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FRESH SURFACE WATER – Vol. I - Origin, Resources and Distribution of Rivers and Streams - I.A.

Shiklomanov

ORIGIN, RESOURCES AND DISTRIBUTION OF RIVERS AND


STREAMS

I.A.Shiklomanov
Director State Hydrological Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia

Keywords: River systems, climate, precipitation, river runoff, renewable water


resources, water use, hydrological network, continent, irrigation, reservoirs, relief,
geological structure, land use, atmospheric circulation, carbon dioxide, hydrological
characteristics, losses, dynamics, assessment, natural-economic regions, ocean, country.

Contents

1. Introduction

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2. Origin and Evolution of River Systems
3. Factors Determining the Evolution of the Contemporary Hydrographic Network and

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River Runoff Regime
3.1. Climate Factors
3.2. Factors of the Underlying Surface
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3.3. Human Activities
4. Studies of River Systems and Renewable Water Resources
4.1. Hydrological Network
4.2. Methodological approaches to the assessment of dynamics of river runoff and its
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use
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5. River Runoff: Distribution over Area and Variations in Time


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5.1. Large river systems and natural-economic regions


5.2. Continents
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5.3. Selected Countries


6. The Dynamics of Water Use in the World
7. Renewable Water Resources and Water Withdrawals
8. Conclusion
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Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketch
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Summary

River systems are of the utmost importance for Nature and people, being the main
source of fresh water supply. The origin and evolution of river systems took place
during the geological history of the Earth under the effects of tectonic and volcanic
processes and changes in the global climate. The present configuration of the
hydrographic network on the Earth was formed about 10,000 years ago after the last
glacial epoch.

Areal distribution of contemporary river systems, their quantitative characteristics and


time changes are determined by a number of physiographic factors and human impact.

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)


FRESH SURFACE WATER – Vol. I - Origin, Resources and Distribution of Rivers and Streams - I.A.Shiklomanov

The hydrological network contains many hydrological stations where water levels and
discharges are regularly measured in rivers, lakes and reservoirs. The data from this
network is very important for studying the regimes of water bodies, and for estimation
of water resources and their change due to human impact.

The world hydrological network data, as well as data on water use and socio-economic
development of different countries of the world, have been used by scientists of the
State Hydrological Institute (SHI, St. Petersburg, Russia) for assessment of river runoff
dynamics and characteristics of past, present and future fresh water use on a global
scale. Analysis and quantitative assessments have been made for the largest river
systems, selected countries, all continents and natural-economic regions of the world.

The present paper contains information on the global scale; data on river systems on
particular continents are given in other chapters of EOLSS.

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1. Introduction

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The system of permanent and temporary watercourse (rivers, streams and brooks) forms
a hydrographic network on the land surface. According to the slope of the Earth’s
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surface, this network is distributed among the largest waterways discharging to oceans,
seas or endorheic lakes. The combination of all rivers and streams discharging to a main
watercourse forms a river system. This can cover a vast area of hundreds of thousands
and even millions of square kilometers. In fact, most of the land surface of our planet
comprises a combination of river systems with permanent or temporary hydrographic
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network penetrating into the whole surface of the Earth, rather like the human blood
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circulatory system, and discharging fresh water from rains and snow or ice melt to the
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World Ocean.
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River systems and the hydrographic network in general are of a great importance for
nature and human life, providing people with fresh water for their activities. The spatial
distribution of river systems, their quantitative characteristics and temporal changes in
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any region of the world depend on a range of physiographic factors (including climatic
factors) and the effect of human activity.
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The present article describes characteristics of river systems, their variations in time and
over area under the effect of physiographic and anthropogenic factors on a global scale.
More detailed information on each continent of the Earth is given in other chapters
within this Topic of EOLSS.

2. Origin and Evolution of River Systems

The history of origin of rivers on the Earth is very long. Water on the planet appeared
during the Archaen era about 4 to 5 billion years ago. According to the most commonly
held viewpoint, the Earth’s hydrosphere is the result of gaseous emission out of the
solid envelope (mantle) of the Earth. About 500 million years ago the hydrosphere
volume equaled more than 90% of its present volume. Great volumes of water were
concentrated not only in oceans but in glacier shields, in large sea basins, lakes and
swamps, in aquifers and in river systems during past geological epochs.

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)


FRESH SURFACE WATER – Vol. I - Origin, Resources and Distribution of Rivers and Streams - I.A.Shiklomanov

Formation of terrestrial hydrography, and origination and evolution of rivers systems in


particular, was mainly determined by changes caused by the effect of tectonic and
volcanic processes on relief formation, including appearance and evolution of
continents, as well as seas and lakes on the continents. Formation of the hydrographic
network was affected by changes in climate, water exchange and soil erosion under the
influence of solar radiation on the Earth’s surface.

During their evolution in different geological epochs, the river systems had various
configurations and different hydrological characteristics. We do not have much reliable
information about evolution of the river network on the continents during the geological
past. Appropriate approximate assessments for individual past epochs are usually made
by analyzing the remains of ancient river valleys and different types of deposits, such as
continental pebbles and sands of marine, lake and river origin.

An intensive period of erosion caused by surface waters was initiated about 4 billion

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years ago when individual land masses (the primary continents) were formed. Most

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traces of the primary watercourses and lakes, however, on the primary continents
disappeared as a result of erosion, tectonic and volcanic activities, and repeated oceanic
transgressions. Little evidence has been found for surface water activity on land before
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the period of one thousand million years ago. Some information about evolution of river
systems since that time in different regions of the world is given in Origin and
Evolution of River Systems.

Data on paleoclimate reconstructions have been widely applied for description of the
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hydrographic network distribution and even for quantitative assessment of hydrological


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regimes of particular water bodies during the Quaternary geological period, the
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beginning of which is usually related to the time of 1.5 to 2.5 million years ago
(Pleistocene). Most assessments were obtained for the territory of Eurasia (see Origin
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and Evolution of River Systems). It should be noted that the Pleistocene period was
characterized by total climate cooling on Earth and by periodic glaciations at temperate
latitudes of the northern hemisphere. Evolution of the river network, and formation of
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lakes and water resources in these regions, are closely connected with glaciation
processes.
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It has been established that the last glacial epoch began about 115 000 years ago and
lasted for more than 100 000 years. Initially, the glaciation was not too intensive, with
frequent intervals. The most intensive cooling and thickest ice cover in polar regions
and at temperate latitudes of the northern hemisphere, as well as glacier formation in
mountain areas, began about 50 000 years ago; the glacier coverage was most extensive
before the 18th millenium B.C. At that time glacier coverage in the northern hemisphere
extended to 50-60oN and its maximum thickness was 2500 m. During that period
glaciers in the mountains in southern areas of the Earth, including in subtropical zones,
occupied very large areas; the lower boundaries of glaciers were 1 to 2.5 km lower than
their present position. During the subsequent millennia, when climate warming began
on Earth, the ice cover on the continents and glaciers in mountains began to melt. Most
intensive melting occurred during the period of 16 to 13 thousand years ago and it was
completed about 7000 years ago. Ice coverage extension and melting caused a
fundamental change in the hydrographic network over a vast land area. During the post-

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)


FRESH SURFACE WATER – Vol. I - Origin, Resources and Distribution of Rivers and Streams - I.A.Shiklomanov

glacial period (Holocene), i.e. during the last 7 to 10 thousand years, the hydrographic
network on our planet did not suffer great changes and its configuration has been similar
to the contemporary one.

3. Factors Determining Evolution of the Contemporary Hydrographic Network


and River Runoff Regime

The contemporary evolution of the hydrographic network and river runoff regime is
explained by a complicated interaction between physiographic factors and human
activity.

Physiographic factors may be combined into two basic groups:

• meteorological or climate factors, i.e. mainly precipitation, solar radiation,


air temperature and humidity;

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• factors of the underlying surface of the watershed, i.e. relief, geological

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structure, soils and vegetation, lakes and swamps, watershed area and
configuration, river length and slope.
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Factors of human activity are also variable and comprise different impacts on the
hydrographic network, on watershed surface and river runoff characteristics.

In considering the dependence of the condition of the hydrographic network and river
runoff regime on various factors, it should be taken into account that the rate and
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opportunity of these factors on different phases and characteristics of river regime


(annual runoff, streamflow distribution during a year, maximum and minimum water
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discharges, etc.) may differ greatly.


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3.1. Climate Factors

Solar radiation (and in particular the radiation balance at the Earth’s surface) is the main
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factor which determines water circulation on the planet and the climate situation in any
region. The solar radiation onto the Earth’s surface is characterized by a clear latitudinal
distribution: maximum values of radiation balance are observed at the equator and
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tropical latitudes; northward and southward these values decrease rapidly. For example,
at 60-70oN the radiation balance values are 5-6 times lower than those on the equator.

Non-uniform warming of the Earth’s surface because of variation in inflow of solar


radiation with latitude, and different conditions of solar radiation absorption by different
types of surface, explains the origin of large-scale air fluxes and atmospheric
circulation. The greatest contrasts arise between land and ocean subject to seasonal and
latitudinal changes, and between surfaces covered with ice/snow and bare surfaces.
Latitudinal differences in solar energy inflow and contrasts between ocean and land and
polar ice at the Earth’s rotation ultimately explain the fields of atmospheric pressure,
large-scale transportation of air fluxes, energy and water vapor.

Air fluxes resulting from atmospheric circulation transport water vapor over long
distances; when moving around high mountain massifs, these fluxes cause large-scale

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)


FRESH SURFACE WATER – Vol. I - Origin, Resources and Distribution of Rivers and Streams - I.A.Shiklomanov

vertical movements causing water vapor to rise to the upper part of the troposphere and
produce precipitation. They also explain the uneven fall of precipitation in time and
space.

The processes of atmospheric circulation are not stable, both at the global scale and for
particular regions. Air mass transportation along latitudes is overlapped by meridional
movements, thus producing circulation zones that change by seasons; they are also
affected by changes in the conditions of the Earth’s surface. The atmospheric circulation
is greatly affected by processes in the World Ocean, by factors of solar activity and by
different cosmic factors. Therefore, atmospheric circulation and precipitation are subject
to great time-space changes. On a small scale (small areas and short time intervals) this
produces extreme meteorological situations, i.e. maximum or minimum precipitation,
severe storms and floods, or very low streamflow. On a large time scale the processes of
atmospheric circulation explain climate variation over a large areas, e.g. wet years (or
periods) alternating with dry years (or periods).

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According to the studies made in recent decades, atmospheric circulation processes, and
consequently climate conditions, greatly depend on human impact that has changed the
gas content of the atmosphere by increasing concentrations of CO2 and other gases
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emitted during combustion of organic fuels and development of certain industries.

Total annual precipitation onto land (without Antarctica) is about 116 700 km3, which
equates to a water layer 864 mm deep evenly distributed all over the land surface.
Maximum precipitation (on average about 1600 mm) is observed on the territory of
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South America; minimum precipitation (only 456 mm) falls on Australia. Mean average
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precipitation onto the territories of the other continents varies from 740 to 790 mm.
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Considering precipitation distribution over latitudinal zones, it should be noted that


maximum precipitation (about 1900 mm) occurs in the equatorial zone within 10oN and
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10oS. Northward of the equator, where most land area is located, the precipitation layer
tends towards a regular decrease; mean precipitation in the zone between 40oN and
60oN is about 675 mm.
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These values of precipitation have been averaged for large areas. Annual precipitation
on the territory of each continent and within each latitudinal zone is distributed
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extremely unevenly. As a whole for the territory of our planet, the mean annual
precipitation varies within very wide limits, i.e. from 5 to 25 mm (deserts on different
continents) to 11 000 mm (southern slopes of the Himalayas). A very uneven
distribution of precipitation occurs on each continent.

This uneven distribution of precipitation over the land area on our planet mainly
explains the extremely uneven spatial distribution of streamflow. The most moistened
regions of the Earth have the most developed hydrographic networks and highest values
of annual river runoff (renewable water resources). In deserts where precipitation fall
may not occur for several years, the permanent hydrographic network is practically
missing and river runoff is about zero.

Precipitation is the main climate factor affecting streamflow formation; nevertheless,


there are some other climate factors affecting to a certain extent the amount and regime

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)


FRESH SURFACE WATER – Vol. I - Origin, Resources and Distribution of Rivers and Streams - I.A.Shiklomanov

of river runoff, streamflow distribution during a year and extreme runoff characteristics.
These are air temperature, air humidity and wind velocity, which determine evaporation
values, thus affecting different characteristics of river runoff and water resources. This
effect is particularly great in regions of water deficit and during hot and dry seasons in
the regions of temperate climate when precipitation may be completely lost to
evaporation.

Thus, streamflow characteristics, annual or seasonal runoff in particular, depend on the


ratio between precipitation and evaporation, which is expressed by the so-called aridity
index. The regions of excessive and sufficient water amount where the aridity index is
small are characterized by the greatest river runoff volumes. In such regions
precipitation is the main factor determining runoff space-time variation. Regions with
dry and hot climates and a high aridity index are characterized by very small runoff
values and, as a rule, by great runoff variability in time and space.

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It should be noted that in some physiographic conditions the air temperature affects the

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amount and distribution of streamflow not only indirectly via evaporation but directly,
too, e.g. during melting of ice and snow cover. This is typical of regions where a high
proportion of annual precipitation is snow and it is accumulated during the cold season;
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it is also typical of high mountain areas where rivers are recharged by melting glaciers.
In these regions air temperature variations directly affect snow and ice melting, and as a
result, affect streamflow variations during a year and its extreme characteristics.
Nevertheless, the total values of annual runoff in these regions mainly depend on the
annual precipitation.
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As noted above, precipitation and air temperature are subject to great time-space
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changes. If they are estimated on average for a large area and for a long-term period,
however, these values are rather stable and characterize the natural climate condition of
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particular regions. A rather stable value of the natural streamflow corresponds to this
climate condition. All present and future assessments of climate, runoff, water resources
and water use characteristics are based on the assumption of stability or sustainability of
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climate and river runoff.

Studies by climatologists, however, made since the early 1990s have proved quite
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convincingly that the hypothesis about climate stability under present conditions is not
correct. This is explained by human activity and by ever-growing combustion of fossil
fuels resulting in higher carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration in the atmosphere, global
air temperature rise, and change in atmospheric circulation, precipitation regime and
runoff characteristics [see: Anthropogenic Effects on the Hydrological Cycle].

According to the available prognostic assessments, the air temperature by the end of the
twenty-first century may be by 2.0 to 3.0 oC higher; moreover, in high and middle
latitudes a warming of 6-8 oC may be expected. It is also possible to expect precipitation
change during the cold and warm seasons. As for particular regions, long-range
forecasts of anthropogenic climate change (precipitation in particular) have many
uncertainties both concerning the scale of change and timing of occurrence.
Nevertheless, it is evident that these changes will be significant and may greatly affect
the river systems, river runoff regime, and characteristics of fresh water use. In many

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)


FRESH SURFACE WATER – Vol. I - Origin, Resources and Distribution of Rivers and Streams - I.A.Shiklomanov

regions, and the arid and semi-arid ones in particular, which are especially vulnerable
even to a slight climate change, the results of global warming may be extremely
adverse.

Taking this into account, development of reliable forecasts of anthropogenic climate


change, assessment of these results in relation to river runoff regime, water resources
and water use, development of a number of projects for future mitigation of possible
negative effects, and adaptation to these effects, are vitally important and urgent
problems for contemporary hydrometeorological science.

It should also be noted that the above possible great anthropogenic climate change
refers to the semi-distant future, i.e. to the end of the twenty-first century. According to
the available assessments, climate change during the next two or three decades is not so
great (a global air temperature rise of 0.5 to 0.6 oC is predicted). Taking this into
account, and noting the great uncertainty of the present prognostic assessments of the

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change in regional climate characteristics, when computing water resources and water

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availability in the world for the next 10 to 20 years, it is quite possible to use the present
climate data based on long-term observations.
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3.2. Factors of the Underlying Surface

The factors of the underlying surface affect river systems in different ways. As noted
above, the amount of renewable water resources or river runoff on large territories
mainly depends on the climate conditions determining the amount of precipitation and
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evaporation. Specific features of the underlying surface of river basins in this case are
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displayed by the effect of these features on precipitation and evaporation.


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For example, elevated areas (highlands) in basins lead to higher precipitation, and,
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consequently, to greater river runoff if compared with flat river basins in similar climate
condition. On the other hand, large lakes, and temporary overflows of rivers over vast
areas in arid climate conditions, cause intensive evaporation, and, consequently, lead to
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decreased river runoff if compared to river basins in a similar climate without large
water areas. The factors of the underlying surface greatly affect the hydrographic
network structure, extreme characteristics of river runoff and, to a lesser extent,
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streamflow distribution during a year.

Geological structure and relief are the most stable characteristics of any river basin.
They determine to a great extent the general structure and density of the hydrographic
network, river slopes and surface-subsurface water interaction. The hydrographic
network density in a mountain river basin is higher, river slopes are steeper and,
consequently, water flow velocities are higher; this explains intensive and short-term
floods caused by rainfall. On flat watersheds the river slopes are gentle; closed
depressions filled with water during floods are often observed in such terrain. Water
outflow from such watersheds is difficult; maximum water discharges are small; most
precipitation is accumulated on the watershed and it is later lost to evaporation.

Specific conditions of the hydrographic network and runoff regime formation are
observed in so-called “karst” regions where large areas are occupied by soluble rocks

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)


FRESH SURFACE WATER – Vol. I - Origin, Resources and Distribution of Rivers and Streams - I.A.Shiklomanov

(limestone, gypsum, rock-salt, etc.) and a range of different cavities, caves, subsurface
lakes and streams occur. Karst regions are characterized by specific conditions of
surface and subsurface water interaction. The river network is not permanent because
precipitation disappears to subsurface cavities and discharges to large rivers as
subsurface flow. Spring snowmelt and rainfall floods are not well expressed in rivers in
karst regions; higher runoff, however, is observed during periods of low surface water
discharge in ordinary rivers in the same climate zone. Soils and plants affect river runoff
primarily by precipitation loss to evaporation, and, secondarily, by precipitation
overflow and infiltration losses. In general, different plant species are characterized by
different evaporation rates and create different conditions for runoff formation. For
example, in forests a high proportion of surface runoff percolates into the ground and
becomes subsurface runoff due to the high infiltration capacity of forest soils and leaf
litter. As a result, runoff from forested areas, as compared with open ground, is more
uniform, and usually forested watersheds are characterized by lower maximum and
higher minimum water discharges.

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The effect of forests on river runoff is most significant in regions where a major portion
of the precipitation is snow; it melts in spring to produce a spring snowmelt flood. This
effect on river runoff is produced not because of greater melt water infiltration but as a
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result of different accumulation rates of snow on forested and bare localities, as well as
by delay of snow melt in forests. The effect of lakes on river runoff is different. Annual
river runoff in lacustrine areas tends to be lower because of higher evaporation losses
from water surfaces than from land. This is extremely important for arid and semi-arid
regions where evaporation from water surfaces greatly exceeds evaporation from land.
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As for humid regions, evaporation from the water surface and from land is about the
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same and the effect of lakes on annual river runoff is insignificant.


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The effect of lakes on uniform streamflow distribution during a year is great; it occurs
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because water in lakes is accumulated during wet periods and is released during dry
periods, as it is in man-made reservoirs.If a watershed is low-lying and swamps occupy
large areas, maximum discharge during rainfall and snowmelt is greatly reduced and
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flood duration increases. This mainly occurs due to slower runoff and overflows of the
swampy rivers in wide river valleys. The effect of various physiographic factors (e.g.
river length and watershed shape) on river runoff is not great but can slightly affect
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maximum water discharge in cases of extreme floods.

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Bibliography

Korzoun V.I. ed. (1978). World Water Balance and Water Resources of the Earth. UNESCO, 663 pp
[Analysis of data on the water balance components for continents, oceans and the Earth as a whole;

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)


FRESH SURFACE WATER – Vol. I - Origin, Resources and Distribution of Rivers and Streams - I.A.Shiklomanov

distribution of water resources over area and dynamics in time]


Shiklomanov I.A. (2000). Appraisal and assessment of World Water Resources. Water International.
March. Volume 25, No 1. IWRA, p.11-33 [Brief results and conclusions on the assessment of the
dynamics of renewable water resources and water availability in the world]
Shiklomanov I.A., scientific leader and editor. (2002). World Water Resources of the Beginning of XXI
century. Cambridge University Press, 700 pp. [Assessment and analysis of the dynamics of water
resources, water use and water availability for individual basins, countries and natural-economic regions].
World Resources Institute. (2000). World Resources 2000-2001: People and Ecosystems; the Fraying
Web of Life. Oxford, UK, 389 pp. [Statistical data on the condition of water resources and ecosystems in
different countries of the world]

Biographical Sketch

Igor Alexeevich SHIKLOMANOV was born on 28 February 1939. In 1961 he graduated from the
Leningrad Hydrometeorological Institute (Hydrological Faculty). Since 1961 up to the present time has

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been working at the State Hydrological Institute in St. Petersburg (Russia) in different appointments.
Since 1981 he is the Director of the State Hydrological Institute.

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In 1967 he defended his theses for a candidate’s degree and in 1975 – a theses for a doctor’s degree on the
speciality «Hydrology and Water Resources»; since 1985 – a professor on «Water Resources» speciality;
since 1991 – a Corresponding Member and since 2000 – Academician of the Russian Academy of Natural
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Sciences on «Hydrology» speciality.
His scientific interests include water resources, water balance, water use, the global hydrological cycle,
effects of man’s activity and anthropogenic climate change on water resources and hydrological regime.
He has published about 200 scientific papers, 9 monographs included.
He has made a notable contribution to the international cooperation within the framework of UNESCO,
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WMO, IAHS, IPCC: during 1992-1994 he was the Chairman of the Inter-Governmental Council for the
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IHP (UNESCO), since 1992 up to the present time he is a member of the Advisory Working Group,
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Commission of Hydrology WMO; since 2000 he is the Chairman of the Working Group on Water
Resources of the Commission of Hydrology (WMO).
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©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

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