate images of parts of the body that
can't be seen with X-rays, CT scans or ultrasound . Water molecules in human body contain
hydrogen nuclei (protons). An MRI scanner applies a very strong magnetic field (about 0.2
to 3 teslas), which aligns the proton "spins". This alignment of spin can be detected by
SQUIDS.
(iii) Non-destructive corrosion testing: The magnetism of the material changes due to the
corrosion, which can be detected using SQUID.
(iv) Oil prospecting: Presence of oil field changes the magnetism of the region, which can be
detected using SQUID.
(v) Earthquake prediction can be done by detecting change in earth's magnetism
(vi) Mineral exploration by detecting variation in magnetic fields inside earth crust
(vii) Geothermal energy survey, etc.
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MMIT, Lohgaon, Pune II Engineering Physics [2019-20} II Unit 5 - Magnetism and Superconductivity
Superconducting magnets
Conventional electromagnets are very much bigger in size. They consume large electrical power to
maintain the magnetic field and also require continuous cooling. The use of superconductors in
designing of magnets would have following advantages:
• Intense magnetic field
Superconducting magnet has ability to support a very high current density with almost no
resistance. Due to this electromagnets can be constructed that generate intense magnetic
fields with little electrical power input. Type-II superconductors such as niobium-titanium
(NbTi) alloys, niobium-tin (Nb3Sn) alloys can produce high magnetic fields of around 9-10
Tesla.
• Compact and more efficient setup
Superconducting magnet systems are quite compact and occupy a small space.
• Can be operated for longer duration
In the persistent mode of operation, the L/R time constant is extremely long and the magnet
can be operated for days or even months at a nearly constant field.
Friction-less bearings
A bearing is a machine element that bears the load and minimizes the friction between moving
parts. Most of the energy of bearing is consumed in overcoming friction hence it results into
reduction of efficiency. The use of superconductors in designing of bearings uses principle of
Meissner effect and magnetic field repulsion. Due to this, it is kind of a magnetic cushion and it
would have following advantages:
• No lubrication and maintenance
Superconducting bearings provide the highest efficiency of all bearing technologies and
prevent contact, friction and wear. They need no lubrication or maintenance and can be
used under extreme conditions: vacuum, cryogenic environments.
• More efficient bearings
Superconducting magnetic bearings are virtually frictionless, dust-free, wear & tear less.
• High driving speed
Rotational bearings for very high driving speeds are possible.
• Frictionless motors
In frictionless motors the principle of magnetic air cushion between stator and rotator is
used.
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MMIT, Lohgaon, Pune II Engineering Physics [2019-20} II Unit 5 - Magnetism and Superconductivity
• Josephson junctions
Josephson junctions are used in fast electronic switches or sensitive magnetometers. A
magnetometer is able to detect very small magnetic fields of the order of 10-15T.
• Supercomputers
The semiconductor logic elements have a speed limit. They operate at a speed in orders of
few nanoseconds. Logic elements based on Josephson junction can operate at the speed of
few picoseconds. Use of superconductors in logic gates will drastically increase the speed of
computers.
• SQUID (superconducting quantum interference device)
SQUIDs are used for Non-destructive corrosion testing, Magnetoencephalography (MEG),
observing neural activities inside the brain (MRI scan), study of magnetic propert ies of
material, oil prospecting, mineral exploration, earthquake prediction, geothermal energy
survey, etc.
• Transistors
Superconducting transistors based on Josephson junctions could be used to switch voltages
very quickly. They will significantly speed up the processing of signa ls or data in
microprocessors.
• Circuitry connections
Circuit connections can be made through superconductive films. This wou ld have advantage
that information can be transmitted more quickly without losses.
• IC fabrication
At present processing power of ICs is limited due to 12 R losses of components. Use of
superconductors will make ICs more efficient.
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
• Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a technique for investigating human brain activities on a
millisecond basis. It can detect where in the brain activity is produced.
• Brain generates neuromagnetic signals that are extreme ly small (of the order of 10-12 Tesla).
MEG scanners use SQUIDs to detect this extremely small magnetic field.
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MMIT, Lohgaon, Pune II Engineering Physics [2019-20} II Unit S - Magnetism and Superconductivity
Numericals: Superconductivity
Example: In a superconductor ring of radius 0.02 m, the critical magnetic field is 2x103 Alm at SK.
Find the value of critical current.
Solution:
le = 2nRHc = 2 X 3.143 X 0.02 X 2 X 10 3 = 251.4 A
Example: Calculate the critical magnetic field for lead at 4.2 K. The critical temperature for lead
isl.18 Kand Hc(0)=6.S x la4 Alm.
Solution:
Example: The transition temperature for lead is 7.2K. However, at SK it loses the superconducting
property if subjected to magnetic field of 3.3xla4 Alm. Find the maximum value of H which will allow
the metal to retain its superconductivity at OK. [Dec 19, 4ml
8
T
c
= [1-H c(T)]1/2
T = [1 - 1x10S] 1/ 2
= 113
.
K
Hc (O) 2x10S
Example: The transition temperature for lead is 7.26 K. The maximum critical field for the material is
8xla5 Alm. Lead has to be used as a superconductor subjected to a magnetic field of 4x104 Al m. At
what maximum temperature it can be operated.
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MMIT, Lohgaon, Pune II Engineering Physics [2019-20} II Unit 5 - Magnetism and Superconductivity
Example: Calculate the voltage required to produce a frequency of 2x1011 Hz across the Josephson
junction.
ZeV
Solution: v =-
h
11 34
Thus, V= vh = 2 x 10 x 6 .63x 10- = 414 _38 V
Ze 2 Xl.6X 10-19 µ
Questions on superconductivity
6 marks
1. Define superconductivity with resistance vs temperature graph and example. Explain zero
electrical resistance in superconductivity. [Dec 19, 6ml
2. Explain Meissner effect and its cause. Show that superconductors exhibit perfect
diamagnetism.
3. Differentiate between type I and type II superconductors.
4. What are SQUIDs? Explain principle, construction and working of SQUID.
3/4 marks
1. Explain following terms in superconductivity. Draw the diagram and write equation
wherever necessary:
(i) Critical transition temperature (ii) Zero electrical resistance (iii) Persistent currents
(iv) Critical magnetic field (v) Critica l current and critical current density
2. Differentiate between type I and type II superconductors.
3. Discuss in brief low and high temperature superconductors. Where are they used?
4. Explain DC and AC Josephson effect with diagram. [Dec 19, 4m]
5. What are SQUIDs? Explain their any two applications in brief. [Dec 19, 4ml
6. Explain applications of superconductors in the field of (any one of below) :
(i) Transmission lines and electricity (ii) Superconducting magnets (iii) Fri ctionless bearings
(iv) Electronics (v) Medical field (vi) Maglev trains.
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