Chapter 2 Literature reveiw

2.1 Groundwater

Groundwater is the term given to the water occupying the pore spaces in the
permeable rock and the unconsolidated rock material; the water bearing geological
material is referred to as an aquifer .There are two types of aquifer a confined and an
unconfined aquifer.

The upper surface of the saturated zone is called the water table which can fluctuate
depending on the outside moisture conditions. (BJ Allow and DC Aynes)

Groundwater contamination commonly results from human activities where

pollutants, susceptible to percolation, are stored and spread on or beneath the land
surface.

2.1.2 Groundwater contamination

The process of induction of objectionable matter or property , arising from human and
natural activities to groundwater and thereby changing its physical , chemical or other
properties as to render it unfit or less fit for drinking ,agriculture or other uses is
called groundwater pollution(Mckee and Wolf,1963;Karnath,1987).
Typical pollutant sources are industrial wastewater impoundments, sanitary landfills,
storage piles, soakaways following household septic tanks, impropelly constructed
wastewater disposal wells and application of chemicals on agricultural lands.

The amount of water available for infiltration either from precipitation or from the
wastewater itself, is a primary factor in carrying pollutants down through a soil
profile.Water from the surface passes downward through the unsaturated zone and
disperses in an aquifer in a manner depending on the site conditions (Hammer and
Hammer, 2001)
Dispersion of a contaminant is influenced both physically by soil porosity and
hydraulically by the rate of water movement

Natural Contaminants

The principal natural chemicals found in groundwater are dissolved salts, iron and
manganese, fluoride, arsenic, radionuclide and trace metals. In arid regions with
limited water recharge, slow percolation results in mineralized poor quality water high
in sodium chloride. In humid climates, weathering of sedimented rock releases
calcium and magnesium creating excessive hardness and often dissolved manganese
and iron. Fluoride is a constituent of the mineral fluorite found in sedimentary,
igneous and metamorphic rocks. High concentrations of fluoride in groundwater
result in fluorosis, a bad condition of teeth and bones. (Hammer and Hamer, 2001)
Natural radioactive substances although present in most rocks, are generally at very
low levels of activity. Groundwater generally contains small traces of metallic
elements like selenium, cadmium, lead, copper and zinc which are found in rocks and
unconsolidated deposits. The levels are so minute they are negligible.

Contamination from Domestic Wastewater

In most low density areas in Zimbabwe is disposed mainly through septic tanks and
soakaways.The soakaway consists of a perforated pipe laid in gravel-lined trenches
which allow water to soak through the soil profile. With high density of these units
groundwater contamination can occur. This is why in Zimbabwe septic tanks are
limited to stands with areas greater than 2000m² to reduce the density of septic tanks.

Burial of solid wastes can result in the degradation of subsurface water through the
generation of leachate caused by water percolating through the refuse fill. Leachate is
highly mineralised water containing such constituents as sodium chloride , nitrate ,
trace metals and a variety of organic compounds ,pollution problems occur where
rainfall exceeds the absorption capacity of the soil.(Hammer and Hammer,2001)
However it is recommended the base of refuse be separated from the water table using
an impervious liner to collect leachate for treatment.
Contamination from Industrial and Agricultural Sources

Wastewater from manufacturing processes is commonly disposed of on land because

this method is usually the least costly waste management option. Usually landfills are
created and waste solids are buried in the ground. The leachate of these materials
percolates into the ground and contaminates the groundwater. Unless the groundwater
is very deep and the site is underlain by impervious soil strata, installation of a liner
and leachate collection system to protect the groundwater from contamination. In
addition monitoring wells are required to collect samples of groundwater under the
site for early warnings of contamination.
All forms of mining create wastes and changes in hydrogeologic conditions that can
contribute to the degradation of the groundwater. The principal impurities form
mining wastes are acidity, dissolved solids, metals and radioactive materials (Hammer
and Hammer; 2001)
Accidental spills of toxic fluids, gasoline and oil can migrate through unsaturated soil
zone to groundwater. Most of the recorded cases of accidental groundwater
contamination could have been prevented by good management through providing
barriers, avoiding indiscriminate dumping and properly cleaning up spills.
In agriculture dissolved salts are transported to the groundwater by the portion of
rainwater or irrigated water that filters through the surface soils of agricultural lands.
Fertilisers and pesticides can also migrate into the groundwater under cultivated land,
except in the case of clayey tat inhibit infiltration.
Sandy soils however, allow nearly all the nitrates to be transported deeper than the
root zone to contaminate the underlying groundwater (Hammer; 2001)
The amount of fertilizer applied, the soil permeability and the rate of water infiltration
are the key factors influencing the movement of nitrate to groundwater.

2.1.3 Prevention, Control and Purification of Contamination in Groundwater

Effective prevention from point sources such as storage tanks and septic tanks is
based on site selection ,controlled design, proper construction and careful
operation(Hammer ; 2001
By strategically placing monitoring wells around the site for testing of groundwater
the onset of contamination can be known and abatement action can be enforced before
further damage occurs to the groundwater quality.

Restoration of Contaminated Groundwater

Chemical and biological degradation of the contaminants can occur in the aquifer but
at slower rates than surface waters because of lower temperatures, less available
oxygen and reduced biological activities. Therefore once groundwater is polluted it
will be difficult and expensive to reverse, and the original state is never reached.
Several methods were however devised to clean polluted aquifers-:

1. Pump and Treat-Pumping contaminated groundwater, treating it and returning

it to its source. The water can never be treated back to its original state and
this process can only be done to aquifers with large volumes of water.
2. Containing the contaminated groundwater by building an impermeable
underground structure to prevent water from migrating off-site but this works
for shallow aquifers with a containable locale.
3. Groundwater can be treated insitu without removing the water from the
aquifer. Tons of iron filings mixed with sand are placed in the path of the
groundwater and as it passes through the permeable barrier some organic
components react and are decomposed by the iron filings into harmless
substances.
4. Technology of using anaerobic decomposing micro-organisms is currently
being researched into, since not enough oxygen is in groundwater for aerobic
organisms to be injected into the water for the decomposition of toxins.

2.2 Wastewater Reuse Practices

Wastewater reclamation has the potential to close the gap between supply and demand
for water in arid and semi-arid regions. With increase in Urbanisation, population
growth as well as climate change the amount of portable water is failing to meet up
with demand. Several initiatives are being put in place to conserve water available and
the reclamation of water is one of them
Wastewater is a complex resource with both advantages and disadvantages. Its major
advantage being it is a definite, constant supply unlike rainwater. The major
disadvantage of the reuse of wastewater are the risks it posses on the environment and
the health of the individuals practicing reuse. Wastewater is reclaimed for several uses
i.e. for agricultural and landscape irrigation, for cooling machinery in industries, e.t.c
Wastewater is treated to different levels depending on what it will be reused for.
Some areas use raw wastewater with screening being its only form of treatment like in
the Everglade forests in Florida and in some places wastewater goes through the
convectional treatment process up to disinfection e.g. Thornegroove Treatment Works
in Bulawayo where the reclaimed water is used for watering golf courses , public
parks and council grounds around the city.

2.2.1 Wastewater Reused for Irrigation

In many countries in the world wastewater has been used for centuries in irrigated
agriculture by farmers on an individual basis. Originally the main purpose of the
farmers was to make use of the nutrients contained in the wastewater. Against the
background of increasing scarcity of water the current motivation of farmers reuse of
wastewater is the lack of other sources o(Susan Nuebert; 2001)
Several countries practice the reuse of wastewater and below are case studies of some
of the countries practicing this form of irrigation, sourced from the FAO regional
seminar on The Treatment and Use of Sewage Effluent for Irrigation held in Cyprus
7-9 October 1985

West Germany
Up to the mid-1990’s Germany was experiencing was experiencing a shortage in
fertiliser therefore wastewater was not only used to water the crops but also to
improve the fertility of the soils. During the early days the raw waste was used but
round 1960’s pre-treatment was introduced .Atfarm in Braunshweig the effluent was
treated mechanically and a variety of crops were irrigated using the sprinkler system.
During winter the effluent was first passed through infiltration basins but this caused
operational problems.
Sludge disposal, accumulation of heavy metals and high concentration of nitrates in
the groundwater are causing problems in the system. The WUA (Wastewater
Utilisation Association) is therefore designing a pre-treatment plant to remove
Nitrates by dintritification to overcome these problems.

Asian Pacific Region

Convectional treatment is too experienced for the poor countries therefore land
application of wastewater is a viable alternative, it is cheap and it conserves as well as
add nutrients.
In India this practice was used since 1925 and the associated problems have been
related to the level of sewage treatment, dilution, hydraulic and nutrient loading and
the crop.
In Nagpur , India research showed that many of the environmental and public health
problems could be attributed to the application rates being in excess of the absorption
rates of the soil systems to accommodate such wastewaters.
A further research conducted showed that water partially treated up primary or
secondary stage compared to untreated water effluents are more superior in terms of
crop yield and mineral utilisation.

Egypt
In Egypt, acute shortage of water and low organic content of soils necessitate
utilisation of crop when sufficient quantities are available. Since 1911 primary sewage
effluent has been used at El Gabel El Asfar citrus farm. The soil quality has changed
considerably. The soil increases in organic matter, clay content, cation exchange
capacity, PH lowered to a good level. Cr, Cu, Pb and B levels have increased but not
to alarming levels because of stringent control in application rates. Other farms i.e.
Rawasha, Alexandria are also doing the same and crops include corn-maize, wheat,
beans, alpha, olives e.t.c.

Cyprus
Reuse of treated sewage effluent for irrigation is viewed as an efficient means of
recycling the scarce water resource in the semi-arid country. The utilisation of
treatment effluent for groundwater recharge has been practiced since 1959.
In the country water reused would have undergone secondary treatment and even
chlorination. Cyprus has undergone a multifaced research on the evaluation of
groundwater contamination due to the use of secondary irrigation the findings showed
that the hazards associated with total soluble salts and toxic elements in the effluents
are negligible compared to those found in well water. The results also showed that
secondary treatment water was also superior in crop yields. By using the trickle
system health risks were minimised.

Mexico
Because of a rapid development of agriculture and urbanisation, some farmers in the
Mezquital valley of Mexico have been using water directly from discharge outlet.
This has resulted in serious problems in the area related to pathogens, heavy metal
contamination and salinity build-up. Intestinal infections and other and other endemic
diseases are prevalent because of the consumption of raw wastewater irrigated crops.
On the other hand agricultural production, employment and incomes have increased
marginally. It is however important to treat the water to standards specified by WHO
as is now being practised in Mexico.

Jordan
It lies an arid region where water is scarce. Effluent reuse makes a significant saving
in the diversion of potable water for irrigation as well as providing a safe disposal
method. In a city Amman, treated sewage effluent is mixed with stormwater and is
stored in reservoirs before being used for irrigation. In some of the cities the water
that percolates from the septic tanks is mixed with natural recharge water, this is
pumped through boreholes for irrigation purposes.

Saudi Arabia
The policy is to utilise treated municipal wastewater in the most beneficial manner,
among which the agricultural sector is given top priority.
Realising the importance of providing a degree of wastewater treatment to ensure
public health protection, wastewater regulations are being framed to enforce a
minimum of tertiary treatment producing a quality level required for unrestricted
irrigation. In Rayadh 210 000m³/day irrigate fruit, cereal, vegetables and fodder over
4000ha.
Syria
Municipal and industrial wastewater have been uncontrolled in the Damascus plain
for a long time resulting in high microbial population, salinity and high concentration
of chlorides , heavy metals and other toxins. Plans are being drawn up to construct
sewage treatment plants which would enable the safe use of effluents for the irrigation
of irrigation of agricultural crops, productive forestry (timber);protective forestry
(shelter beds) and ornamental landscaping.

Kuwait
It costs $1US/m³ to irrigation with treated effluent about half the cost of irrigating
with disclaimed water therefore, a master plan for effluent quality reuse has been
prepared taking into account effluent quality , treatment and distribution methods,
crop selection , land and soil suitability and economic feasibility

2.3 Physical and Chemical parameters of wastewater

2.3.1 Hydrogen Ion Concentration

The PH is a measure of the acid balance of a solution and is defined as the negative
logarithm to the base 10 of the hydrogen ion concentration .It has a scale running
from 0(very acidic ) to 14 (very alkaline) where the value 7 represents a neutral
condition. The PH is water quality variable that affects many biological and chemical
processes within a water body , and all processes associated with water supply and
treatment.(Chapman and Kimstach,1998; Silenje,2003).Sewage and sewage effluents
are generally neutral or faintly alkaline but industrial effluents are generally acidic.
(Holden,1970;Silenje,2003).Hard water with high calcium content has high PH value
while soft water with a low calcium content has a low PH value(Brown,1971;
Silenje,2003)

2.3.2 Turbidity
Turbidity is a measure of the extent to which light is either absorbed or scattered by
suspended material in the water. Because absorption and scattering are influenced by
both size and surface characteristic of the suspended matter, turbidity is not a direct
quantitative measure of suspended matter. (Tchobanoglous, 1985)
Household and industrial wastewaters may contain a variety of turbidity-producing
materials. Soaps, detergents and emulsifying agents produce stable colloids that result
in turbidity. Turbidity measurements are not commonly run on wastewater.
(Tchobanoglous, 1985; Silenje, 2003).
2.3.3 Electrical Conductivity and Total Dissolved Solids
Conductivity is used to estimate the degree of mineralization of water. It is a measure
of the ability of an aqueous solution to carry an electric current (Greenberg et el,
1992; Silenje, 2003). The amount of dissolved ionisable salts in fresh water is
generally considered to the water’s potential productivity(Holden,1970 ;
Silenje,2003).The composition of the sediments ,water, nature of various dissolved
substances and salts as well as the temperature at which it is measured determine the
electrical conductivity of any water.(Tebbutt,1983 ; Silenje,2003).The dissociation
into ions, the amount of charges on the ions and ion mobility all impact on the
conductivity value( Chapman and Kimstach,1998; Silenje,2003)

In the international System of Units (SI), the units for conductivity are millisiemens
per meter (mS/m) (Greenberg et al, 1992; Silenje, 2003).Total dissolved solids (mg/l)
may be obtained by multiplying the conductivity by a factor between 0.55 and 0.75;
which must be determined for each water body. For waters in which sodium and
chloride dominate the multiplication factor is about 0.67 while it is higher for waters
high in sulphates (Chapman and Kimstach, 1998; Silenje, 2003)

2.3.4 Total Hardness

Total hardness is the sum of the concentration of multivalent metallic cations in
solution, such as calcium and magnesium, both of which are expressed as calcium
carbonate, in mg/l. In simple terms hardness in water can best be described as the
capacity of water to prevent the formation of lather .Hard waters actually consumes
soap and stain clothing, dishes and other items and hence represent an economic loss
to the water user. (Mthunzi, 2007)

2.3.5 Alkalinity
The alkalinity of water is its acid-neutralising capacity. It is the sum of all the
titratable bases (Greenberg et al, 1992). Alkalinity is mainly due to the presence of
bicarbonate, carbonate or hydroxide ions in solution. The measured values may
include contributions from borates, phosphates, silicates or other bases if these are
present (EPA, 1986; Silenje, 2003)

Alkalinity is useful in water and wastewater in that it provides buffering to resist

changes in PH as occurring in natural water bodies as a result of photosythesythetic
activity of chlorophyll bearing plants. It is normally divided into caustic alkalinity
above PH 8.2 and total alkalinity above PH 4.5 (Tebbutt, 1983; Silenje 2003)

Sufficiently high bicarbonate alkalinity prevents corrosion of pipes and the dissolution
of lead by water (Taylor, 1985; Silenje, 2003).The toxicity of metals on aquatic
organisms is affected by alkalinity. Zero alkalinity and caustic alkalinity make a water
body less productive, thus negatively affecting the production of fish (Stirling, 1985;
Silenje, 2003)

2.3.6 Dissolved Oxygen

Oxygen is essential in forms of aquatic life, including those organisms responsible for
self-purification processes in natural waters (Chapman and Kimstach,
1998).Dissolved oxygen levels in natural and wastewaters influence, and is also
dependent on the physical, chemical and biochemical activities in the water body. The
water balance of the system largely determines the impact of a waste discharge on a
river. Clean surface waters are normally saturated with DO, but such DO can be
rapidly deleted by the oxygen demand of organic
wastes(Tebbutt,1983;Silenje,2003).The solubility of oxygen decreases as temperature
and salinity increase(Holden,1970; Greenberg et al,1992;Silenje,2003).In fresh water
DO at sea level ranges 15mg/l at 0ºc to 8mg/l at 25 ºc. In unpolluted waters
concentrations are usually close to but less than 10mg/l, (Chapman and Kimstach,
1998; Silenje, 2003)

2.3.7 BOD and COD

The Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) of water can be defined as the amount of
oxygen required by micro-organisms during the aerobic oxidation of the organics in a
sample of wastewater at a temperature of 20 ºc.BOD is important in that :
(a) It is the most commonly used parameter to define the strength of domestic and
industrial wastewater.
(b) It measures the wastewater loading to a treatment plant thereby assisting the
environmental engineers to control the treated effluent before discharging it into
clean water.
(c) It determines the relative oxygen requirement of untreated and treated
effluents(Muthunzi,2007)

The Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is widely used to characterise the organic
strength of wastewater and the pollution of natural waters. It is the amount of oxygen
required for chemical oxidation of organic matter to Caron Dioxide. Normally
COD>BOD.

COD/BOD = (1.5-3.0) Raw wastewater

COD/BOD = (3.0-4.0) Industrial wastewater

2.4 Nutrients in Wastewater

Wastewater carries a large number of nutrients carried up from its use before it was
discarded. The nutrients vary in concentration with the time, season and the industries
in the vicinity as well as the major agricultural, commercial and social activities of the
community.

The nutrients are beneficiary to plant life if the application to the land is controlled
because they can cause an overload which can cause greater damage to the plants and
the environment.

2.4.1 Chlorides
Chloride is a highly soluble salt responsible for the brackish taste in water. It gets
into water through the weathering of some igneous rocks as well as by contamination
from sea water. In sewage chlorides have origins from urea and in industrial
discharges chlorides mainly originate from paper works, galvanising plants, and base
exchange water softening plants, agricultural chemical users and producers as well as
the textile industries and other refineries.

The threshold level for chloride taste is 250-500mg/l and up to 1500mg/l chlorides
are unlikely to be harmful to healthy consumers(Chapman and Kimstach,
1998;Tebutt,1983).In most water the chloride present will be sodium chloride and
occasionally magnesium and calcium chlorides will also be present.(Mthunzi,2007)

Studies in the regional distribution of chlorides in soils of Norwegian forests showed

a rapid decrease in increasing distance from the ocean indicating that the supply of
this element into the soil is mainly through precipitation from the atmosphere.(Ure
and Brown; Silenje ,2007).Chloride content in rainwater is highest along the coast
decreasing inland.(Durum,1997 ; Silenje,2003)

In fresh waters the chloride concentration are usually lower than 10mg/l and
sometimes even less than 2mg/l. (Chapman and Kimstach, 1998; Silenje,
2003).Higher concentrations can be found near sewage and other waste outlets,
irrigation drains, salt water intrusions in arid areas and wet coastal lands. (Taylor,
1958; Chapman and Kimstach, 1998; Silenje, 2003).Sewage contains about 50mg/l of
chloride above that found in water supply. When increase goes far beyond this
magnitude, the increase is often accompanied by increase in nitrates and ammonia
indicating a repeated recycling of the water either in a sewage system or an irrigation
scheme. (Talor, 1958; Silenje 2003).

2.4.2 Phosphate

Phosphorous is an essential nutrient for all living organisms hence it is found in all
living vegetable and animal tissue.(Holden,1970;Chapman and
Kimstach,1998;Silenje,2003).The total amount of phosphorous consumed in a day is
roughly 1.4g and 64% of this is excreted in urine(Bowen,1982;Silenje,2003).The
phosphorous of all living things is oxidised to phosphate. Phosphate is therefore found
in sewage. (Holden, 1970)
In England in 1953 an increase in phosphate levels in sewage were attributed to the
increase in the use of phosphate -based home detergents.(Holden,1970).In soils,
natural waters and sewage wastewaters phosphate occurs almost exclusively as
orthophosphate in either organic or inorganic combinations.(Greenberg,1982)
Phosphate is used extensively in land application of fertilisers as phosphorous
supplement for crops therefore; agriculture runoff and percolation are a major source
of contamination to surface and groundwater.
Industrial discharges from laundries using phosphate-based detergents as well as from
phosphate treated boiler water also contribute to the environmental loading of
phosphates (Greenberg.1982; Silenje, 2003)

Ways of removing phosphorous from sewage include land application of the sewage,
tertiary treatment of the sewage as well as convectional irrigation using treated
sewage effluent. It is generally accepted that soil and vegetative growth will remove
almost all of the phosphate in industrial and sewage effluent. About 97% of the
phosphate was removed by a 20cm column of calcareous meadow soil in USA at an
infiltration rate of 7cm/day(Fullstone,1980).The city of Bulawayo has used treated
sewage to irrigate Aiselby and Good Hope farms since 1966 with the soil effecting
good phosphate removal. It is however not known for how long the soils can continue
to accept phosphate.

2.4.3 Nitrogen

There are four most common forms of nitrogen in water i.e. organic nitrogen,
ammonia nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen. Organic nitrogen is in the
form of proteins, amino acids and urea. Ammonia nitrogen occurs as ammonia salts or
as free ammonia. Nitrate nitrogen is an intermediate oxidation stage not normally
present in large quantities. Nitrate nitrogen is the final oxidation product of nitrogen.
(Silenje, 2003; Mthunzi, 2007)

The oxidation of nitrogen compounds, termed nitrification proceeds as follows:

Organic Nitrogen +O2=Ammonia Nitrogen + O2=NO2-N+02=NO3-N

Nitrifying bacteria, nitrosomonous and nitrobactor, have to be present for nitrification

to take place. The process of nitrification involves the release of hydrogen ions into
solution and is therefore accompanied by lowering the PH and alkalinity.

The reduction of nitrogen, termed denitrification, in the presence of denitrification in

the presence of denitrifying bacteria, may reverse the process:

NO3=NO2=NH3 and or NH2

Alkalinity and PH values increase during the de-nitrification process. (Tebbutt, 1983;
Silenje, 2003)

Nitrates are however important to plant growth and are a major constituent in artificial
fertilisers. The reuse of wastewater allows for a sufficient amount to be applied to the
soil with no need of adding any artificial fertilisers.

With uncontrolled application of wastewater excess NO3 accumulates in the soil and
hence reaches the groundwater by percolation. These high nitrate levels are toxic and
may cause a development of methaemoglobinemia in infants, a fatal condition.
The problem of groundwater contamination is particularly serious to the rural
communities who solely depend on groundwater for drinking. A survey conducted an
area in Cape Town where they used sewage effluent for watering vegetables showed
that NO3N content of the groundwater was greater than 20mg/l more than twice that
legislated by the Department of National Health in SA.

2.4.4 Ammonia

Ammonia occurs naturally in water bodies as a result of the break down of

nitrogenous organic and inorganic matter in the soil and water, excretion by biota,
reduction of the nitrogen gas in water by micro organisms, industrial processes such
as ammonia based pulp and paper production, from detergents, agricultural waters as
well as human excreta. (Tebbutt, 1983)
Groundwaters are generally low in ammonia as it adsorbs to the soil and is not
leached easily. (Greenberg, 1992; Silenje, 2003)

The amount of ammonia in sewage water can be reduced to lower levels by biological
nitrification. The process can however be retarded by cold weather. The ammonia is
oxidised to nitrate, which is undesirable in other than small quantities in raw water
supplies. Air stripping of ammonia can give good removals but tends to be expensive.
(Tebbutt, 1983; Silenje, 2003)

2.5 Metals Found In wastewater

Many metals are important constituents of most waters ,many of these are also
classified as priority pollutants. However, most of these metals are necessary for the
growth of biological life , and the absence of sufficient quantities of them could limit
in the growth of algae for example.

The presence of these metals in excessive quantities will interfere with many
beneficial uses of water because of their toxicity.

2.5.1 Sodium

Sodium in excess greatly affects the soil structure of the soil. In the absence of
calcium even very little sodium can greatly reduce the permeability of soil. The
sodium adsorbtion ratio (SAR) depends on the soil, the rate of application and the
duration of application.

2.5.2 Fluoride

Flouride is essential for good bone structure development as well as good oral health
but in very small quantities .In excess it causes fluorosis which is a very severe dental
condition which collapses the teeth and gums.It is also known to be carcenogenous
and causes infertility in women if in excess.
2.5.3 Manganese

Manganese makes up 0.095% of the earth’s crust and it occurs naturally in

groundwater through the erosion and weathering of rocks but in very minute
quantities. In small quantities manganese is essential for the growth of plants as well
as aiding in digestion and mental development in animals.
Manganese originates from iron, steel, alloying and from electroplating as well as
canning industry.

2.5.4 Heavy Metals

Metals such as cadmium, chromate , lead, mercury, zinc e.t.c are known as trace
metals are known as trace metals.These elements originate from alloying,
electroplating, stainless steel manufacturing, tank linning
chemicals,catalysts,transmission wires, surgical equipment,e.t.c.

The effects of these trace metals are different according to the metals some of the
common effects are kidney,pancreas, liver and thyroid problems, corrosive on the skin
,irritation of the nose and mouth, discolouration of the skin, eyes and mucous
membranes.

2.6 Biological Contaminants

A study showed that biological pollution spreads along the direction of the water flow
in the aquifer.However bacteria apparently do not migrate more than 100 feet from
the pollution source.In porous soils bacteria disappear quite soon.Bacteria are
removed from the groundwater by adsorbtion on soil particles and by filtration.
(Charles G.Wilber,1997)

Very little is known about the travel of viruses lab tests show that viruses are very
resistant to chlorination, and they survive through the entire convectional sewage
treatment process.(Charles.G.Wilber, 1997)
It is however fortunate that most pathogens die out quite rapidly in groundwater.The
duration survival of pathogens in soil varies with physical nature of soil, pH ,
moisture and salt content.

2.7 Artificial Recharge of Aquifers

Some communities use to create artificial wetlands. Suspended solids drop out and
nutrients are used by the plants and micro-organisms which also degrade organic
chemicals. Metal pollutants are absorbed into the wetlogenand soil but are not dest

The French add Chrysanthemums-a daisy like plant to the mix of plants being
irrigated by the wastewater. Aerobic microbes that grow on the Chrysanthemum roots
use the reactive nitrogen and phosphorus in the wastewater as nutrients taking up to
40-60% of these from the wastewater. They reportedly remove 95% of the suspended
solids and 91% of the BOD too. The Chrysanthemums are later harvested and
processed to obtain a natural insecticide, Pyrethrin.
In many greenhouses in European countries, gray-water is used for the irrigation of
the plants being cultivated. The wastewater is first screened and the grit is removed
and the wastewater is fed to bacteria, algae and zooplankton, these remove nutrients
and reduce suspended solids and BOD thus making the water much safer for
irrigation.
However, irrigating using wastewater posses a risk on the groundwater quality. It
takes groundwater a long time to get rid of organic pollutants this is because
groundwater unlike surface water has fewer microbes to digest organic pollutants ,
less oxygen, no sunlight and no surface to which organic pollutants can evaporate
from .
How a pollutant reaches the groundwater depends on the soil type, pollutant
characteristic and the distance to the groundwater.