Hydraulics and Pneumatics

Virendra Singh Choudhary

Scientist ‘E’ & Deputy Project Director (FCA LCA AF)
Aeronautical Development Agency
(Ministry of Defence, Govt. of India)
 Contents
 Introduction to Fluid Power and Governing Laws
• Pascal’s Law and its Application
 Typical Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems
 Elements of Fluid Power Systems
• Fluid Used
• Reservoirs
• Accumulators
• Filters
• Pumps – Hydrostatic vs Hydrodynamic
o Classification and Comparison
o Performance Curves and Calculations
o Selection Criteria
o Motors (Reversible Pumps)

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Contents (contd..)
• Valves
o Symbols
o Valve Types – Check, Spool, Pressure limiting, Pressure Regulation,
Pressure Sequence, Pilot Operated, Servo
o Valve Classification based upon Control Flow
 Quick Opening
 Linear
 Equal Percentage
• Cylinders – Classification and Design Problems
• Miscellaneous Components – Hoses, QC-DC, Adaptor Fittings and Caps

 ISO Symbols
 Energy Losses in Hydraulic Systems
 Cylinder Sequencing

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Introduction
 Three methods for transmitting power: Mechanical transmission through shafts,
gears, chains, belts, etc. Electrical transmission is through wires, transformers, etc
and Fluid power with liquids or gases in confined space (usually used in
conjunction with Mechanical Transmission)

 Fluid power is the technology that deals with the generation, control and
transmission of forces and movement of mechanical element or system with the
use of pressurized fluids in a confined system.

 Advantages of Fluid Power: Used for Safety Critical Applications

• Simple and Re-configurable
• Easy multiplication of forces
• Accurate control
• Low speed Torque
• High Power to Weight ratio

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Governing Laws
a) Hydrostatic pressure b) Pascal's law c) Transmission of power

d) Transmission of Pressure e) Continuity g) Bernoulli’s equation

For incompressible flow For incompressible flow

f) Flow resistance

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Pascal’s Law
 Pressure acts uniformly in right angles to the surface
P = F/A
Where, F = Force on surface, A = Area of surface

 Enables multiplication of force by using area ratio for driving

higher force with application of lesser force

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

Force Displacement relation

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Application of Pascal’s Law

Ans: a, b, c = 1.132MPa
d: Force in cylinder B=8888N
Hydraulics and Pneumatics
 Application of Pascal’s Law (contd..)

F = 61.78 N
S = 0.9 mm

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

Fluid Control System

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

Typical Hydraulic System

1 – pump
2 – oil tank
3 – flow control valve
4 – pressure relief valve
5 – hydraulic cylinder
6 – directional control valve
7 – throttle valve

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Typical Pneumatic System
 Pneumatic system carries power by employing compressed gas as a fluid for
transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point

 Differences from Hydraulic system

• All of the compressed air is kept in stored. Why not in hydraulic system? –
Compressibility issues
• Atmosphere works as a reservoir in pneumatic system
Hydraulics and Pneumatics
 Hydraulics vs Pneumatics
Hydraulic System Pneumatic System
Employs a compressed gas, usually
Employs a pressurized liquid
air
Working fluid has high stiffness. Precise
Compressible, resulting Springy performance
control due to steep pressure gains
Operates till 700 bar: High power
Operates till 20 bar: Low power applications
applications

Easy to hold the loads precisely Power needed to hold loads

Generally a closed system Generally an open system

Leakage slows down the system Leakage does not affect the system much

Valve operations are difficult Valve operations are easy

Hazardous, as gases retains Kinetic Energy
Safer to operate due to low compressibility
even until low pressures

The system is unsafe to fire hazards The system is free from fire hazards

Special arrangements for lubrication

Automatic lubrication is provided
are needed
Hydraulics and Pneumatics
Elements of Fluid Power Systems - Fluids Used & Considerations
 For a fluid to perform efficiently, it must possess certain properties. Various properties required
for an ideal hydraulic fluid are as follows:
• Ideal viscosity & Viscosity Index
• Good lubrication capability
• Good chemical and environmental stability
• Incompressibility
• Fire resistance
• Foam resistance
• Low volatility
• Good heat dissipation
• Low density
• System compatibility

 Examples
• Pneumatics: Air, Inert gases
• Hydraulics: Petroleum based fluids, Emulsions, Water glycol, Synthetic fluids, Vegetable
oils, Biodegradable hydraulic fluids

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Elements of Fluid Power Systems - Reservoir
 Functions : Storage of hydraulic oil
volume, Cooling of oil, Expansion of fluid,
Removal of air, Settling of contaminations,
Structural support
 Types of Reservoir:
• Pressurized reservoir (up to 5-7 bar)
• Non-Pressurized (atm. press.)
• Open Reservoir
• Closed Reservoir
 Oil reservoir must be as large as possible
for better heat dissipation and air
separation
• V= 3Q to 5Q for stationary installations
• V= 1Q to 1.5Q for mobile installation

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Elements of Fluid Power Systems - Accumulator
 A container in which the oil is held under pressure which could involve a gas bladder or spring
 Oil volume from inlet side rises contracting the bladder, until the oil get pressurized to system
pressure.
 Opposite side gas / spring always remains under pressure
 Reserves energy, store fluid, damp mechanical shocks by absorbing pressure oscillations,
compensate leakage, Stablise System Pressure

 Types:
• Dead Weight
• Gas – Piston \ Bladder
• Spring

Reduces Stiffness of
hydraulic system

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Elements of Fluid Power Systems - Filters

 Filters & strainers are devices for trapping the insoluble

contaminants by some porous medium.
 A filter is system of fine gauge meshes with depth. When Symbolic Representation
the liquid passes through meshes, filter element will retain
insoluble impurities. Particle size removed by filter is
measured in microns called as rating of filter.
 Strainers are similar to filter but without any depth. Their
efficiency is less than Filter.
 Materials For filter:
• Metallic Filter (Edge Type)
• Mesh and Cloth (Mesh of synthetic rubber, Loose of
fibers of cotton or cellulose)

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Elements of Fluid Power Systems - Pumps
 The function of a pump is to convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. It is the heart of
any hydraulic system because it generates the force necessary to move the load.

 Mechanical energy is delivered to the pump using a prime mover such as an electric motor.

 Partial vacuum is created at the inlet due to the mechanical rotation of pump shaft. An auxiliary
pump or pressurised reservoir solves this issue.

 The pump then pushes the fluid mechanically into the fluid power actuated devices such as a
motor or a cylinder.
Classification
 Based on Displacement:
• Non-positive displacement (hydrodynamic pumps).
• Positive displacement (hydrostatic pumps).
 Based on Delivery:
• Constant delivery
• Variable delivery
 Based on Motion:
• Rotary
• Reciprocating

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Hydrostatic vs Hydrodynamic Pumps

 Delivers fluids in discrete volume/cycle.  The delivery is continuous.

 Discharge is independent of pressure  As external load increases discharge
(external load) Pressure Decreases
 Discharge depends on speed  Discharge depend on resisting pressure
 Positive sealing between low & high  No positive sealing.
pressure zones.  Energy imparted to fluid in the form of
 Energy imparted to fluid in form of pressure kinetic energy
energy  Max. pressure developed in system is
 No limit for max. press that can build in limited.
system
Hydraulics and Pneumatics
 Hydrostatic vs Hydrodynamic (contd..)
Roughly speaking:
Power = P*Q
Large Q, small P 
hydrodynamic transmission
Large P, small Q  hydrostatic
transmission.
But there is no general rule,
depends on the task.

 Generally larger than 300 kW power hydrodynamic is more favourable.

 But for soft operation (starting of large masses) hydrodynamic is used for smaller
powers either.

 Linear movement against large forces: hydrostatic

 Linear movement and stopping in exact position: also hydrostatic

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Types of Hydrostatic Pumps
Positive Displacement Pumps

Rotary Reciprocating

Gear Pump Vane Pump Screw Pump

Axial Piston Radial Piston
1. External Gear 1. Fixed Delivery Pump Pump
2. Internal Gear 2. Variable delivery
1. Bent Axis
2. Swash Plate

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Hydrostatic Pumps – Gear

Advantages:
1.They are self-priming. 2.They give constant delivery for a given speed.
3. They are compact and light in weight. 4. Volumetric efficiency is high.
Disadvantages:
1. The liquid to be pumped must be clean, otherwise it will damage pump.
2. Variable speed drives are required to change the delivery.
Hydraulics and Pneumatics
 Hydrostatic Pumps – Vane
Two types of vane pumps
 Unbalanced vane pump: Side thrust on rotor due to
eccentricity
• Fixed delivery.
• Variable delivery
 Balanced vane pump – has a pair of ports for
compensating side thrust. Casing has an oval block
• With pressure-compensated vanes Fixed Delivery, unbalanced Vane Pump

Unbalanced, Variable Displacement Vane Pump Fixed Delivery, Balanced Vane Pump

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Hydrostatic Pumps – Screw

Advantages:
1. Self-priming reliable
2. Quiet due to rolling action of screw spindles
3. Can handle liquids mixed with gases and vapour
4. Have long service life
Disadvantages:
1. Bulky and heavy
2. Sensitive to viscosity changes of the fluid
3. Have low volumetric and mechanical efficiencies
Hydraulics and Pneumatics
 Hydrostatic Pumps – Axial Piston
1. Bent-Axis-Type Axial Piston Pump

2. Swash Plate Type Axial Piston Pump

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

Axial Pump – Volume Displacement and Flow Rate
Let θ be an offset angle, S the piston stroke in m,
D the piston circle diameter, Y the number of
pistons, A the piston area in m2, N the piston speed
in RPM and the theoretical flow rate in m3/min..

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Pump Performance Calculation
Volumetric efficiency: Indicates the amount of leakage
that takes place within the pump. This is due to
manufacture tolerances and flexing of the pump casing
• Gear pumps: 80% to 90%.
• Vane pumps: 92%.
• Piston pumps: 90% to 98%.

Mechanical efficiency:

Overall efficiency:

QT:
• Gear Pump

• Vane Pump

• Piston Pump

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Performance Curves for Pumps

Comparison For Different types of Positive displacement Pump

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

Elements of Fluid Power Systems – Motors (Reversible Pumps)

Converts Hydraulic Energy to Mechanical Energy

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Elements of Fluid Power Systems – Valve Symbols

 Symbols of Valve Actuation: Indicated the  Port Labeling

various ways the valves can be actuated
• 1 (or P) for pressure supply
• 3 (or T) for hydraulic return port
• 3 or 5 (or R or S) for pneumatic exhaust ports
• 2 or 5 (B or A) for output ports

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Valve Symbols (contd..)
 Figure shows the symbol of a 3/2 valve, the 3 / 2 means
connection is shown for initial state
3 – Ports
 1(P) is connected to 2(A), 3(R) is closed. 2- Positions

 When the solenoid is activated, it gives the state indicated by the symbols used in the square to
which it is attached, i.e. we now have 1(P) closed and 2(A) connected to 3(R). When current
through the solenoid ceases the spring pushes the valve back to its initial position.

 The spring movement gives the state

indicated by the symbols used in the
square to which it is attached
 Solenoid operated spool valve: The
valve is actuated by a current
passing through the solenoid and
return to its original position by
spring

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Valve Symbols (contd..) - Example

A simple example of an application of

valves in a Pneumatic lift system

 Can you re-design the load lifting with 3/2 Valve?

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Valve Types
 Check Valve: Restricts flow of fluid to only one
direction; allows pressure to build up or be maintained

 Spool Valve: Controls direction of flow of fluid in a

hydraulic system to cause the different parts of the
system to function.

Open Closed
System System

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Valve Types (contd..)
 Pressure Limiting: Used to limit the pressure in a circuit below some value
 Pressure regulation: Used to control the operating pressure in circuit and maintain
a constant value

Regulation
Limiting

Application Example: Preventing deformation of workpiece

Motor Stalls at load
torque exerting a
known hold force

Pressure maintained in
chamber exerts a known
holding force

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Pressure Sequencing - Example

• Cylinder 1 operates immediately while Cylinder 2 after a desired pressure is achieved

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Valve Types (contd..)
 Pilot Operated:
• Smaller valve controls the operation of bigger
valve
• Used when the valve driving forces are high
and low power is needed to pilot

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Valve Types (contd..)
 Servo Valves: Proportional Valves where Pressure / Flow proportional to Current fed
• Can hold infinite positions
• Series of force equilibrium enabling proportionality
 Types: Nozzle Flapper, Jet Pipe and Direct Drive

Nozzle Flapper

Jet Pipe Direct Drive

Hydraulics and Pneumatics
 Valve Classification based upon Control Flow
 Coefficient of Flow (Cv):
• Flow capability of a valve at full open condition
• For liquids, this coefficient is defined as flow of water
at 16ºC in GPM at pressure drop of 1 PSI

• More Cv means bigger Valve

 Quick Opening (Cv = xn)
• Maximum flow coefficient is achieved with minimal
closure member travel.
• Used for on-off service
 Linear (Cv = mx)
• Equal increments of travel provide equal increments
of flow co-efficient
• Used for flow control applications
 Equal Percentage (Cv = emx+c)
• Equal increments of rated travel, will give equal
percentage changes of the flow coefficient (Cv)
• Used on pressure control applications

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

Valves Classification (contd..) - Example

Different cage designs for

achieving different valve
characteristics

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

Valves Classification (contd..) – Linear Control Valves

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

Valves Classification (contd..) – Equal Percentage Valves

• Should Cv be zero at zero valve stroke?

• Allows for infinite port shape designs

Effect on Various Process Parameters using Equal percentage Valves

Hydraulics and Pneumatics
Valves Classification (contd..) – Equal Percentage Valves (contd..)

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Valve Classification (contd..) – Sizing
 Cv is directly related to Area of valve opening Av

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

Valve Classification (contd..) – Typical Sizing Chart

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Elements of Fluid Power Systems - Cylinders

 Single Acting, Spring returning

 Double Acting

Retraction force
seems lesser?

Just two things to remember:

Retraction
1. Force = Pressure x Area
2. Flow = Area x Velocity

Extension
Hydraulics and Pneumatics
 Problem on Hydraulic Cylinders
 A hydraulic cylinder to be used to move a work piece in a manufacturing
operation through a distance of 250 mm in 15 s. If a force of 50 KN is required to
move the workpiece, what is the required working pressure and hydraulic fluid
flow rate if a cylinder with a piston diameter of 150 mm is available
Solution:

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Problem on Hydraulic Cylinders (contd..)
 A hydraulic cylinder to be required to hoist a weight of 40 KN for a distance of 500
mm in 5 seconds time. Available pump supply and return pressure is 160 bar and
3 bar respectively. Assume overall line losses as 5 bars and losses through DCV
of 3 bar. Also, consider cylinder efficiency of 0.95. Find the diameter of piston and
Flow rate needed by Cylinder
Solution:
Area of piston Ap = 40000/[(160-3-3-5)*0.95] = 28.3 cm2
Diameter of piston Dp = sqrt[(4*Ap)/π] = 60 mm
Piston Velocity = 500/5 = 6 m/min
Flow = A*V = 28.3 cm2 * 6 m/min = 18.5 ltrs/min

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Elements of Fluid Power Systems - Miscellaneous Components
 Flexible Hoses
• Manufactured from rubbers
• Supported by fabric and wire braid for high-pressure
applications

 Quick Disconnect Couplings

• Used in conjunction with hoses to hydraulically
connected movable components
• Comprises a plug and socket arrangement for leak-
proof joint. Can be released easily by hands
• Each half of the coupling contains a spring-loaded ball
or poppet that automatically closes on disconnection

 Adaptor Fittings
• Used to change the end of a non-threaded pipe to
male or female threads as needed.
• Male adapters and female adapters are both common

 Caps
• Used to close a dead end of pipe or hose

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Energy Losses in Hydraulic Systems
 Energy losses occur in valves and fittings through bends, couplings, tees, elbows, filters,
strainers, etc.
 The nature of path through the valves and fittings determines the amount of energy losses.
The more circuitous is the path, the greater are the losses. In many fluid power applications,
energy losses due to flow in valves and fittings exceed those due to flow in pipes.
 Energy Losses Categorized in Two Types in Hydraulic system:
• Major losses (Friction generated during Fluid flow)
• Minor losses (Sudden change in cross section, bend and pipe fitting)

 Frictional losses: Darcy–Weisbach Equation: (laminar flow)

 Loss of Head due to sudden Enlargement

he=(V1-V2)2/2g

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Energy Losses in Hydraulic Systems (contd..)
 Loss of Head Due to Contraction

hc = (V2)2/2g

 Loss of Head due to Bend & fitting

hb = kV2/2g

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

ISO Symbols – Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

ISO Symbols (contd..)

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

ISO Symbols (contd..)

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 ISO Symbols (contd..)

3/2 way valve

Check valves Shuttle valves 3 ports and 2 position DCV

4/2 Solenoid 5/2 Solenoid 4/3 Closed 4/3Tandem Centre

Operated DCV Operated DCV. centre DCV

4/3 Floating Neutral 4/3 Open Center 4/3 Regenerative Center

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 ISO Symbols (contd..)

Unloading Valve
Pilot-Operated Relief Valve

Sequence Valve
Pressure-Reducing Valve

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 ISO Symbols (contd..) – Auxiliary Devices
Accumulators

Gas Charged
Dead Weight Spring Loaded Gas Charged Without Separator
With separator

Press. Guage Flow meter Prime Mover Electric Motor

Cooler Heater Telescopic Cylinders

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

Cylinder Sequencing

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Cylinder Sequencing (contd..)
 Program a PLC to achieve activation sequence is A+, B+, A-, B-
• a-, a+, b- and b+ are limit switches for cylinder A and B respectively
• Assume a starting switch is needed to start operation and initially switch b- is
active

Hydraulics and Pneumatics

Thank You
1. Ideal viscosity: It is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.
Effect of High viscosity: High resistance to flow. Increased power consumption due
to frictional loss. High temperature caused by friction. Increased pressure drop
because of the resistance. Possibility of sluggish or slow operation. Difficulty in
separating air from oil in a reservoir. Greater vacuum at the pump inlet, causing
cavitations. Higher system noise level.
Effect Of Low viscosity: Increased internal leakage. Excessive water. Possibility of
decreased pump efficiency, causing slower operation of the actuator. Increased
temperature resulting from leakage losses. Therefore the hydraulic fluid should
have an optimum viscosity.
Viscosity Index:
The viscosity index (VI) is a relative
measure of the change in the viscosity of
an oil with respect to a change in
temperature. An oil having a low VI is one
that exhibits a large change in viscosity
with a small change in temperature. A high
VI oil does not change appreciably with a
change in temperature.
2. Good lubrication capability: Hydraulic fluids must have good lubrication to prevent friction
and wear between the closely fitted working parts such as vanes of pumps, valve spools,
piston rings and bearings .
3. Demulsibility: The ability of a hydraulic fluid to separate rapidly from moisture and
successfully resist emulsification is known as “Demulsibility.
4. Good chemical and environmental stability: Most fluids are vulnerable to oxidation, as they
come in contact with oxygen in air. Mineral oils or petroleum-based oils (widely used in
hydraulic systems) contain carbon and hydrogen molecules, which easily react with oxygen
5. Incompressibility: the compressibility of a fluid is greatly influenced by temperature and
pressure. The incompressibility of a fluid is a measure of its stiffness and is given by its
bulk modulus. The bulk modulus (B) of a fluid is the ratio of volumetric stress to volumetric
strain .
6. Fire resistance:. Flammability is defined as the ease of ignition and ability to propagate the
flame. The following are the usual characteristics tested in order to determine the
flammability of hydraulic fluids:
• Flash point: The temperature at which an oil surface gives off sufficient vapours to
ignite when a flame is passed over the surface.
• Fire point: The temperature at which an oil releases sufficient vapours to support
combustion continuously for 5 s when a flame is passed over the surface.
• Autogenously ignition temperature: The temperature at which ignition occurs
spontaneously
7. Low flammability: A fire-resistant fluid is one that can get ignited in the presence
of an ignition source but does not support combustion when the source is
removed. This characteristic is defined as flammability.
8. Foam resistance: Air can be present in a hydraulic fluid in two forms dissolved
and entrained. For example, if the return line to the reservoir is not submerged,
the jet of oil entering the liquid surface will carry air with it.
9. Low volatility: A fluid should possess low vapor pressure or high boiling point.
The vapour pressure of a fluid varies with temperature and hence the operating
temperature range of the system is important in determining the stability of the
fluid.
10. Good heat dissipation: A hydraulic fluid should have a high heat dissipation
capability .
11. Low density: The relative density of a mineral oil is 0.9 (the exact value
depends on the base oil and the additive used). Synthetic fluids can have a
relative density greater than 1.
12. System compatibility: A hydraulic fluid should be inert to materials used in or
near the hydraulic equipment. If the fluid in anyway attacks, destroys, dissolves
or changes the parts of hydraulic system, the system may lose its functional
efficiency and may start malfunction.