C++

C++
Notes for Professionals

Notes for Professionals

600+ pages
of professional hints and tricks

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Contents
About ................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1: Getting started with C++ .................................................................................................................... 2
Section 1.1: Hello World ................................................................................................................................................. 2
Section 1.2: Comments .................................................................................................................................................. 3
Section 1.3: The standard C++ compilation process .................................................................................................. 5
Section 1.4: Function ...................................................................................................................................................... 5
Section 1.5: Visibility of function prototypes and declarations ................................................................................. 8
Section 1.6: Preprocessor .............................................................................................................................................. 9
Chapter 2: Literals ...................................................................................................................................................... 11
Section 2.1: this ............................................................................................................................................................. 11
Section 2.2: Integer literal ........................................................................................................................................... 11
Section 2.3: true ........................................................................................................................................................... 12
Section 2.4: false .......................................................................................................................................................... 13
Section 2.5: nullptr ....................................................................................................................................................... 13
Chapter 3: operator precedence ........................................................................................................................ 14
Section 3.1: Logical && and || operators: short-circuit .............................................................................................. 14
Section 3.2: Unary Operators ..................................................................................................................................... 15
Section 3.3: Arithmetic operators .............................................................................................................................. 15
Section 3.4: Logical AND and OR operators ............................................................................................................ 16
Chapter 4: Floating Point Arithmetic ............................................................................................................... 17
Section 4.1: Floating Point Numbers are Weird ........................................................................................................ 17
Chapter 5: Bit Operators ........................................................................................................................................ 18
Section 5.1: | - bitwise OR ............................................................................................................................................ 18
Section 5.2: ^ - bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) .............................................................................................................. 18
Section 5.3: & - bitwise AND ....................................................................................................................................... 20
Section 5.4: << - left shift ............................................................................................................................................. 20
Section 5.5: >> - right shift .......................................................................................................................................... 21
Chapter 6: Bit Manipulation ................................................................................................................................... 23
Section 6.1: Remove rightmost set bit ....................................................................................................................... 23
Section 6.2: Set all bits ................................................................................................................................................ 23
Section 6.3: Toggling a bit .......................................................................................................................................... 23
Section 6.4: Checking a bit ......................................................................................................................................... 23
Section 6.5: Counting bits set ..................................................................................................................................... 24
Section 6.6: Check if an integer is a power of 2 ....................................................................................................... 25
Section 6.7: Setting a bit ............................................................................................................................................. 25
Section 6.8: Clearing a bit ........................................................................................................................................... 25
Section 6.9: Changing the nth bit to x ....................................................................................................................... 25
Section 6.10: Bit Manipulation Application: Small to Capital Letter ........................................................................ 26
Chapter 7: Bit fields ................................................................................................................................................... 27
Section 7.1: Declaration and Usage ........................................................................................................................... 27
Chapter 8: Arrays ....................................................................................................................................................... 28
Section 8.1: Array initialization .................................................................................................................................... 28
Section 8.2: A fixed size raw array matrix (that is, a 2D raw array) ...................................................................... 29
Section 8.3: Dynamically sized raw array ................................................................................................................. 29
Section 8.4: Array size: type safe at compile time ................................................................................................... 30
Section 8.5: Expanding dynamic size array by using std::vector ........................................................................... 31
 Section 8.6: A dynamic size matrix using std::vector for storage .......................................................................... 32
Chapter 9: Iterators ................................................................................................................................................... 35
Section 9.1: Overview ................................................................................................................................................... 35
Section 9.2: Vector Iterator ........................................................................................................................................ 38
Section 9.3: Map Iterator ............................................................................................................................................ 38
Section 9.4: Reverse Iterators .................................................................................................................................... 39
Section 9.5: Stream Iterators ...................................................................................................................................... 40
Section 9.6: C Iterators (Pointers) .............................................................................................................................. 40
Section 9.7: Write your own generator-backed iterator ......................................................................................... 41
Chapter 10: Basic input/output in c++ ............................................................................................................. 43
Section 10.1: user input and standard output ........................................................................................................... 43
Chapter 11: Loops ........................................................................................................................................................ 44
Section 11.1: Range-Based For .................................................................................................................................... 44
Section 11.2: For loop ................................................................................................................................................... 46
Section 11.3: While loop ............................................................................................................................................... 48
Section 11.4: Do-while loop .......................................................................................................................................... 49
Section 11.5: Loop Control statements : Break and Continue .................................................................................. 50
Section 11.6: Declaration of variables in conditions ................................................................................................. 51
Section 11.7: Range-for over a sub-range ................................................................................................................. 52
Chapter 12: File I/O .................................................................................................................................................... 54
Section 12.1: Writing to a file ....................................................................................................................................... 54
Section 12.2: Opening a file ........................................................................................................................................ 54
Section 12.3: Reading from a file ............................................................................................................................... 55
Section 12.4: Opening modes ..................................................................................................................................... 57
Section 12.5: Reading an ASCII file into a std::string ................................................................................................ 58
Section 12.6: Writing files with non-standard locale settings .................................................................................. 59
Section 12.7: Checking end of file inside a loop condition, bad practice? ............................................................. 60
Section 12.8: Flushing a stream .................................................................................................................................. 61
Section 12.9: Reading a file into a container ............................................................................................................. 61
Section 12.10: Copying a file ....................................................................................................................................... 62
Section 12.11: Closing a file .......................................................................................................................................... 62
Section 12.12: Reading a `struct` from a formatted text file .................................................................................... 63
Chapter 13: C++ Streams ......................................................................................................................................... 65
Section 13.1: String streams ........................................................................................................................................ 65
Section 13.2: Printing collections with iostream ........................................................................................................ 66
Chapter 14: Stream manipulators ..................................................................................................................... 68
Section 14.1: Stream manipulators ............................................................................................................................. 68
Section 14.2: Output stream manipulators ............................................................................................................... 73
Section 14.3: Input stream manipulators ................................................................................................................... 75
Chapter 15: Flow Control ......................................................................................................................................... 77
Section 15.1: case ......................................................................................................................................................... 77
Section 15.2: switch ...................................................................................................................................................... 77
Section 15.3: catch ....................................................................................................................................................... 77
Section 15.4: throw ....................................................................................................................................................... 78
Section 15.5: default .................................................................................................................................................... 79
Section 15.6: try ............................................................................................................................................................ 79
Section 15.7: if ............................................................................................................................................................... 79
Section 15.8: else .......................................................................................................................................................... 80
Section 15.9: Conditional Structures: if, if..else ........................................................................................................... 80
 Section 15.10: goto ....................................................................................................................................................... 81
Section 15.11: Jump statements : break, continue, goto, exit ................................................................................... 81
Section 15.12: return ..................................................................................................................................................... 84
Chapter 16: Metaprogramming ........................................................................................................................... 86
Section 16.1: Calculating Factorials ............................................................................................................................ 86
Section 16.2: Iterating over a parameter pack ......................................................................................................... 88
Section 16.3: Iterating with std::integer_sequence ................................................................................................... 89
Section 16.4: Tag Dispatching .................................................................................................................................... 90
Section 16.5: Detect Whether Expression is Valid ..................................................................................................... 90
Section 16.6: If-then-else ............................................................................................................................................. 92
Section 16.7: Manual distinction of types when given any type T .......................................................................... 92
Section 16.8: Calculating power with C++11 (and higher) ......................................................................................... 93
Section 16.9: Generic Min/Max with variable argument count ............................................................................... 94
Chapter 17: const keyword .................................................................................................................................... 95
Section 17.1: Avoiding duplication of code in const and non-const getter methods ............................................ 95
Section 17.2: Const member functions ...................................................................................................................... 96
Section 17.3: Const local variables ............................................................................................................................. 97
Section 17.4: Const pointers ........................................................................................................................................ 97
Chapter 18: mutable keyword .............................................................................................................................. 99
Section 18.1: mutable lambdas ................................................................................................................................... 99
Section 18.2: non-static class member modifier ...................................................................................................... 99
Chapter 19: Friend keyword ................................................................................................................................ 101
Section 19.1: Friend function ..................................................................................................................................... 101
Section 19.2: Friend method ..................................................................................................................................... 102
Section 19.3: Friend class .......................................................................................................................................... 102
Chapter 20: Type Keywords ............................................................................................................................... 104
Section 20.1: class ...................................................................................................................................................... 104
Section 20.2: enum .................................................................................................................................................... 105
Section 20.3: struct .................................................................................................................................................... 106
Section 20.4: union .................................................................................................................................................... 106
Chapter 21: Basic Type Keywords .................................................................................................................... 108
Section 21.1: char ....................................................................................................................................................... 108
Section 21.2: char16_t ................................................................................................................................................ 108
Section 21.3: char32_t ............................................................................................................................................... 108
Section 21.4: int .......................................................................................................................................................... 108
Section 21.5: void ....................................................................................................................................................... 108
Section 21.6: wchar_t ................................................................................................................................................ 109
Section 21.7: float ....................................................................................................................................................... 109
Section 21.8: double ................................................................................................................................................... 109
Section 21.9: long ....................................................................................................................................................... 109
Section 21.10: short .................................................................................................................................................... 110
Section 21.11: bool ...................................................................................................................................................... 110
Chapter 22: Variable Declaration Keywords .............................................................................................. 111
Section 22.1: decltype ............................................................................................................................................... 111
Section 22.2: const .................................................................................................................................................... 111
Section 22.3: volatile ................................................................................................................................................. 112
Section 22.4: signed .................................................................................................................................................. 112
Section 22.5: unsigned .............................................................................................................................................. 112
Chapter 23: Keywords ............................................................................................................................................ 114
 Section 23.1: asm ....................................................................................................................................................... 114
Section 23.2: Dierent keywords ............................................................................................................................. 114
Section 23.3: typename ............................................................................................................................................ 118
Section 23.4: explicit .................................................................................................................................................. 119
Section 23.5: sizeof .................................................................................................................................................... 119
Section 23.6: noexcept .............................................................................................................................................. 120
Chapter 24: Returning several values from a function ....................................................................... 122
Section 24.1: Using std::tuple .................................................................................................................................... 122
Section 24.2: Structured Bindings ............................................................................................................................ 123
Section 24.3: Using struct ......................................................................................................................................... 124
Section 24.4: Using Output Parameters .................................................................................................................. 125
Section 24.5: Using a Function Object Consumer .................................................................................................. 126
Section 24.6: Using std::pair ..................................................................................................................................... 127
Section 24.7: Using std::array ................................................................................................................................... 127
Section 24.8: Using Output Iterator ......................................................................................................................... 127
Section 24.9: Using std::vector ................................................................................................................................. 128
Chapter 25: Polymorphism .................................................................................................................................. 129
Section 25.1: Define polymorphic classes ............................................................................................................... 129
Section 25.2: Safe downcasting ............................................................................................................................... 130
Section 25.3: Polymorphism & Destructors ............................................................................................................ 131
Chapter 26: References ......................................................................................................................................... 133
Section 26.1: Defining a reference ........................................................................................................................... 133
Chapter 27: Value and Reference Semantics ............................................................................................ 134
Section 27.1: Definitions ............................................................................................................................................ 134
Section 27.2: Deep copying and move support ..................................................................................................... 134
Chapter 28: C++ function "call by value" vs. "call by reference" .................................................... 138
Section 28.1: Call by value ........................................................................................................................................ 138
Chapter 29: Copying vs Assignment ............................................................................................................... 140
Section 29.1: Assignment Operator ......................................................................................................................... 140
Section 29.2: Copy Constructor ............................................................................................................................... 140
Section 29.3: Copy Constructor Vs Assignment Constructor ............................................................................... 141
Chapter 30: Pointers ............................................................................................................................................... 143
Section 30.1: Pointer Operations .............................................................................................................................. 143
Section 30.2: Pointer basics ...................................................................................................................................... 143
Section 30.3: Pointer Arithmetic ............................................................................................................................... 145
Chapter 31: Pointers to members ..................................................................................................................... 147
Section 31.1: Pointers to static member functions .................................................................................................. 147
Section 31.2: Pointers to member functions ........................................................................................................... 147
Section 31.3: Pointers to member variables ............................................................................................................ 148
Section 31.4: Pointers to static member variables ................................................................................................. 148
Chapter 32: The This Pointer .............................................................................................................................. 150
Section 32.1: this Pointer ........................................................................................................................................... 150
Section 32.2: Using the this Pointer to Access Member Data ............................................................................... 152
Section 32.3: Using the this Pointer to Dierentiate Between Member Data and Parameters ........................ 152
Section 32.4: this Pointer CV-Qualifiers ................................................................................................................... 153
Section 32.5: this Pointer Ref-Qualifiers .................................................................................................................. 156
Chapter 33: Smart Pointers ................................................................................................................................. 158
Section 33.1: Unique ownership (std::unique_ptr) .................................................................................................. 158
Section 33.2: Sharing ownership (std::shared_ptr) ................................................................................................ 159
 Section 33.3: Sharing with temporary ownership (std::weak_ptr) ....................................................................... 161
Section 33.4: Using custom deleters to create a wrapper to a C interface ........................................................ 163
Section 33.5: Unique ownership without move semantics (auto_ptr) ................................................................. 164
Section 33.6: Casting std::shared_ptr pointers ....................................................................................................... 166
Section 33.7: Writing a smart pointer: value_ptr ................................................................................................... 166
Section 33.8: Getting a shared_ptr referring to this .............................................................................................. 168
Chapter 34: Classes/Structures ....................................................................................................................... 170
Section 34.1: Class basics .......................................................................................................................................... 170
Section 34.2: Final classes and structs .................................................................................................................... 170
Section 34.3: Access specifiers ................................................................................................................................. 171
Section 34.4: Inheritance .......................................................................................................................................... 172
Section 34.5: Friendship ............................................................................................................................................ 174
Section 34.6: Virtual Inheritance .............................................................................................................................. 175
Section 34.7: Private inheritance: restricting base class interface ....................................................................... 176
Section 34.8: Accessing class members ................................................................................................................. 177
Section 34.9: Member Types and Aliases ............................................................................................................... 178
Section 34.10: Nested Classes/Structures ............................................................................................................... 182
Section 34.11: Unnamed struct/class ....................................................................................................................... 186
Section 34.12: Static class members ........................................................................................................................ 187
Section 34.13: Multiple Inheritance ........................................................................................................................... 191
Section 34.14: Non-static member functions .......................................................................................................... 192
Chapter 35: Function Overloading ................................................................................................................... 195
Section 35.1: What is Function Overloading? .......................................................................................................... 195
Section 35.2: Return Type in Function Overloading .............................................................................................. 196
Section 35.3: Member Function cv-qualifier Overloading ..................................................................................... 196
Chapter 36: Operator Overloading ................................................................................................................. 199
Section 36.1: Arithmetic operators ........................................................................................................................... 199
Section 36.2: Array subscript operator ................................................................................................................... 200
Section 36.3: Conversion operators ......................................................................................................................... 201
Section 36.4: Complex Numbers Revisited ............................................................................................................. 202
Section 36.5: Named operators ............................................................................................................................... 206
Section 36.6: Unary operators ................................................................................................................................. 208
Section 36.7: Comparison operators ....................................................................................................................... 209
Section 36.8: Assignment operator ......................................................................................................................... 210
Section 36.9: Function call operator ........................................................................................................................ 211
Section 36.10: Bitwise NOT operator ....................................................................................................................... 211
Section 36.11: Bit shift operators for I/O .................................................................................................................. 212
Chapter 37: Function Template Overloading ............................................................................................. 213
Section 37.1: What is a valid function template overloading? .............................................................................. 213
Chapter 38: Virtual Member Functions ......................................................................................................... 214
Section 38.1: Final virtual functions .......................................................................................................................... 214
Section 38.2: Using override with virtual in C++11 and later .................................................................................. 214
Section 38.3: Virtual vs non-virtual member functions ......................................................................................... 215
Section 38.4: Behaviour of virtual functions in constructors and destructors .................................................... 216
Section 38.5: Pure virtual functions ......................................................................................................................... 217
Chapter 39: Inline functions ................................................................................................................................. 220
Section 39.1: Non-member inline function definition ............................................................................................. 220
Section 39.2: Member inline functions ..................................................................................................................... 220
Section 39.3: What is function inlining? ................................................................................................................... 220
Section 39.4: Non-member inline function declaration ......................................................................................... 221
Chapter 40: Special Member Functions ........................................................................................................ 222
Section 40.1: Default Constructor ............................................................................................................................ 222
Section 40.2: Destructor ........................................................................................................................................... 224
Section 40.3: Copy and swap ................................................................................................................................... 225
Section 40.4: Implicit Move and Copy ..................................................................................................................... 227
Chapter 41: Non-Static Member Functions ................................................................................................. 228
Section 41.1: Non-static Member Functions ............................................................................................................ 228
Section 41.2: Encapsulation ...................................................................................................................................... 229
Section 41.3: Name Hiding & Importing .................................................................................................................. 229
Section 41.4: Virtual Member Functions .................................................................................................................. 231
Section 41.5: Const Correctness ............................................................................................................................... 233
Chapter 42: Constant class member functions ........................................................................................ 235
Section 42.1: constant member function ................................................................................................................ 235
Chapter 43: C++ Containers ................................................................................................................................ 236
Section 43.1: C++ Containers Flowchart .................................................................................................................. 236
Chapter 44: Namespaces .................................................................................................................................... 237
Section 44.1: What are namespaces? ..................................................................................................................... 237
Section 44.2: Argument Dependent Lookup .......................................................................................................... 238
Section 44.3: Extending namespaces ...................................................................................................................... 239
Section 44.4: Using directive .................................................................................................................................... 239
Section 44.5: Making namespaces .......................................................................................................................... 240
Section 44.6: Unnamed/anonymous namespaces ............................................................................................... 241
Section 44.7: Compact nested namespaces .......................................................................................................... 241
Section 44.8: Namespace alias ................................................................................................................................ 241
Section 44.9: Inline namespace ............................................................................................................................... 242
Section 44.10: Aliasing a long namespace .............................................................................................................. 244
Section 44.11: Alias Declaration scope ..................................................................................................................... 244
Chapter 45: Header Files ..................................................................................................................................... 246
Section 45.1: Basic Example ..................................................................................................................................... 246
Section 45.2: Templates in Header Files ................................................................................................................. 247
Chapter 46: Using declaration .......................................................................................................................... 248
Section 46.1: Importing names individually from a namespace .......................................................................... 248
Section 46.2: Redeclaring members from a base class to avoid name hiding .................................................. 248
Section 46.3: Inheriting constructors ....................................................................................................................... 248
Chapter 47: std::string ........................................................................................................................................... 250
Section 47.1: Tokenize ............................................................................................................................................... 250
Section 47.2: Conversion to (const) char* ............................................................................................................... 251
Section 47.3: Using the std::string_view class ........................................................................................................ 251
Section 47.4: Conversion to std::wstring .................................................................................................................. 252
Section 47.5: Lexicographical comparison ............................................................................................................. 253
Section 47.6: Trimming characters at start/end ................................................................................................... 254
Section 47.7: String replacement ............................................................................................................................. 255
Section 47.8: Converting to std::string ..................................................................................................................... 256
Section 47.9: Splitting ................................................................................................................................................ 257
Section 47.10: Accessing a character ...................................................................................................................... 258
Section 47.11: Checking if a string is a prefix of another ....................................................................................... 258
Section 47.12: Looping through each character .................................................................................................... 259
Section 47.13: Conversion to integers/floating point types .................................................................................. 259
Section 47.14: Concatenation ................................................................................................................................... 260
 Section 47.15: Converting between character encodings ..................................................................................... 261
Section 47.16: Finding character(s) in a string ....................................................................................................... 262
Chapter 48: std::array ........................................................................................................................................... 263
Section 48.1: Initializing an std::array ....................................................................................................................... 263
Section 48.2: Element access ................................................................................................................................... 264
Section 48.3: Iterating through the Array ............................................................................................................... 266
Section 48.4: Checking size of the Array ................................................................................................................ 266
Section 48.5: Changing all array elements at once ............................................................................................... 266
Chapter 49: std::vector ......................................................................................................................................... 267
Section 49.1: Accessing Elements ............................................................................................................................ 267
Section 49.2: Initializing a std::vector ....................................................................................................................... 269
Section 49.3: Deleting Elements ............................................................................................................................... 270
Section 49.4: Iterating Over std::vector ................................................................................................................... 272
Section 49.5: vector<bool>: The Exception To So Many, So Many Rules ............................................................ 274
Section 49.6: Inserting Elements .............................................................................................................................. 275
Section 49.7: Using std::vector as a C array ........................................................................................................... 276
Section 49.8: Finding an Element in std::vector ...................................................................................................... 277
Section 49.9: Concatenating Vectors ...................................................................................................................... 278
Section 49.10: Matrices Using Vectors ..................................................................................................................... 279
Section 49.11: Using a Sorted Vector for Fast Element Lookup ............................................................................ 280
Section 49.12: Reducing the Capacity of a Vector ................................................................................................. 281
Section 49.13: Vector size and capacity .................................................................................................................. 281
Section 49.14: Iterator/Pointer Invalidation ............................................................................................................ 283
Section 49.15: Find max and min Element and Respective Index in a Vector ..................................................... 284
Section 49.16: Converting an array to std::vector .................................................................................................. 284
Section 49.17: Functions Returning Large Vectors ................................................................................................. 285
Chapter 50: std::map .............................................................................................................................................. 287
Section 50.1: Accessing elements ............................................................................................................................ 287
Section 50.2: Inserting elements .............................................................................................................................. 288
Section 50.3: Searching in std::map or in std::multimap ........................................................................................ 289
Section 50.4: Initializing a std::map or std::multimap ............................................................................................. 290
Section 50.5: Checking number of elements .......................................................................................................... 291
Section 50.6: Types of Maps .................................................................................................................................... 291
Section 50.7: Deleting elements ............................................................................................................................... 292
Section 50.8: Iterating over std::map or std::multimap ......................................................................................... 293
Section 50.9: Creating std::map with user-defined types as key ......................................................................... 293
Chapter 51: std::optional ....................................................................................................................................... 295
Section 51.1: Using optionals to represent the absence of a value ...................................................................... 295
Section 51.2: optional as return value ..................................................................................................................... 295
Section 51.3: value_or ............................................................................................................................................... 296
Section 51.4: Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 296
Section 51.5: Using optionals to represent the failure of a function .................................................................... 297
Chapter 52: std::function: To wrap any element that is callable .................................................... 299
Section 52.1: Simple usage ....................................................................................................................................... 299
Section 52.2: std::function used with std::bind ........................................................................................................ 299
Section 52.3: Binding std::function to a dierent callable types .......................................................................... 300
Section 52.4: Storing function arguments in std::tuple .......................................................................................... 302
Section 52.5: std::function with lambda and std::bind ........................................................................................... 303
Section 52.6: `function` overhead ............................................................................................................................ 304
Chapter 53: std::forward_list ............................................................................................................................. 305
 Section 53.1: Example ................................................................................................................................................ 305
Section 53.2: Methods ............................................................................................................................................... 305
Chapter 54: std::pair .............................................................................................................................................. 307
Section 54.1: Compare operators ............................................................................................................................ 307
Section 54.2: Creating a Pair and accessing the elements ................................................................................... 307
Chapter 55: std::atomics ....................................................................................................................................... 309
Section 55.1: atomic types ........................................................................................................................................ 309
Chapter 56: std::variant ........................................................................................................................................ 311
Section 56.1: Create pseudo-method pointers ....................................................................................................... 311
Section 56.2: Basic std::variant use .......................................................................................................................... 312
Section 56.3: Constructing a `std::variant` ............................................................................................................... 313
Chapter 57: std::iomanip ...................................................................................................................................... 314
Section 57.1: std::setprecision ................................................................................................................................... 314
Section 57.2: std::setfill .............................................................................................................................................. 314
Section 57.3: std::setiosflags ..................................................................................................................................... 314
Section 57.4: std::setw ............................................................................................................................................... 316
Chapter 58: std::any ................................................................................................................................................ 317
Section 58.1: Basic usage .......................................................................................................................................... 317
Chapter 59: std::set and std::multiset ............................................................................................................ 318
Section 59.1: Changing the default sort of a set .................................................................................................... 318
Section 59.2: Deleting values from a set ................................................................................................................ 320
Section 59.3: Inserting values in a set ..................................................................................................................... 321
Section 59.4: Inserting values in a multiset ............................................................................................................. 323
Section 59.5: Searching values in set and multiset ................................................................................................ 323
Chapter 60: std::integer_sequence ................................................................................................................ 325
Section 60.1: Turn a std::tuple<T...> into function parameters .............................................................................. 325
Section 60.2: Create a parameter pack consisting of integers ............................................................................ 326
Section 60.3: Turn a sequence of indices into copies of an element ................................................................... 326
Chapter 61: Using std::unordered_map ........................................................................................................ 328
Section 61.1: Declaration and Usage ....................................................................................................................... 328
Section 61.2: Some Basic Functions ......................................................................................................................... 328
Chapter 62: Standard Library Algorithms ................................................................................................... 329
Section 62.1: std::next_permutation ......................................................................................................................... 329
Section 62.2: std::for_each ....................................................................................................................................... 329
Section 62.3: std::accumulate ................................................................................................................................... 330
Section 62.4: std::find ................................................................................................................................................ 331
Section 62.5: std::min_element ................................................................................................................................ 333
Section 62.6: std::find_if ............................................................................................................................................ 334
Section 62.7: Using std::nth_element To Find The Median (Or Other Quantiles) ............................................... 335
Section 62.8: std::count ............................................................................................................................................. 336
Section 62.9: std::count_if ......................................................................................................................................... 337
Chapter 63: The ISO C++ Standard .................................................................................................................. 339
Section 63.1: Current Working Drafts ...................................................................................................................... 339
Section 63.2: C++17 .................................................................................................................................................... 339
Section 63.3: C++11 ..................................................................................................................................................... 340
Section 63.4: C++14 .................................................................................................................................................... 341
Section 63.5: C++98 ................................................................................................................................................... 342
Section 63.6: C++03 ................................................................................................................................................... 342
Section 63.7: C++20 ................................................................................................................................................... 343
Chapter 64: Inline variables ................................................................................................................................ 344
Section 64.1: Defining a static data member in the class definition ..................................................................... 344
Chapter 65: Random number generation ................................................................................................... 345
Section 65.1: True random value generator ........................................................................................................... 345
Section 65.2: Generating a pseudo-random number ............................................................................................ 345
Section 65.3: Using the generator for multiple distributions ................................................................................ 346
Chapter 66: Date and time using <chrono> header ................................................................................ 347
Section 66.1: Measuring time using <chrono> ........................................................................................................ 347
Section 66.2: Find number of days between two dates ........................................................................................ 347
Chapter 67: Sorting ................................................................................................................................................. 349
Section 67.1: Sorting and sequence containers ...................................................................................................... 349
Section 67.2: sorting with std::map (ascending and descending) ........................................................................ 349
Section 67.3: Sorting sequence containers by overloaded less operator ........................................................... 351
Section 67.4: Sorting sequence containers using compare function ................................................................... 352
Section 67.5: Sorting sequence containers using lambda expressions (C++11) .................................................. 353
Section 67.6: Sorting built-in arrays ........................................................................................................................ 354
Section 67.7: Sorting sequence containers with specifed ordering ..................................................................... 354
Chapter 68: Enumeration ..................................................................................................................................... 355
Section 68.1: Iteration over an enum ....................................................................................................................... 355
Section 68.2: Scoped enums .................................................................................................................................... 356
Section 68.3: Enum forward declaration in C++11 .................................................................................................. 357
Section 68.4: Basic Enumeration Declaration ........................................................................................................ 357
Section 68.5: Enumeration in switch statements ................................................................................................... 358
Chapter 69: Iteration .............................................................................................................................................. 359
Section 69.1: break .................................................................................................................................................... 359
Section 69.2: continue ............................................................................................................................................... 359
Section 69.3: do ......................................................................................................................................................... 359
Section 69.4: while ..................................................................................................................................................... 359
Section 69.5: range-based for loop ......................................................................................................................... 360
Section 69.6: for ......................................................................................................................................................... 360
Chapter 70: Regular expressions ..................................................................................................................... 361
Section 70.1: Basic regex_match and regex_search Examples ........................................................................... 361
Section 70.2: regex_iterator Example ..................................................................................................................... 361
Section 70.3: Anchors ................................................................................................................................................ 362
Section 70.4: regex_replace Example ..................................................................................................................... 363
Section 70.5: regex_token_iterator Example ........................................................................................................ 363
Section 70.6: Quantifiers ........................................................................................................................................... 363
Section 70.7: Splitting a string .................................................................................................................................. 365
Chapter 71: Implementation-defined behavior ......................................................................................... 366
Section 71.1: Size of integral types ........................................................................................................................... 366
Section 71.2: Char might be unsigned or signed .................................................................................................... 368
Section 71.3: Ranges of numeric types ................................................................................................................... 368
Section 71.4: Value representation of floating point types ................................................................................... 369
Section 71.5: Overflow when converting from integer to signed integer ............................................................ 369
Section 71.6: Underlying type (and hence size) of an enum ................................................................................. 370
Section 71.7: Numeric value of a pointer ................................................................................................................. 370
Section 71.8: Number of bits in a byte ..................................................................................................................... 371
Chapter 72: Exceptions .......................................................................................................................................... 372
Section 72.1: Catching exceptions ............................................................................................................................ 372
 Section 72.2: Rethrow (propagate) exception ....................................................................................................... 373
Section 72.3: Best practice: throw by value, catch by const reference ............................................................... 374
Section 72.4: Custom exception ............................................................................................................................... 375
Section 72.5: std::uncaught_exceptions .................................................................................................................. 377
Section 72.6: Function Try Block for regular function ........................................................................................... 378
Section 72.7: Nested exception ................................................................................................................................ 378
Section 72.8: Function Try Blocks In constructor ................................................................................................... 380
Section 72.9: Function Try Blocks In destructor ..................................................................................................... 381
Chapter 73: Lambdas ............................................................................................................................................. 382
Section 73.1: What is a lambda expression? ........................................................................................................... 382
Section 73.2: Specifying the return type ................................................................................................................. 384
Section 73.3: Capture by value ................................................................................................................................ 385
Section 73.4: Recursive lambdas ............................................................................................................................. 386
Section 73.5: Default capture ................................................................................................................................... 388
Section 73.6: Class lambdas and capture of this ................................................................................................... 388
Section 73.7: Capture by reference ......................................................................................................................... 390
Section 73.8: Generic lambdas ................................................................................................................................. 390
Section 73.9: Using lambdas for inline parameter pack unpacking .................................................................... 391
Section 73.10: Generalized capture .......................................................................................................................... 393
Section 73.11: Conversion to function pointer ......................................................................................................... 394
Section 73.12: Porting lambda functions to C++03 using functors ....................................................................... 394
Chapter 74: Value Categories ........................................................................................................................... 396
Section 74.1: Value Category Meanings .................................................................................................................. 396
Section 74.2: rvalue ................................................................................................................................................... 396
Section 74.3: xvalue ................................................................................................................................................... 397
Section 74.4: prvalue ................................................................................................................................................. 397
Section 74.5: lvalue .................................................................................................................................................... 398
Section 74.6: glvalue ................................................................................................................................................. 398
Chapter 75: Preprocessor .................................................................................................................................... 399
Section 75.1: Include Guards ..................................................................................................................................... 399
Section 75.2: Conditional logic and cross-platform handling ............................................................................... 400
Section 75.3: X-macros ............................................................................................................................................. 401
Section 75.4: Macros ................................................................................................................................................. 403
Section 75.5: Predefined macros ............................................................................................................................. 406
Section 75.6: Preprocessor Operators .................................................................................................................... 408
Section 75.7: #pragma once .................................................................................................................................... 408
Section 75.8: Preprocessor error messages ........................................................................................................... 409
Chapter 76: Data Structures in C++ ................................................................................................................ 410
Section 76.1: Linked List implementation in C++ ..................................................................................................... 410
Chapter 77: Templates .......................................................................................................................................... 413
Section 77.1: Basic Class Template .......................................................................................................................... 413
Section 77.2: Function Templates ............................................................................................................................ 413
Section 77.3: Variadic template data structures .................................................................................................... 415
Section 77.4: Argument forwarding ........................................................................................................................ 417
Section 77.5: Partial template specialization .......................................................................................................... 418
Section 77.6: Template Specialization ..................................................................................................................... 420
Section 77.7: Alias template ..................................................................................................................................... 420
Section 77.8: Explicit instantiation ............................................................................................................................ 420
Section 77.9: Non-type template parameter ......................................................................................................... 421
Section 77.10: Declaring non-type template arguments with auto ...................................................................... 422
 Section 77.11: Template template parameters ....................................................................................................... 423
Section 77.12: Default template parameter value ................................................................................................. 424
Chapter 78: Expression templates ................................................................................................................... 425
Section 78.1: A basic example illustrating expression templates ......................................................................... 425
Chapter 79: Curiously Recurring Template Pattern (CRTP) ............................................................... 429
Section 79.1: The Curiously Recurring Template Pattern (CRTP) ......................................................................... 429
Section 79.2: CRTP to avoid code duplication ........................................................................................................ 430
Chapter 80: Threading ........................................................................................................................................... 432
Section 80.1: Creating a std::thread ......................................................................................................................... 432
Section 80.2: Passing a reference to a thread ....................................................................................................... 434
Section 80.3: Using std::async instead of std::thread ............................................................................................ 434
Section 80.4: Basic Synchronization ........................................................................................................................ 435
Section 80.5: Create a simple thread pool ............................................................................................................. 435
Section 80.6: Ensuring a thread is always joined ................................................................................................... 437
Section 80.7: Operations on the current thread .................................................................................................... 438
Section 80.8: Using Condition Variables ................................................................................................................. 439
Section 80.9: Thread operations ............................................................................................................................. 441
Section 80.10: Thread-local storage ........................................................................................................................ 441
Section 80.11: Reassigning thread objects .............................................................................................................. 442
Chapter 81: Thread synchronization structures ....................................................................................... 443
Section 81.1: std::condition_variable_any, std::cv_status ...................................................................................... 443
Section 81.2: std::shared_lock .................................................................................................................................. 443
Section 81.3: std::call_once, std::once_flag ............................................................................................................. 443
Section 81.4: Object locking for ecient access .................................................................................................... 444
Chapter 82: The Rule of Three, Five, And Zero ......................................................................................... 446
Section 82.1: Rule of Zero ......................................................................................................................................... 446
Section 82.2: Rule of Five ......................................................................................................................................... 447
Section 82.3: Rule of Three ...................................................................................................................................... 448
Section 82.4: Self-assignment Protection ............................................................................................................... 449
Chapter 83: RAII: Resource Acquisition Is Initialization ......................................................................... 451
Section 83.1: Locking ................................................................................................................................................. 451
Section 83.2: ScopeSuccess (c++17) ........................................................................................................................ 452
Section 83.3: ScopeFail (c++17) ................................................................................................................................ 453
Section 83.4: Finally/ScopeExit ................................................................................................................................ 454
Chapter 84: RTTI: Run-Time Type Information ........................................................................................ 455
Section 84.1: dynamic_cast ...................................................................................................................................... 455
Section 84.2: The typeid keyword ........................................................................................................................... 455
Section 84.3: Name of a type ................................................................................................................................... 456
Section 84.4: When to use which cast in c++ .......................................................................................................... 456
Chapter 85: Mutexes ............................................................................................................................................... 457
Section 85.1: Mutex Types ........................................................................................................................................ 457
Section 85.2: std::lock ................................................................................................................................................ 457
Section 85.3: std::unique_lock, std::shared_lock, std::lock_guard ....................................................................... 457
Section 85.4: Strategies for lock classes: std::try_to_lock, std::adopt_lock, std::defer_lock ............................ 458
Section 85.5: std::mutex ............................................................................................................................................ 459
Section 85.6: std::scoped_lock (C++ 17) .................................................................................................................. 459
Chapter 86: Recursive Mutex .............................................................................................................................. 460
Section 86.1: std::recursive_mutex ........................................................................................................................... 460
Chapter 87: Semaphore ........................................................................................................................................ 461
 Section 87.1: Semaphore C++ 11 ............................................................................................................................... 461
Section 87.2: Semaphore class in action ................................................................................................................ 461
Chapter 88: Futures and Promises .................................................................................................................. 463
Section 88.1: Async operation classes ..................................................................................................................... 463
Section 88.2: std::future and std::promise ............................................................................................................... 463
Section 88.3: Deferred async example ................................................................................................................... 463
Section 88.4: std::packaged_task and std::future .................................................................................................. 464
Section 88.5: std::future_error and std::future_errc .............................................................................................. 464
Section 88.6: std::future and std::async ................................................................................................................... 465
Chapter 89: Atomic Types .................................................................................................................................... 468
Section 89.1: Multi-threaded Access ........................................................................................................................ 468
Chapter 90: Type Erasure .................................................................................................................................... 470
Section 90.1: A move-only `std::function` ................................................................................................................. 470
Section 90.2: Erasing down to a Regular type with manual vtable ..................................................................... 472
Section 90.3: Basic mechanism ............................................................................................................................... 475
Section 90.4: Erasing down to a contiguous buer of T ....................................................................................... 476
Section 90.5: Type erasing type erasure with std::any ......................................................................................... 477
Chapter 91: Explicit type conversions ............................................................................................................. 482
Section 91.1: C-style casting ...................................................................................................................................... 482
Section 91.2: Casting away constness ..................................................................................................................... 482
Section 91.3: Base to derived conversion ................................................................................................................ 482
Section 91.4: Conversion between pointer and integer ......................................................................................... 483
Section 91.5: Conversion by explicit constructor or explicit conversion function ............................................... 484
Section 91.6: Implicit conversion .............................................................................................................................. 484
Section 91.7: Enum conversions ............................................................................................................................... 484
Section 91.8: Derived to base conversion for pointers to members .................................................................... 486
Section 91.9: void* to T* ............................................................................................................................................. 486
Section 91.10: Type punning conversion ................................................................................................................. 487
Chapter 92: Unnamed types ............................................................................................................................... 488
Section 92.1: Unnamed classes ................................................................................................................................ 488
Section 92.2: As a type alias .................................................................................................................................... 488
Section 92.3: Anonymous members ....................................................................................................................... 488
Section 92.4: Anonymous Union .............................................................................................................................. 489
Chapter 93: Type Traits ......................................................................................................................................... 490
Section 93.1: Type Properties ................................................................................................................................... 490
Section 93.2: Standard type traits ........................................................................................................................... 491
Section 93.3: Type relations with std::is_same<T, T> ............................................................................................ 492
Section 93.4: Fundamental type traits .................................................................................................................... 493
Chapter 94: Return Type Covariance ............................................................................................................ 495
Section 94.1: Covariant result version of the base example, static type checking ............................................. 495
Section 94.2: Covariant smart pointer result (automated cleanup) .................................................................... 495
Chapter 95: Layout of object types ................................................................................................................ 497
Section 95.1: Class types ........................................................................................................................................... 497
Section 95.2: Arithmetic types ................................................................................................................................. 499
Section 95.3: Arrays .................................................................................................................................................. 500
Chapter 96: Type Inference ................................................................................................................................ 501
Section 96.1: Data Type: Auto .................................................................................................................................. 501
Section 96.2: Lambda auto ...................................................................................................................................... 501
Section 96.3: Loops and auto ................................................................................................................................... 501
Chapter 97: Typedef and type aliases .......................................................................................................... 503
Section 97.1: Basic typedef syntax .......................................................................................................................... 503
Section 97.2: More complex uses of typedef ......................................................................................................... 503
Section 97.3: Declaring multiple types with typedef ............................................................................................. 504
Section 97.4: Alias declaration with "using" ............................................................................................................ 504
Chapter 98: type deduction ................................................................................................................................ 505
Section 98.1: Template parameter deduction for constructors ........................................................................... 505
Section 98.2: Auto Type Deduction ......................................................................................................................... 505
Section 98.3: Template Type Deduction ................................................................................................................. 506
Chapter 99: Trailing return type ....................................................................................................................... 508
Section 99.1: Avoid qualifying a nested type name ............................................................................................... 508
Section 99.2: Lambda expressions .......................................................................................................................... 508
Chapter 100: Alignment ......................................................................................................................................... 509
Section 100.1: Controlling alignment ........................................................................................................................ 509
Section 100.2: Querying the alignment of a type .................................................................................................. 509
Chapter 101: Perfect Forwarding ...................................................................................................................... 511
Section 101.1: Factory functions ................................................................................................................................ 511
Chapter 102: decltype ............................................................................................................................................ 512
Section 102.1: Basic Example .................................................................................................................................... 512
Section 102.2: Another example ............................................................................................................................... 512
Chapter 103: SFINAE (Substitution Failure Is Not An Error) ................................................................ 513
Section 103.1: What is SFINAE ................................................................................................................................... 513
Section 103.2: void_t ................................................................................................................................................. 513
Section 103.3: enable_if ............................................................................................................................................ 515
Section 103.4: is_detected ........................................................................................................................................ 516
Section 103.5: Overload resolution with a large number of options .................................................................... 518
Section 103.6: trailing decltype in function templates ........................................................................................... 519
Section 103.7: enable_if_all / enable_if_any ........................................................................................................ 520
Chapter 104: Undefined Behavior .................................................................................................................... 522
Section 104.1: Reading or writing through a null pointer ....................................................................................... 522
Section 104.2: Using an uninitialized local variable ............................................................................................... 522
Section 104.3: Accessing an out-of-bounds index .................................................................................................. 523
Section 104.4: Deleting a derived object via a pointer to a base class that doesn't have a virtual destructor
............................................................................................................................................................................. 523
Section 104.5: Extending the `std` or `posix` Namespace ...................................................................................... 523
Section 104.6: Invalid pointer arithmetic ................................................................................................................. 524
Section 104.7: No return statement for a function with a non-void return type ................................................. 525
Section 104.8: Accessing a dangling reference ...................................................................................................... 525
Section 104.9: Integer division by zero .................................................................................................................... 526
Section 104.10: Shifting by an invalid number of positions ................................................................................... 526
Section 104.11: Incorrect pairing of memory allocation and deallocation ........................................................... 526
Section 104.12: Signed Integer Overflow ................................................................................................................. 527
Section 104.13: Multiple non-identical definitions (the One Definition Rule) ........................................................ 527
Section 104.14: Modifying a const object ................................................................................................................ 528
Section 104.15: Returning from a [[noreturn]] function ........................................................................................ 529
Section 104.16: Infinite template recursion .............................................................................................................. 529
Section 104.17: Overflow during conversion to or from floating point type ........................................................ 530
Section 104.18: Modifying a string literal ................................................................................................................. 530
Section 104.19: Accessing an object as the wrong type ........................................................................................ 530
 Section 104.20: Invalid derived-to-base conversion for pointers to members ................................................... 531
Section 104.21: Destroying an object that has already been destroyed ............................................................. 531
Section 104.22: Access to nonexistent member through pointer to member ..................................................... 532
Section 104.23: Invalid base-to-derived static cast ................................................................................................ 532
Section 104.24: Floating point overflow .................................................................................................................. 532
Section 104.25: Calling (Pure) Virtual Members From Constructor Or Destructor ............................................. 532
Section 104.26: Function call through mismatched function pointer type .......................................................... 533
Chapter 105: Overload resolution .................................................................................................................... 534
Section 105.1: Categorization of argument to parameter cost ............................................................................. 534
Section 105.2: Arithmetic promotions and conversions ........................................................................................ 534
Section 105.3: Overloading on Forwarding Reference .......................................................................................... 535
Section 105.4: Exact match ....................................................................................................................................... 536
Section 105.5: Overloading on constness and volatility ........................................................................................ 536
Section 105.6: Name lookup and access checking ................................................................................................ 537
Section 105.7: Overloading within a class hierarchy .............................................................................................. 538
Section 105.8: Steps of Overload Resolution .......................................................................................................... 539
Chapter 106: Move Semantics ............................................................................................................................ 541
Section 106.1: Move semantics ................................................................................................................................. 541
Section 106.2: Using std::move to reduce complexity from O(n²) to O(n) ........................................................... 541
Section 106.3: Move constructor .............................................................................................................................. 544
Section 106.4: Re-use a moved object .................................................................................................................... 546
Section 106.5: Move assignment .............................................................................................................................. 546
Section 106.6: Using move semantics on containers ............................................................................................. 547
Chapter 107: Pimpl Idiom ...................................................................................................................................... 549
Section 107.1: Basic Pimpl idiom ............................................................................................................................... 549
Chapter 108: auto ..................................................................................................................................................... 551
Section 108.1: Basic auto sample ............................................................................................................................. 551
Section 108.2: Generic lambda (C++14) ................................................................................................................... 551
Section 108.3: auto and proxy objects .................................................................................................................... 552
Section 108.4: auto and Expression Templates ...................................................................................................... 552
Section 108.5: auto, const, and references ............................................................................................................. 553
Section 108.6: Trailing return type ........................................................................................................................... 553
Chapter 109: Copy Elision ..................................................................................................................................... 555
Section 109.1: Purpose of copy elision ..................................................................................................................... 555
Section 109.2: Guaranteed copy elision .................................................................................................................. 556
Section 109.3: Parameter elision .............................................................................................................................. 557
Section 109.4: Return value elision .......................................................................................................................... 557
Section 109.5: Named return value elision .............................................................................................................. 557
Section 109.6: Copy initialization elision .................................................................................................................. 558
Chapter 110: Fold Expressions ............................................................................................................................ 559
Section 110.1: Unary Folds ......................................................................................................................................... 559
Section 110.2: Binary Folds ....................................................................................................................................... 559
Section 110.3: Folding over a comma ...................................................................................................................... 560
Chapter 111: Unions ................................................................................................................................................... 561
Section 111.1: Undefined Behavior ............................................................................................................................. 561
Section 111.2: Basic Union Features ......................................................................................................................... 561
Section 111.3: Typical Use .......................................................................................................................................... 561
Chapter 112: Design pattern implementation in C++ .............................................................................. 563
Section 112.1: Adapter Pattern .................................................................................................................................. 563
 Section 112.2: Observer pattern ............................................................................................................................... 565
Section 112.3: Factory Pattern .................................................................................................................................. 568
Section 112.4: Builder Pattern with Fluent API ......................................................................................................... 568
Chapter 113: Singleton Design Pattern .......................................................................................................... 572
Section 113.1: Lazy Initialization ................................................................................................................................ 572
Section 113.2: Static deinitialization-safe singleton ................................................................................................ 573
Section 113.3: Thread-safe Singeton ........................................................................................................................ 573
Section 113.4: Subclasses .......................................................................................................................................... 573
Chapter 114: User-Defined Literals .................................................................................................................. 575
Section 114.1: Self-made user-defined literal for binary ........................................................................................ 575
Section 114.2: Standard user-defined literals for duration .................................................................................... 575
Section 114.3: User-defined literals with long double values ................................................................................. 576
Section 114.4: Standard user-defined literals for strings ....................................................................................... 576
Section 114.5: Standard user-defined literals for complex .................................................................................... 577
Chapter 115: Memory management ................................................................................................................ 578
Section 115.1: Free Storage (Heap, Dynamic Allocation ...) .................................................................................... 578
Section 115.2: Placement new ................................................................................................................................... 579
Section 115.3: Stack .................................................................................................................................................... 580
Chapter 116: C++11 Memory Model .................................................................................................................... 581
Section 116.1: Need for Memory Model .................................................................................................................... 582
Section 116.2: Fence example ................................................................................................................................... 584
Chapter 117: Scopes ................................................................................................................................................. 585
Section 117.1: Global variables .................................................................................................................................. 585
Section 117.2: Simple block scope ............................................................................................................................ 585
Chapter 118: static_assert ................................................................................................................................... 587
Section 118.1: static_assert ........................................................................................................................................ 587
Chapter 119: constexpr ........................................................................................................................................... 588
Section 119.1: constexpr variables ............................................................................................................................ 588
Section 119.2: Static if statement .............................................................................................................................. 589
Section 119.3: constexpr functions ............................................................................................................................ 590
Chapter 120: One Definition Rule (ODR) ....................................................................................................... 592
Section 120.1: ODR violation via overload resolution ............................................................................................. 592
Section 120.2: Multiply defined function .................................................................................................................. 592
Section 120.3: Inline functions .................................................................................................................................. 593
Chapter 121: Unspecified behavior ................................................................................................................... 595
Section 121.1: Value of an out-of-range enum ........................................................................................................ 595
Section 121.2: Evaluation order of function arguments ......................................................................................... 595
Section 121.3: Result of some reinterpret_cast conversions ................................................................................. 596
Section 121.4: Space occupied by a reference ....................................................................................................... 597
Section 121.5: Moved-from state of most standard library classes ..................................................................... 597
Section 121.6: Result of some pointer comparisons ............................................................................................... 598
Section 121.7: Static cast from bogus void* value .................................................................................................. 598
Section 121.8: Order of initialization of globals across TU .................................................................................... 598
Chapter 122: Argument Dependent Name Lookup ................................................................................. 600
Section 122.1: What functions are found ................................................................................................................. 600
Chapter 123: Attributes .......................................................................................................................................... 601
Section 123.1: [[fallthrough]] .................................................................................................................................... 601
Section 123.2: [[nodiscard]] ..................................................................................................................................... 601
Section 123.3: [[deprecated]] and [[deprecated("reason")]] .............................................................................. 602
 Section 123.4: [[maybe_unused]] ........................................................................................................................... 602
Section 123.5: [[noreturn]] ........................................................................................................................................ 603
Chapter 124: Recursion in C++ ........................................................................................................................... 605
Section 124.1: Using tail recursion and Fibonnaci-style recursion to solve the Fibonnaci sequence ................ 605
Section 124.2: Recursion with memoization ............................................................................................................ 605
Chapter 125: Arithmitic Metaprogramming ................................................................................................ 607
Section 125.1: Calculating power in O(log n) ........................................................................................................... 607
Chapter 126: Callable Objects ............................................................................................................................ 609
Section 126.1: Function Pointers ............................................................................................................................... 609
Section 126.2: Classes with operator() (Functors) ................................................................................................. 609
Chapter 127: Client server examples .............................................................................................................. 611
Section 127.1: Hello TCP Client .................................................................................................................................. 611
Section 127.2: Hello TCP Server ............................................................................................................................... 612
Chapter 128: Const Correctness ........................................................................................................................ 616
Section 128.1: The Basics ........................................................................................................................................... 616
Section 128.2: Const Correct Class Design ............................................................................................................. 616
Section 128.3: Const Correct Function Parameters ............................................................................................... 618
Section 128.4: Const Correctness as Documentation ............................................................................................ 620
Chapter 129: Parameter packs .......................................................................................................................... 624
Section 129.1: A template with a parameter pack .................................................................................................. 624
Section 129.2: Expansion of a parameter pack ...................................................................................................... 624
Chapter 130: Build Systems ................................................................................................................................. 625
Section 130.1: Generating Build Environment with CMake .................................................................................... 625
Section 130.2: Compiling with GNU make ............................................................................................................... 626
Section 130.3: Building with SCons ........................................................................................................................... 628
Section 130.4: Autotools (GNU) ................................................................................................................................ 628
Section 130.5: Ninja .................................................................................................................................................... 629
Section 130.6: NMAKE (Microsoft Program Maintenance Utility) ......................................................................... 629
Chapter 131: Concurrency With OpenMP ....................................................................................................... 630
Section 131.1: OpenMP: Parallel Sections ................................................................................................................. 630
Section 131.2: OpenMP: Parallel Sections ................................................................................................................. 630
Section 131.3: OpenMP: Parallel For Loop ................................................................................................................ 631
Section 131.4: OpenMP: Parallel Gathering / Reduction ........................................................................................ 631
Chapter 132: Resource Management .............................................................................................................. 633
Section 132.1: Resource Acquisition Is Initialization ................................................................................................ 633
Section 132.2: Mutexes & Thread Safety ................................................................................................................. 634
Chapter 133: Storage class specifiers ............................................................................................................ 636
Section 133.1: extern ................................................................................................................................................... 636
Section 133.2: register ............................................................................................................................................... 637
Section 133.3: static ................................................................................................................................................... 637
Section 133.4: auto ..................................................................................................................................................... 638
Section 133.5: mutable .............................................................................................................................................. 638
Chapter 134: Linkage specifications ............................................................................................................... 640
Section 134.1: Signal handler for Unix-like operating system ............................................................................... 640
Section 134.2: Making a C library header compatible with C++ ........................................................................... 640
Chapter 135: Digit separators ............................................................................................................................ 642
Section 135.1: Digit Separator ................................................................................................................................... 642
Chapter 136: C incompatibilities ........................................................................................................................ 643
 Section 136.1: Reserved Keywords ........................................................................................................................... 643
Section 136.2: Weakly typed pointers ..................................................................................................................... 643
Section 136.3: goto or switch .................................................................................................................................... 643
Chapter 137: Side by Side Comparisons of classic C++ examples solved via C++ vs C++11
vs C++14 vs C++17 ..................................................................................................................................................... 644
Section 137.1: Looping through a container ............................................................................................................ 644
Chapter 138: Compiling and Building .............................................................................................................. 645
Section 138.1: Compiling with GCC ........................................................................................................................... 645
Section 138.2: Compiling with Visual Studio (Graphical Interface) - Hello World ............................................... 646
Section 138.3: Online Compilers ............................................................................................................................... 651
Section 138.4: Compiling with Visual C++ (Command Line) .................................................................................. 653
Section 138.5: Compiling with Clang ........................................................................................................................ 656
Section 138.6: The C++ compilation process ........................................................................................................... 656
Section 138.7: Compiling with Code::Blocks (Graphical interface) ........................................................................ 658
Chapter 139: Common compile/linker errors (GCC) ............................................................................... 661
Section 139.1: undefined reference to `***' ................................................................................................................ 661
Section 139.2: error: '***' was not declared in this scope ........................................................................................ 661
Section 139.3: fatal error: ***: No such file or directory ........................................................................................... 663
Chapter 140: More undefined behaviors in C++ ........................................................................................ 664
Section 140.1: Referring to non-static members in initializer lists ......................................................................... 664
Chapter 141: Unit Testing in C++ ....................................................................................................................... 665
Section 141.1: Google Test ......................................................................................................................................... 665
Section 141.2: Catch ................................................................................................................................................... 665
Chapter 142: C++ Debugging and Debug-prevention Tools & Techniques ................................. 667
Section 142.1: Static analysis .................................................................................................................................... 667
Section 142.2: Segfault analysis with GDB .............................................................................................................. 668
Section 142.3: Clean code ......................................................................................................................................... 669
Chapter 143: Optimization in C++ ..................................................................................................................... 671
Section 143.1: Introduction to performance ............................................................................................................ 671
Section 143.2: Empty Base Class Optimization ...................................................................................................... 671
Section 143.3: Optimizing by executing less code .................................................................................................. 672
Section 143.4: Using ecient containers ................................................................................................................. 673
Section 143.5: Small Object Optimization ................................................................................................................ 674
Chapter 144: Optimization .................................................................................................................................. 676
Section 144.1: Inline Expansion/Inlining ................................................................................................................... 676
Section 144.2: Empty base optimization ................................................................................................................. 676
Chapter 145: Profiling ............................................................................................................................................. 678
Section 145.1: Profiling with gcc and gprof ............................................................................................................. 678
Section 145.2: Generating callgraph diagrams with gperf2dot ............................................................................ 678
Section 145.3: Profiling CPU Usage with gcc and Google Perf Tools ................................................................... 679
Chapter 146: Refactoring Techniques ........................................................................................................... 681
Section 146.1: Goto Cleanup ...................................................................................................................................... 681
Credits ............................................................................................................................................................................ 682
You may also like ...................................................................................................................................................... 690
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GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 1

Chapter 1: Getting started with C++
Version Standard Release Date
C++98 ISO/IEC 14882:1998 1998-09-01
C++03 ISO/IEC 14882:2003 2003-10-16
C++11 ISO/IEC 14882:2011 2011-09-01
C++14 ISO/IEC 14882:2014 2014-12-15
C++17 TBD 2017-01-01
C++20 TBD 2020-01-01

Section 1.1: Hello World

This program prints Hello World! to the standard output stream:

#include <iostream>

int main()
{
std::cout << "Hello World!" << std::endl;
}

See it live on Coliru.

Analysis

Let's examine each part of this code in detail:

#include <iostream> is a preprocessor directive that includes the content of the standard C++ header file
iostream.

iostream is a standard library header file that contains definitions of the standard input and output
streams. These definitions are included in the std namespace, explained below.

The standard input/output (I/O) streams provide ways for programs to get input from and output to an
external system -- usually the terminal.

int main() { ... } defines a new function named main. By convention, the main function is called upon
execution of the program. There must be only one main function in a C++ program, and it must always return
a number of the int type.

Here, the int is what is called the function's return type. The value returned by the main function is an exit
code.

By convention, a program exit code of 0 or EXIT_SUCCESS is interpreted as success by a system that executes
the program. Any other return code is associated with an error.

If no return statement is present, the main function (and thus, the program itself) returns 0 by default. In this
example, we don't need to explicitly write return 0;.

All other functions, except those that return the void type, must explicitly return a value according to their
return type, or else must not return at all.

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 std::cout << "Hello World!" << std::endl; prints "Hello World!" to the standard output stream:

std is a namespace, and :: is the scope resolution operator that allows look-ups for objects by name
within a namespace.

There are many namespaces. Here, we use :: to show we want to use cout from the std namespace.
For more information refer to Scope Resolution Operator - Microsoft Documentation.

std::cout is the standard output stream object, defined in iostream, and it prints to the standard
output (stdout).

<< is, in this context, the stream insertion operator, so called because it inserts an object into the
stream object.

The standard library defines the << operator to perform data insertion for certain data types into
output streams. stream << content inserts content into the stream and returns the same, but
updated stream. This allows stream insertions to be chained: std::cout << "Foo" << " Bar"; prints
"FooBar" to the console.

"Hello World!" is a character string literal, or a "text literal." The stream insertion operator for
character string literals is defined in file iostream.

std::endl is a special I/O stream manipulator object, also defined in file iostream. Inserting a
manipulator into a stream changes the state of the stream.

The stream manipulator std::endl does two things: first it inserts the end-of-line character and then it
flushes the stream buffer to force the text to show up on the console. This ensures that the data
inserted into the stream actually appear on your console. (Stream data is usually stored in a buffer and
then "flushed" in batches unless you force a flush immediately.)

An alternate method that avoids the flush is:

std::cout << "Hello World!\n";

where \n is the character escape sequence for the newline character.

The semicolon (;) notifies the compiler that a statement has ended. All C++ statements and class
definitions require an ending/terminating semicolon.

Section 1.2: Comments

A comment is a way to put arbitrary text inside source code without having the C++ compiler interpret it with any
functional meaning. Comments are used to give insight into the design or method of a program.

There are two types of comments in C++:

Single-Line Comments

The double forward-slash sequence // will mark all text until a newline as a comment:

int main()
{

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 // This is a single-line comment.
int a; // this also is a single-line comment
int i; // this is another single-line comment
}

C-Style/Block Comments

The sequence /* is used to declare the start of the comment block and the sequence */ is used to declare the end
of comment. All text between the start and end sequences is interpreted as a comment, even if the text is
otherwise valid C++ syntax. These are sometimes called "C-style" comments, as this comment syntax is inherited
from C++'s predecessor language, C:

int main()
{
/*
* This is a block comment.
*/
int a;
}

In any block comment, you can write anything you want. When the compiler encounters the symbol */, it
terminates the block comment:

int main()
{
/* A block comment with the symbol /*
Note that the compiler is not affected by the second /*
however, once the end-block-comment symbol is reached,
the comment ends.
*/
int a;
}

The above example is valid C++ (and C) code. However, having additional /* inside a block comment might result in
a warning on some compilers.

Block comments can also start and end within a single line. For example:

void SomeFunction(/* argument 1 */ int a, /* argument 2 */ int b);

Importance of Comments

As with all programming languages, comments provide several benefits:

Explicit documentation of code to make it easier to read/maintain

Explanation of the purpose and functionality of code
Details on the history or reasoning behind the code
Placement of copyright/licenses, project notes, special thanks, contributor credits, etc. directly in the source
code.

However, comments also have their downsides:

They must be maintained to reflect any changes in the code

Excessive comments tend to make the code less readable

The need for comments can be reduced by writing clear, self-documenting code. A simple example is the use of
explanatory names for variables, functions, and types. Factoring out logically related tasks into discrete functions
goes hand-in-hand with this.

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Comment markers used to disable code

During development, comments can also be used to quickly disable portions of code without deleting it. This is
often useful for testing or debugging purposes, but is not good style for anything other than temporary edits. This
is often referred to as “commenting out”.

Similarly, keeping old versions of a piece of code in a comment for reference purposes is frowned upon, as it
clutters files while offering little value compared to exploring the code's history via a versioning system.

Section 1.3: The standard C++ compilation process

Executable C++ program code is usually produced by a compiler.

A compiler is a program that translates code from a programming language into another form which is (more)
directly executable for a computer. Using a compiler to translate code is called compilation.

C++ inherits the form of its compilation process from its "parent" language, C. Below is a list showing the four major
steps of compilation in C++:

1. The C++ preprocessor copies the contents of any included header files into the source code file, generates
macro code, and replaces symbolic constants defined using #define with their values.
2. The expanded source code file produced by the C++ preprocessor is compiled into assembly language
appropriate for the platform.
3. The assembler code generated by the compiler is assembled into appropriate object code for the platform.
4. The object code file generated by the assembler is linked together with the object code files for any library
functions used to produce an executable file.

Note: some compiled code is linked together, but not to create a final program. Usually, this "linked" code
can also be packaged into a format that can be used by other programs. This "bundle of packaged, usable
code" is what C++ programmers refer to as a library.

Many C++ compilers may also merge or un-merge certain parts of the compilation process for ease or for additional
analysis. Many C++ programmers will use different tools, but all of the tools will generally follow this generalized
process when they are involved in the production of a program.

The link below extends this discussion and provides a nice graphic to help. [1]:
http://faculty.cs.niu.edu/~mcmahon/CS241/Notes/compile.html

Section 1.4: Function

A function is a unit of code that represents a sequence of statements.

Functions can accept arguments or values and return a single value (or not). To use a function, a function call is
used on argument values and the use of the function call itself is replaced with its return value.

Every function has a type signature -- the types of its arguments and the type of its return type.

Functions are inspired by the concepts of the procedure and the mathematical function.

Note: C++ functions are essentially procedures and do not follow the exact definition or rules of
mathematical functions.

Functions are often meant to perform a specific task. and can be called from other parts of a program. A function
must be declared and defined before it is called elsewhere in a program.

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 Note: popular function definitions may be hidden in other included files (often for convenience and reuse
across many files). This is a common use of header files.

Function Declaration

A function declaration is declares the existence of a function with its name and type signature to the compiler.
The syntax is as the following:

int add2(int i); // The function is of the type (int) -> (int)

In the example above, the int add2(int i) function declares the following to the compiler:

The return type is int.

The name of the function is add2.
The number of arguments to the function is 1:
The first argument is of the type int.
The first argument will be referred to in the function's contents by the name i.

The argument name is optional; the declaration for the function could also be the following:

int add2(int); // Omitting the function arguments' name is also permitted.

Per the one-definition rule, a function with a certain type signature can only be declared or defined once in an
entire C++ code base visible to the C++ compiler. In other words, functions with a specific type signature cannot be
re-defined -- they must only be defined once. Thus, the following is not valid C++:

int add2(int i); // The compiler will note that add2 is a function (int) -> int
int add2(int j); // As add2 already has a definition of (int) -> int, the compiler
// will regard this as an error.

If a function returns nothing, its return type is written as void. If it takes no parameters, the parameter list should
be empty.

void do_something(); // The function takes no parameters, and does not return anything.
// Note that it can still affect variables it has access to.

Function Call

A function can be called after it has been declared. For example, the following program calls add2 with the value of
2 within the function of main:

#include <iostream>

int add2(int i); // Declaration of add2

// Note: add2 is still missing a DEFINITION.

// Even though it doesn't appear directly in code,
// add2's definition may be LINKED in from another object file.

int main()
{
std::cout << add2(2) << "\n"; // add2(2) will be evaluated at this point,
// and the result is printed.
return 0;
}

Here, add2(2) is the syntax for a function call.

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Function Definition

A function definition* is similar to a declaration, except it also contains the code that is executed when the function
is called within its body.

An example of a function definition for add2 might be:

int add2(int i) // Data that is passed into (int i) will be referred to by the name i
{ // while in the function's curly brackets or "scope."

int j = i + 2; // Definition of a variable j as the value of i+2.

return j; // Returning or, in essence, substitution of j for a function call to
// add2.
}

Function Overloading

You can create multiple functions with the same name but different parameters.

int add2(int i) // Code contained in this definition will be evaluated

{ // when add2() is called with one parameter.
int j = i + 2;
return j;
}

int add2(int i, int j) // However, when add2() is called with two parameters, the
{ // code from the initial declaration will be overloaded,
int k = i + j + 2 ; // and the code in this declaration will be evaluated
return k; // instead.
}

Both functions are called by the same name add2, but the actual function that is called depends directly on the
amount and type of the parameters in the call. In most cases, the C++ compiler can compute which function to call.
In some cases, the type must be explicitly stated.

Default Parameters

Default values for function parameters can only be specified in function declarations.

int multiply(int a, int b = 7); // b has default value of 7.

int multiply(int a, int b)
{
return a * b; // If multiply() is called with one parameter, the
} // value will be multiplied by the default, 7.

In this example, multiply() can be called with one or two parameters. If only one parameter is given, b will have
default value of 7. Default arguments must be placed in the latter arguments of the function. For example:

int multiply(int a = 10, int b = 20); // This is legal

int multiply(int a = 10, int b); // This is illegal since int a is in the former

Special Function Calls - Operators

There exist special function calls in C++ which have different syntax than name_of_function(value1, value2,
value3). The most common example is that of operators.

Certain special character sequences that will be reduced to function calls by the compiler, such as !, +, -, *, %, and
<< and many more. These special characters are normally associated with non-programming usage or are used for

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aesthetics (e.g. the + character is commonly recognized as the addition symbol both within C++ programming as
well as in elementary math).

C++ handles these character sequences with a special syntax; but, in essence, each occurrence of an operator is
reduced to a function call. For example, the following C++ expression:

3+3

is equivalent to the following function call:

operator+(3, 3)

All operator function names start with operator.

While in C++'s immediate predecessor, C, operator function names cannot be assigned different meanings by
providing additional definitions with different type signatures, in C++, this is valid. "Hiding" additional function
definitions under one unique function name is referred to as operator overloading in C++, and is a relatively
common, but not universal, convention in C++.

Section 1.5: Visibility of function prototypes and declarations

In C++, code must be declared or defined before usage. For example, the following produces a compile time error:

int main()
{
foo(2); // error: foo is called, but has not yet been declared
}

void foo(int x) // this later definition is not known in main

{
}

There are two ways to resolve this: putting either the definition or declaration of foo() before its usage in main().
Here is one example:

void foo(int x) {} //Declare the foo function and body first

int main()
{
foo(2); // OK: foo is completely defined beforehand, so it can be called here.
}

However it is also possible to "forward-declare" the function by putting only a "prototype" declaration before its
usage and then defining the function body later:

void foo(int); // Prototype declaration of foo, seen by main

// Must specify return type, name, and argument list types
int main()
{
foo(2); // OK: foo is known, called even though its body is not yet defined
}

void foo(int x) //Must match the prototype

{
// Define body of foo here
}

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The prototype must specify the return type (void), the name of the function (foo), and the argument list variable
types (int), but the names of the arguments are NOT required.

One common way to integrate this into the organization of source files is to make a header file containing all of the
prototype declarations:

// foo.h
void foo(int); // prototype declaration

and then provide the full definition elsewhere:

// foo.cpp --> foo.o

#include "foo.h" // foo's prototype declaration is "hidden" in here
void foo(int x) { } // foo's body definition

and then, once compiled, link the corresponding object file foo.o into the compiled object file where it is used in
the linking phase, main.o:

// main.cpp --> main.o

#include "foo.h" // foo's prototype declaration is "hidden" in here
int main() { foo(2); } // foo is valid to call because its prototype declaration was beforehand.
// the prototype and body definitions of foo are linked through the object files

An “unresolved external symbol” error occurs when the function prototype and call exist, but the function body is
not defined. These can be trickier to resolve as the compiler won't report the error until the final linking stage, and
it doesn't know which line to jump to in the code to show the error.

Section 1.6: Preprocessor

The preprocessor is an important part of the compiler.

It edits the source code, cutting some bits out, changing others, and adding other things.

In source files, we can include preprocessor directives. These directives tells the preprocessor to perform specific
actions. A directive starts with a # on a new line. Example:

#define ZERO 0

The first preprocessor directive you will meet is probably the

#include <something>

directive. What it does is takes all of something and inserts it in your file where the directive was. The hello world
program starts with the line

#include <iostream>

This line adds the functions and objects that let you use the standard input and output.

The C language, which also uses the preprocessor, does not have as many header files as the C++ language, but in
C++ you can use all the C header files.

The next important directive is probably the

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#define something something_else

directive. This tells the preprocessor that as it goes along the file, it should replace every occurrence of something
with something_else. It can also make things similar to functions, but that probably counts as advanced C++.

The something_else is not needed, but if you define something as nothing, then outside preprocessor directives, all
occurrences of something will vanish.

This actually is useful, because of the #if,#else and #ifdef directives. The format for these would be the following:

#if something==true
//code
#else
//more code
#endif

#ifdef thing_that_you_want_to_know_if_is_defined
//code
#endif

These directives insert the code that is in the true bit, and deletes the false bits. this can be used to have bits of
code that are only included on certain operating systems, without having to rewrite the whole code.

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Chapter 2: Literals
Traditionally, a literal is an expression denoting a constant whose type and value are evident from its spelling. For
example, 42 is a literal, while x is not since one must see its declaration to know its type and read previous lines of
code to know its value.

However, C++11 also added user-defined literals, which are not literals in the traditional sense but can be used as a
shorthand for function calls.

Section 2.1: this

Within a member function of a class, the keyword this is a pointer to the instance of the class on which the
function was called. this cannot be used in a static member function.

struct S {
int x;
S& operator=(const S& other) {
x = other.x;
// return a reference to the object being assigned to
return *this;
}
};

The type of this depends on the cv-qualification of the member function: if X::f is const, then the type of this
within f is const X*, so this cannot be used to modify non-static data members from within a const member
function. Likewise, this inherits volatile qualification from the function it appears in.

Version ≥ C++11

this can also be used in a brace-or-equal-initializer for a non-static data member.

struct S;
struct T {
T(const S* s);
// ...
};
struct S {
// ...
T t{this};
};

this is an rvalue, so it cannot be assigned to.

Section 2.2: Integer literal

An integer literal is a primary expression of the form

decimal-literal

It is a non-zero decimal digit (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9), followed by zero or more decimal digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)

int d = 42;

octal-literal

It is the digit zero (0) followed by zero or more octal digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)

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int o = 052

hex-literal

It is the character sequence 0x or the character sequence 0X followed by one or more hexadecimal digits (0, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, a, A, b, B, c, C, d, D, e, E, f, F)

int x = 0x2a; int X = 0X2A;

binary-literal (since C++14)

It is the character sequence 0b or the character sequence 0B followed by one or more binary digits (0, 1)

int b = 0b101010; // C++14

Integer-suffix, if provided, may contain one or both of the following (if both are provided, they may appear in any
order:

unsigned-suffix (the character u or the character U)

unsigned int u_1 = 42u;

long-suffix (the character l or the character L) or the long-long-suffix (the character sequence ll or the
character sequence LL) (since C++11)

The following variables are also initialized to the same value:

unsigned long long l1 = 18446744073709550592ull; // C++11

unsigned long long l2 = 18'446'744'073'709'550'592llu; // C++14
unsigned long long l3 = 1844'6744'0737'0955'0592uLL; // C++14
unsigned long long l4 = 184467'440737'0'95505'92LLU; // C++14

Notes

Letters in the integer literals are case-insensitive: 0xDeAdBaBeU and 0XdeadBABEu represent the same number
(one exception is the long-long-suffix, which is either ll or LL, never lL or Ll)

There are no negative integer literals. Expressions such as -1 apply the unary minus operator to the value
represented by the literal, which may involve implicit type conversions.

In C prior to C99 (but not in C++), unsuffixed decimal values that do not fit in long int are allowed to have the type
unsigned long int.

When used in a controlling expression of #if or #elif, all signed integer constants act as if they have type
std::intmax_t and all unsigned integer constants act as if they have type std::uintmax_t.

Section 2.3: true

A keyword denoting one of the two possible values of type bool.

bool ok = true;
if (!f()) {
ok = false;
goto end;
}

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Section 2.4: false
A keyword denoting one of the two possible values of type bool.

bool ok = true;
if (!f()) {
ok = false;
goto end;
}

Section 2.5: nullptr

Version ≥ C++11

A keyword denoting a null pointer constant. It can be converted to any pointer or pointer-to-member type, yielding
a null pointer of the resulting type.

Widget* p = new Widget();

delete p;
p = nullptr; // set the pointer to null after deletion

Note that nullptr is not itself a pointer. The type of nullptr is a fundamental type known as std::nullptr_t.

void f(int* p);

template <class T>

void g(T* p);

void h(std::nullptr_t p);

int main() {
f(nullptr); // ok
g(nullptr); // error
h(nullptr); // ok
}

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Chapter 3: operator precedence
Section 3.1: Logical && and || operators: short-circuit
&& has precedence over ||, this means that parentheses are placed to evaluate what would be evaluated together.

c++ uses short-circuit evaluation in && and || to not do unnecessary executions.

If the left hand side of || returns true the right hand side does not need to be evaluated anymore.

#include <iostream>
#include <string>

using namespace std;

bool True(string id){

cout << "True" << id << endl;
return true;
}

bool False(string id){

cout << "False" << id << endl;
return false;
}

int main(){
bool result;
//let's evaluate 3 booleans with || and && to illustrate operator precedence
//precedence does not mean that && will be evaluated first but rather where
//parentheses would be added
//example 1
result =
False("A") || False("B") && False("C");
// eq. False("A") || (False("B") && False("C"))
//FalseA
//FalseB
//"Short-circuit evaluation skip of C"
//A is false so we have to evaluate the right of ||,
//B being false we do not have to evaluate C to know that the result is false

result =
True("A") || False("B") && False("C");
// eq. True("A") || (False("B") && False("C"))
cout << result << " :=====================" << endl;
//TrueA
//"Short-circuit evaluation skip of B"
//"Short-circuit evaluation skip of C"
//A is true so we do not have to evaluate
// the right of || to know that the result is true
//If || had precedence over && the equivalent evaluation would be:
// (True("A") || False("B")) && False("C")
//What would print
//TrueA
//"Short-circuit evaluation skip of B"
//FalseC
//Because the parentheses are placed differently
//the parts that get evaluated are differently
//which makes that the end result in this case would be False because C is false

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}

Section 3.2: Unary Operators

Unary operators act on the object upon which they are called and have high precedence. (See Remarks)

When used postfix, the action occurs only after the entire operation is evaluated, leading to some interesting
arithmetics:

int a = 1;
++a; // result: 2
a--; // result: 1
int minusa=-a; // result: -1

bool b = true;
!b; // result: true

a=4;
int c = a++/2; // equal to: (a==4) 4 / 2 result: 2 ('a' incremented postfix)
cout << a << endl; // prints 5!
int d = ++a/2; // equal to: (a+1) == 6 / 2 result: 3

int arr[4] = {1,2,3,4};

int *ptr1 = &arr[0]; // points to arr[0] which is 1

int *ptr2 = ptr1++; // ptr2 points to arr[0] which is still 1; ptr1 incremented
std::cout << *ptr1++ << std::endl; // prints 2

int e = arr[0]++; // receives the value of arr[0] before it is incremented

std::cout << e << std::endl; // prints 1
std::cout << *ptr2 << std::endl; // prints arr[0] which is now 2

Section 3.3: Arithmetic operators

Arithmetic operators in C++ have the same precedence as they do in mathematics:

Multiplication and division have left associativity(meaning that they will be evaluated from left to right) and they
have higher precedence than addition and subtraction, which also have left associativity.

We can also force the precedence of expression using parentheses ( ). Just the same way as you would do that in
normal mathematics.

// volume of a spherical shell = 4 pi R^3 - 4 pi r^3

double vol = 4.0*pi*R*R*R/3.0 - 4.0*pi*r*r*r/3.0;

//Addition:

int a = 2+4/2; // equal to: 2+(4/2) result: 4

int b = (3+3)/2; // equal to: (3+3)/2 result: 3

//With Multiplication

int c = 3+4/2*6; // equal to: 3+((4/2)*6) result: 15

int d = 3*(3+6)/9; // equal to: (3*(3+6))/9 result: 3

//Division and Modulo

int g = 3-3%1; // equal to: 3 % 1 = 0 3 - 0 = 3

int h = 3-(3%1); // equal to: 3 % 1 = 0 3 - 0 = 3

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int i = 3-3/1%3; // equal to: 3 / 1 = 3 3 % 3 = 0 3 - 0 = 3
int l = 3-(3/1)%3; // equal to: 3 / 1 = 3 3 % 3 = 0 3 - 0 = 3
int m = 3-(3/(1%3)); // equal to: 1 % 3 = 1 3 / 1 = 3 3 - 3 = 0

Section 3.4: Logical AND and OR operators

These operators have the usual precedence in C++: AND before OR.

// You can drive with a foreign license for up to 60 days

bool can_drive = has_domestic_license || has_foreign_license && num_days <= 60;

This code is equivalent to the following:

// You can drive with a foreign license for up to 60 days

bool can_drive = has_domestic_license || (has_foreign_license && num_days <= 60);

Adding the parenthesis does not change the behavior, though, it does make it easier to read. By adding these
parentheses, no confusion exist about the intent of the writer.

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Chapter 4: Floating Point Arithmetic
Section 4.1: Floating Point Numbers are Weird
The first mistake that nearly every single programmer makes is presuming that this code will work as intended:

float total = 0;
for(float a = 0; a != 2; a += 0.01f) {
total += a;
}

The novice programmer assumes that this will sum up every single number in the range 0, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03,
..., 1.97, 1.98, 1.99, to yield the result 199—the mathematically correct answer.

Two things happen that make this untrue:

1. The program as written never concludes. a never becomes equal to 2, and the loop never terminates.
2. If we rewrite the loop logic to check a < 2 instead, the loop terminates, but the total ends up being
something different from 199. On IEEE754-compliant machines, it will often sum up to about 201 instead.

The reason that this happens is that Floating Point Numbers represent Approximations of their assigned
values.

The classical example is the following computation:

double a = 0.1;
double b = 0.2;
double c = 0.3;
if(a + b == c)
//This never prints on IEEE754-compliant machines
std::cout << "This Computer is Magic!" << std::endl;
else
std::cout << "This Computer is pretty normal, all things considered." << std::endl;

Though what we the programmer see is three numbers written in base10, what the compiler (and the underlying
hardware) see are binary numbers. Because 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 require perfect division by 10—which is quite easy in
a base-10 system, but impossible in a base-2 system—these numbers have to be stored in imprecise formats,
similar to how the number 1/3 has to be stored in the imprecise form 0.333333333333333... in base-10.

//64-bit floats have 53 digits of precision, including the whole-number-part.

double a = 0011111110111001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011010; //imperfect
representation of 0.1
double b = 0011111111001001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011010; //imperfect
representation of 0.2
double c = 0011111111010011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011; //imperfect
representation of 0.3
double a + b = 0011111111010011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110100; //Note that this
is not quite equal to the "canonical" 0.3!

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 17

Chapter 5: Bit Operators
Section 5.1: | - bitwise OR
int a = 5; // 0101b (0x05)
int b = 12; // 1100b (0x0C)
int c = a | b; // 1101b (0x0D)

std::cout << "a = " << a << ", b = " << b << ", c = " << c << std::endl;

Output

a = 5, b = 12, c = 13

Why

A bit wise OR operates on the bit level and uses the following Boolean truth table:

true OR true = true

true OR false = true
false OR false = false

When the binary value for a (0101) and the binary value for b (1100) are OR'ed together we get the binary value of
1101:

int a = 0 1 0 1
int b = 1 1 0 0 |
---------
int c = 1 1 0 1

The bit wise OR does not change the value of the original values unless specifically assigned to using the bit wise
assignment compound operator |=:

int a = 5; // 0101b (0x05)

a |= 12; // a = 0101b | 1101b

Section 5.2: ^ - bitwise XOR (exclusive OR)

int a = 5; // 0101b (0x05)
int b = 9; // 1001b (0x09)
int c = a ^ b; // 1100b (0x0C)

std::cout << "a = " << a << ", b = " << b << ", c = " << c << std::endl;

Output

a = 5, b = 9, c = 12

Why

A bit wise XOR (exclusive or) operates on the bit level and uses the following Boolean truth table:

true OR true = false

true OR false = true
false OR false = false

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 18

Notice that with an XOR operation true OR true = false where as with operations true AND/OR true = true,
hence the exclusive nature of the XOR operation.

Using this, when the binary value for a (0101) and the binary value for b (1001) are XOR'ed together we get the binary
value of 1100:

int a = 0 1 0 1
int b = 1 0 0 1 ^
---------
int c = 1 1 0 0

The bit wise XOR does not change the value of the original values unless specifically assigned to using the bit wise
assignment compound operator ^=:

int a = 5; // 0101b (0x05)

a ^= 9; // a = 0101b ^ 1001b

The bit wise XOR can be utilized in many ways and is often utilized in bit mask operations for encryption and
compression.

Note: The following example is often shown as an example of a nice trick. But should not be used in production
code (there are better ways std::swap() to achieve the same result).

You can also utilize an XOR operation to swap two variables without a temporary:

int a = 42;
int b = 64;

// XOR swap
a ^= b;
b ^= a;
a ^= b;

std::cout << "a = " << a << ", b = " << b << "\n";

To productionalize this you need to add a check to make sure it can be used.

void doXORSwap(int& a, int& b)

{
// Need to add a check to make sure you are not swapping the same
// variable with itself. Otherwise it will zero the value.
if (&a != &b)
{
// XOR swap
a ^= b;
b ^= a;
a ^= b;
}
}

So though it looks like a nice trick in isolation it is not useful in real code. xor is not a base logical operation,but a
combination of others: a^c=~(a&c)&(a|c)

also in 2015+ compilers variables may be assigned as binary:

int cn=0b0111;

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 19

Section 5.3: & - bitwise AND
int a = 6; // 0110b (0x06)
int b = 10; // 1010b (0x0A)
int c = a & b; // 0010b (0x02)

std::cout << "a = " << a << ", b = " << b << ", c = " << c << std::endl;

Output

a = 6, b = 10, c = 2

Why

A bit wise AND operates on the bit level and uses the following Boolean truth table:

TRUE AND TRUE = TRUE

TRUE AND FALSE = FALSE
FALSE AND FALSE = FALSE

When the binary value for a (0110) and the binary value for b (1010) are AND'ed together we get the binary value of
0010:

int a = 0 1 1 0
int b = 1 0 1 0 &
---------
int c = 0 0 1 0

The bit wise AND does not change the value of the original values unless specifically assigned to using the bit wise
assignment compound operator &=:

int a = 5; // 0101b (0x05)

a &= 10; // a = 0101b & 1010b

Section 5.4: << - left shift

int a = 1; // 0001b
int b = a << 1; // 0010b

std::cout << "a = " << a << ", b = " << b << std::endl;

Output

a = 1, b = 2

Why

The left bit wise shift will shift the bits of the left hand value (a) the number specified on the right (1), essentially
padding the least significant bits with 0's, so shifting the value of 5 (binary 0000 0101) to the left 4 times (e.g. 5 <<
4) will yield the value of 80 (binary 0101 0000). You might note that shifting a value to the left 1 time is also the same
as multiplying the value by 2, example:

int a = 7;
while (a < 200) {
std::cout << "a = " << a << std::endl;
a <<= 1;

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 20

}

a = 7;
while (a < 200) {
std::cout << "a = " << a << std::endl;
a *= 2;
}

But it should be noted that the left shift operation will shift all bits to the left, including the sign bit, example:

int a = 2147483647; // 0111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
int b = a << 1; // 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1110

std::cout << "a = " << a << ", b = " << b << std::endl;

Possible output: a = 2147483647, b = -2

While some compilers will yield results that seem expected, it should be noted that if you left shift a signed number
so that the sign bit is affected, the result is undefined. It is also undefined if the number of bits you wish to shift by
is a negative number or is larger than the number of bits the type on the left can hold, example:

int a = 1;
int b = a << -1; // undefined behavior
char c = a << 20; // undefined behavior

The bit wise left shift does not change the value of the original values unless specifically assigned to using the bit
wise assignment compound operator <<=:

int a = 5; // 0101b
a <<= 1; // a = a << 1;

Section 5.5: >> - right shift

int a = 2; // 0010b
int b = a >> 1; // 0001b

std::cout << "a = " << a << ", b = " << b << std::endl;

Output

a = 2, b = 1

Why

The right bit wise shift will shift the bits of the left hand value (a) the number specified on the right (1); it should be
noted that while the operation of a right shift is standard, what happens to the bits of a right shift on a signed
negative number is implementation defined and thus cannot be guaranteed to be portable, example:

int a = -2;
int b = a >> 1; // the value of b will be depend on the compiler

It is also undefined if the number of bits you wish to shift by is a negative number, example:

int a = 1;
int b = a >> -1; // undefined behavior

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 21

The bit wise right shift does not change the value of the original values unless specifically assigned to using the bit
wise assignment compound operator >>=:

int a = 2; // 0010b
a >>= 1; // a = a >> 1;

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 22

Chapter 6: Bit Manipulation
Section 6.1: Remove rightmost set bit
C-style bit-manipulation
template <typename T>
T rightmostSetBitRemoved(T n)
{
// static_assert(std::is_integral<T>::value && !std::is_signed<T>::value, "type should be
unsigned"); // For c++11 and later
return n & (n - 1);
}

Explanation

if n is zero, we have 0 & 0xFF..FF which is zero

else n can be written 0bxxxxxx10..00 and n - 1 is 0bxxxxxx011..11, so n & (n - 1) is 0bxxxxxx000..00.

Section 6.2: Set all bits

C-style bit-manipulation
x = -1; // -1 == 1111 1111 ... 1111b

(See here for an explanation of why this works and is actually the best approach.)

Using std::bitset
std::bitset<10> x;
x.set(); // Sets all bits to '1'

Section 6.3: Toggling a bit

C-style bit-manipulation

A bit can be toggled using the XOR operator (^).

// Bit x will be the opposite value of what it is currently

number ^= 1LL << x;

Using std::bitset
std::bitset<4> num(std::string("0100"));
num.flip(2); // num is now 0000
num.flip(0); // num is now 0001
num.flip(); // num is now 1110 (flips all bits)

Section 6.4: Checking a bit

C-style bit-manipulation

The value of the bit can be obtained by shifting the number to the right x times and then performing bitwise AND
(&) on it:

(number >> x) & 1LL; // 1 if the 'x'th bit of 'number' is set, 0 otherwise

The right-shift operation may be implemented as either an arithmetic (signed) shift or a logical (unsigned) shift. If

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 23

number in the expression number >> x has a signed type and a negative value, the resulting value is
implementation-defined.

If we need the value of that bit directly in-place, we could instead left shift the mask:

(number & (1LL << x)); // (1 << x) if the 'x'th bit of 'number' is set, 0 otherwise

Either can be used as a conditional, since all non-zero values are considered true.

Using std::bitset
std::bitset<4> num(std::string("0010"));
bool bit_val = num.test(1); // bit_val value is set to true;

Section 6.5: Counting bits set

The population count of a bitstring is often needed in cryptography and other applications and the problem has
been widely studied.

The naive way requires one iteration per bit:

unsigned value = 1234;

unsigned bits = 0; // accumulates the total number of bits set in `n`

for (bits = 0; value; value >>= 1)

bits += value & 1;

A nice trick (based on Remove rightmost set bit ) is:

unsigned bits = 0; // accumulates the total number of bits set in `n`

for (; value; ++bits)

value &= value - 1;

It goes through as many iterations as there are set bits, so it's good when value is expected to have few nonzero
bits.

The method was first proposed by Peter Wegner (in CACM 3 / 322 - 1960) and it's well known since it appears in C
Programming Language by Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie.

This requires 12 arithmetic operations, one of which is a multication:

unsigned popcount(std::uint64_t x)
{
const std::uint64_t m1 = 0x5555555555555555; // binary: 0101...
const std::uint64_t m2 = 0x3333333333333333; // binary: 00110011..
const std::uint64_t m4 = 0x0f0f0f0f0f0f0f0f; // binary: 0000111100001111

x -= (x >> 1) & m1; // put count of each 2 bits into those 2 bits
x = (x & m2) + ((x >> 2) & m2); // put count of each 4 bits into those 4 bits
x = (x + (x >> 4)) & m4; // put count of each 8 bits into those 8 bits
return (x * h01) >> 56; // left 8 bits of x + (x<<8) + (x<<16) + (x<<24) + ...
}

This kind of implementation has the best worst-case behavior (see Hamming weight for further details).

Many CPUs have a specific instruction (like x86's popcnt) and the compiler could offer a specific (non standard)

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 24

built in function. E.g. with g++ there is:

int __builtin_popcount (unsigned x);

Section 6.6: Check if an integer is a power of 2

The n & (n - 1) trick (see Remove rightmost set bit) is also useful to determine if an integer is a power of 2:

bool power_of_2 = n && !(n & (n - 1));

Note that without the first part of the check (n &&), 0 is incorrectly considered a power of 2.

Section 6.7: Setting a bit

C-style bit manipulation

A bit can be set using the bitwise OR operator (|).

// Bit x will be set

number |= 1LL << x;

Using std::bitset

set(x) or set(x,true) - sets bit at position x to 1.

std::bitset<5> num(std::string("01100"));
num.set(0); // num is now 01101
num.set(2); // num is still 01101
num.set(4,true); // num is now 11110

Section 6.8: Clearing a bit

C-style bit-manipulation

A bit can be cleared using the bitwise AND operator (&).

// Bit x will be cleared

number &= ~(1LL << x);

Using std::bitset

reset(x) or set(x,false) - clears the bit at position x.

std::bitset<5> num(std::string("01100"));
num.reset(2); // num is now 01000
num.reset(0); // num is still 01000
num.set(3,false); // num is now 00000

Section 6.9: Changing the nth bit to x

C-style bit-manipulation
// Bit n will be set if x is 1 and cleared if x is 0.
number ^= (-x ^ number) & (1LL << n);

Using std::bitset

set(n,val) - sets bit n to the value val.

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 25

std::bitset<5> num(std::string("00100"));
num.set(0,true); // num is now 00101
num.set(2,false); // num is now 00001

Section 6.10: Bit Manipulation Application: Small to Capital

Letter
One of several applications of bit manipulation is converting a letter from small to capital or vice versa by choosing
a mask and a proper bit operation. For example, the a letter has this binary representation 01(1)00001 while its
capital counterpart has 01(0)00001. They differ solely in the bit in parenthesis. In this case, converting the a letter
from small to capital is basically setting the bit in parenthesis to one. To do so, we do the following:

/****************************************
convert small letter to captial letter.
========================================
a: 01100001
mask: 11011111 <-- (0xDF) 11(0)11111
:---------
a&mask: 01000001 <-- A letter
*****************************************/

The code for converting a letter to A letter is

#include <cstdio>

int main()
{
char op1 = 'a'; // "a" letter (i.e. small case)
int mask = 0xDF; // choosing a proper mask

printf("a (AND) mask = A\n");

printf("%c & 0xDF = %c\n", op1, op1 & mask);

return 0;
}

The result is

$ g++ main.cpp -o test1

$ ./test1
a (AND) mask = A
a & 0xDF = A

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 26

Chapter 7: Bit fields
Bit fields tightly pack C and C++ structures to reduce size. This appears painless: specify the number of bits for
members, and compiler does the work of co-mingling bits. The restriction is inability to take the address of a bit
field member, since it is stored co-mingled. sizeof() is also disallowed.

The cost of bit fields is slower access, as memory must be retrieved and bitwise operations applied to extract or
modify member values. These operations also add to executable size.

Section 7.1: Declaration and Usage

struct FileAttributes
{
unsigned int ReadOnly: 1;
unsigned int Hidden: 1;
};

Here, each of these two fields will occupy 1 bit in memory. It is specified by : 1 expression after the variable names.
Base type of bit field could be any integral type (8-bit int to 64-bit int). Using unsigned type is recommended,
otherwise surprises may come.

If more bits are required, replace "1" with number of bits required. For example:

struct Date
{
unsigned int Year : 13; // 2^13 = 8192, enough for "year" representation for long time
unsigned int Month: 4; // 2^4 = 16, enough to represent 1-12 month values.
unsigned int Day: 5; // 32
};

The whole structure is using just 22 bits, and with normal compiler settings, sizeof this structure would be 4 bytes.

Usage is pretty simple. Just declare the variable, and use it like ordinary structure.

Date d;

d.Year = 2016;
d.Month = 7;
d.Day = 22;

std::cout << "Year:" << d.Year << std::endl <<

"Month:" << d.Month << std::endl <<
"Day:" << d.Day << std::endl;

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 27

Chapter 8: Arrays
Arrays are elements of the same type placed in adjoining memory locations. The elements can be individually
referenced by a unique identifier with an added index.

This allows you to declare multiple variable values of a specific type and access them individually without needing
to declare a variable for each value.

Section 8.1: Array initialization

An array is just a block of sequential memory locations for a specific type of variable. Arrays are allocated the same
way as normal variables, but with square brackets appended to its name [] that contain the number of elements
that fit into the array memory.

The following example of an array uses the typ int, the variable name arrayOfInts, and the number of elements
[5] that the array has space for:

int arrayOfInts[5];

An array can be declared and initialized at the same time like this

int arrayOfInts[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};

When initializing an array by listing all of its members, it is not necessary to include the number of elements inside
the square brackets. It will be automatically calculated by the compiler. In the following example, it's 5:

int arrayOfInts[] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};

It is also possible to initialize only the first elements while allocating more space. In this case, defining the length in
brackets is mandatory. The following will allocate an array of length 5 with partial initialization, the compiler
initializes all remaining elements with the standard value of the element type, in this case zero.

int arrayOfInts[5] = {10,20}; // means 10, 20, 0, 0, 0

Arrays of other basic data types may be initialized in the same way.

char arrayOfChars[5]; // declare the array and allocate the memory, don't initialize

char arrayOfChars[5] = { 'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e' } ; //declare and initialize

double arrayOfDoubles[5] = {1.14159, 2.14159, 3.14159, 4.14159, 5.14159};

string arrayOfStrings[5] = { "C++", "is", "super", "duper", "great!"};

It is also important to take note that when accessing array elements, the array's element index(or position) starts
from 0.

int array[5] = { 10/*Element no.0*/, 20/*Element no.1*/, 30, 40, 50/*Element no.4*/};
std::cout << array[4]; //outputs 50
std::cout << array[0]; //outputs 10

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 28

Section 8.2: A fixed size raw array matrix (that is, a 2D raw
array)
// A fixed size raw array matrix (that is, a 2D raw array).
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
using namespace std;

auto main() -> int

{
int const n_rows = 3;
int const n_cols = 7;
int const m[n_rows][n_cols] = // A raw array matrix.
{
{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 },
{ 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 },
{ 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 }
};

for( int y = 0; y < n_rows; ++y )

{
for( int x = 0; x < n_cols; ++x )
{
cout << setw( 4 ) << m[y][x]; // Note: do NOT use m[y,x]!
}
cout << '\n';
}
}

Output:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

C++ doesn't support special syntax for indexing a multi-dimensional array. Instead such an array is viewed as an
array of arrays (possibly of arrays, and so on), and the ordinary single index notation [i] is used for each level. In
the example above m[y] refers to row y of m, where y is a zero-based index. Then this row can be indexed in turn,
e.g. m[y][x], which refers to the xth item – or column – of row y.

I.e. the last index varies fastest, and in the declaration the range of this index, which here is the number of columns
per row, is the last and “innermost” size specified.

Since C++ doesn't provide built-in support for dynamic size arrays, other than dynamic allocation, a dynamic size
matrix is often implemented as a class. Then the raw array matrix indexing notation m[y][x] has some cost, either
by exposing the implementation (so that e.g. a view of a transposed matrix becomes practically impossible) or by
adding some overhead and slight inconvenience when it's done by returning a proxy object from operator[]. And
so the indexing notation for such an abstraction can and will usually be different, both in look-and-feel and in the
order of indices, e.g. m(x,y) or m.at(x,y) or m.item(x,y).

Section 8.3: Dynamically sized raw array

// Example of raw dynamic size array. It's generally better to use std::vector.
#include <algorithm> // std::sort
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

auto int_from( istream& in ) -> int { int x; in >> x; return x; }

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 29

auto main()
-> int
{
cout << "Sorting n integers provided by you.\\n";
cout << "n? ";
int const n = int_from( cin );
int* a = new int[n]; // ← Allocation of array of n items.

for( int i = 1; i <= n; ++i )

{
cout << "The #" << i << " number, please: ";
a[i-1] = int_from( cin );
}

sort( a, a + n );
for( int i = 0; i < n; ++i ) { cout << a[i] << ' '; }
cout << '\\n';

delete[] a;
}

A program that declares an array T a[n]; where n is determined a run-time, can compile with certain compilers
that support C99 variadic length arrays (VLAs) as a language extension. But VLAs are not supported by standard C++.
This example shows how to manually allocate a dynamic size array via a new[]-expression,

int* a = new int[n]; // ← Allocation of array of n items.

… then use it, and finally deallocate it via a delete[]-expression:

delete[] a;

The array allocated here has indeterminate values, but it can be zero-initialized by just adding an empty
parenthesis (), like this: new int[n](). More generally, for arbitrary item type, this performs a value-initialization.

As part of a function down in a call hierarchy this code would not be exception safe, since an exception before the
delete[] expression (and after the new[]) would cause a memory leak. One way to address that issue is to
automate the cleanup via e.g. a std::unique_ptr smart pointer. But a generally better way to address it is to just
use a std::vector: that's what std::vector is there for.

Section 8.4: Array size: type safe at compile time

#include // size_t, ptrdiff_t

//----------------------------------- Machinery:

using Size = ptrdiff_t;

template< class Item, size_t n >

constexpr auto n_items( Item (&)[n] ) noexcept
-> Size
{ return n; }

//----------------------------------- Usage:

#include
using namespace std;
auto main()

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 30

-> int
{
int const a[] = {3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9, 2, 6, 5, 4};
Size const n = n_items( a );
int b[n] = {}; // An array of the same size as a.

(void) b;
cout <}

The C idiom for array size, sizeof(a)/sizeof(a[0]), will accept a pointer as argument and will then generally yield
an incorrect result.

For C++11

using C++11 you can do:

std::extent<decltype(MyArray)>::value;

Example:

char MyArray[] = { 'X','o','c','e' };

const auto n = std::extent<decltype(MyArray)>::value;
std::cout << n << "\n"; // Prints 4

Up till C++17 (forthcoming as of this writing) C++ had no built-in core language or standard library utility to obtain
the size of an array, but this can be implemented by passing the array by reference to a function template, as shown
above. Fine but important point: the template size parameter is a size_t, somewhat inconsistent with the signed
Size function result type, in order to accommodate the g++ compiler which sometimes insists on size_t for
template matching.

With C++17 and later one may instead use std::size, which is specialized for arrays.

Section 8.5: Expanding dynamic size array by using

std::vector
// Example of std::vector as an expanding dynamic size array.
#include <algorithm> // std::sort
#include <iostream>
#include <vector> // std::vector
using namespace std;

int int_from( std::istream& in ) { int x = 0; in >> x; return x; }

int main()
{
cout << "Sorting integers provided by you.\n";
cout << "You can indicate EOF via F6 in Windows or Ctrl+D in Unix-land.\n";
vector<int> a; // ← Zero size by default.

while( cin )
{
cout << "One number, please, or indicate EOF: ";
int const x = int_from( cin );
if( !cin.fail() ) { a.push_back( x ); } // Expands as necessary.
}

sort( a.begin(), a.end() );

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 31

 int const n = a.size();
for( int i = 0; i < n; ++i ) { cout << a[i] << ' '; }
cout << '\n';
}

std::vector is a standard library class template that provides the notion of a variable size array. It takes care of all
the memory management, and the buffer is contiguous so a pointer to the buffer (e.g. &v[0] or v.data()) can be
passed to API functions requiring a raw array. A vector can even be expanded at run time, via e.g. the push_back
member function that appends an item.

The complexity of the sequence of n push_back operations, including the copying or moving involved in the vector
expansions, is amortized O(n). “Amortized”: on average.

Internally this is usually achieved by the vector doubling its buffer size, its capacity, when a larger buffer is needed.
E.g. for a buffer starting out as size 1, and being repeatedly doubled as needed for n=17 push_back calls, this
involves 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 31 copy operations, which is less than 2×n = 34. And more generally the sum of this
sequence can't exceed 2×n.

Compared to the dynamic size raw array example, this vector-based code does not require the user to supply (and
know) the number of items up front. Instead the vector is just expanded as necessary, for each new item value
specified by the user.

Section 8.6: A dynamic size matrix using std::vector for

storage
Unfortunately as of C++14 there's no dynamic size matrix class in the C++ standard library. Matrix classes that
support dynamic size are however available from a number of 3rd party libraries, including the Boost Matrix library
(a sub-library within the Boost library).

If you don't want a dependency on Boost or some other library, then one poor man's dynamic size matrix in C++ is
just like

vector<vector<int>> m( 3, vector<int>( 7 ) );

… where vector is std::vector. The matrix is here created by copying a row vector n times where n is the number
of rows, here 3. It has the advantage of providing the same m[y][x] indexing notation as for a fixed size raw array
matrix, but it's a bit inefficient because it involves a dynamic allocation for each row, and it's a bit unsafe because
it's possible to inadvertently resize a row.

A more safe and efficient approach is to use a single vector as storage for the matrix, and map the client code's (x, y)
to a corresponding index in that vector:

// A dynamic size matrix using std::vector for storage.

//--------------------------------------------- Machinery:
#include // std::copy
#include // assert
#include // std::initializer_list
#include // std::vector
#include // ptrdiff_t

namespace my {
using Size = ptrdiff_t;
using std::initializer_list;
using std::vector;

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 32

template< class Item >
class Matrix
{
private:
vector items_;
Size n_cols_;

auto index_for( Size const x, Size const y ) const

-> Size
{ return y*n_cols_ + x; }

public:
auto n_rows() const -> Size { return items_.size()/n_cols_; }
auto n_cols() const -> Size { return n_cols_; }

auto item( Size const x, Size const y )

-> Item&
{ return items_[index_for(x, y)]; }

auto item( Size const x, Size const y ) const

-> Item const&
{ return items_[index_for(x, y)]; }

Matrix(): n_cols_( 0 ) {}

Matrix( Size const n_cols, Size const n_rows )

: items_( n_cols*n_rows )
, n_cols_( n_cols )
{}

Matrix( initializer_list< initializer_list > const& values )

: items_()
, n_cols_( values.size() == 0? 0 : values.begin()->size() )
{
for( auto const& row : values )
{
assert( Size( row.size() ) == n_cols_ );
items_.insert( items_.end(), row.begin(), row.end() );
}
}
};
} // namespace my

//--------------------------------------------- Usage:
using my::Matrix;

auto some_matrix()
-> Matrix
{
return
{
{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 },
{ 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 },
{ 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 }
};
}

#include
#include
using namespace std;
auto main() -> int
{
Matrix const m = some_matrix();
assert( m.n_cols() == 7 );

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 33

assert( m.n_rows() == 3 );
for( int y = 0, y_end = m.n_rows(); y < y_end; ++y )
{
for( int x = 0, x_end = m.n_cols(); x < x_end; ++x )
{
cout <← Note: not `m[y][x]`!
}
cout <}
}

Output:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

The above code is not industrial grade: it's designed to show the basic principles, and serve the needs of students
learning C++.

For example, one may define operator() overloads to simplify the indexing notation.

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 34

Chapter 9: Iterators
Section 9.1: Overview
Iterators are Positions

Iterators are a means of navigating and operating on a sequence of elements and are a generalized extension of
pointers. Conceptually it is important to remember that iterators are positions, not elements. For example, take the
following sequence:

A B C

The sequence contains three elements and four positions

+---+---+---+---+
| A | B | C | |
+---+---+---+---+

Elements are things within a sequence. Positions are places where meaningful operations can happen to the
sequence. For example, one inserts into a position, before or after element A, not into an element. Even deletion of
an element (erase(A)) is done by first finding its position, then deleting it.

From Iterators to Values

To convert from a position to a value, an iterator is dereferenced:

auto my_iterator = my_vector.begin(); // position

auto my_value = *my_iterator; // value

One can think of an iterator as dereferencing to the value it refers to in the sequence. This is especially useful in
understanding why you should never dereference the end() iterator in a sequence:

+---+---+---+---+
| A | B | C | |
+---+---+---+---+
↑ ↑
| +-- An iterator here has no value. Do not dereference it!
+-------------- An iterator here dereferences to the value A.

In all the sequences and containers found in the C++ standard library, begin() will return an iterator to the first
position, and end() will return an iterator to one past the last position (not the last position!). Consequently, the
names of these iterators in algorithms are oftentimes labelled first and last:

+---+---+---+---+
| A | B | C | |
+---+---+---+---+
↑ ↑
| |
+- first +- last

It is also possible to obtain an iterator to any sequence, because even an empty sequence contains at least one

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 35

position:

+---+
| |
+---+

In an empty sequence, begin() and end() will be the same position, and neither can be dereferenced:

+---+
| |
+---+
↑
|
+- empty_sequence.begin()
|
+- empty_sequence.end()

The alternative visualization of iterators is that they mark the positions between elements:

+---+---+---+
| A | B | C |
+---+---+---+
↑ ^ ^ ↑
| |
+- first +- last

and dereferencing an iterator returns a reference to the element coming after the iterator. Some situations where
this view is particularly useful are:

insert operations will insert elements into the position indicated by the iterator,
erase operations will return an iterator corresponding to the same position as the one passed in,
an iterator and its corresponding reverse iterator are located in the same .position between elements

Invalid Iterators

An iterator becomes invalidated if (say, in the course of an operation) its position is no longer a part of a sequence.
An invalidated iterator cannot be dereferenced until it has been reassigned to a valid position. For example:

std::vector<int>::iterator first;
{
std::vector<int> foo;
first = foo.begin(); // first is now valid
} // foo falls out of scope and is destroyed
// At this point first is now invalid

The many algorithms and sequence member functions in the C++ standard library have rules governing when
iterators are invalidated. Each algorithm is different in the way they treat (and invalidate) iterators.

Navigating with Iterators

As we know, iterators are for navigating sequences. In order to do that an iterator must migrate its position
throughout the sequence. Iterators can advance forward in the sequence and some can advance backwards:

auto first = my_vector.begin();

++first; // advance the iterator 1 position

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 36

std::advance(first, 1); // advance the iterator 1 position
first = std::next(first); // returns iterator to the next element
std::advance(first, -1); // advance the iterator 1 position backwards
first = std::next(first, 20); // returns iterator to the element 20 position
forward
first = std::prev(first, 5); // returns iterator to the element 5 position
backward
auto dist = std::distance(my_vector.begin(), first); // returns distance between two iterators.

Note, second argument of std::distance should be reachable from the first one(or, in other words first should be
less or equal than second).

Even though you can perform arithmetic operators with iterators, not all operations are defined for all types of
iterators. a = b + 3; would work for Random Access Iterators, but wouldn't work for Forward or Bidirectional
Iterators, which still can be advanced by 3 position with something like b = a; ++b; ++b; ++b;. So it is
recommended to use special functions in case you are not sure what is iterator type (for example, in a template
function accepting iterator).

Iterator Concepts

The C++ standard describes several different iterator concepts. These are grouped according to how they behave in
the sequences they refer to. If you know the concept an iterator models (behaves like), you can be assured of the
behavior of that iterator regardless of the sequence to which it belongs. They are often described in order from the
most to least restrictive (because the next iterator concept is a step better than its predecessor):

Input Iterators : Can be dereferenced only once per position. Can only advance, and only one position at a
time.
Forward Iterators : An input iterator that can be dereferenced any number of times.
Bidirectional Iterators : A forward iterator that can also advance backwards one position at a time.
Random Access Iterators : A bidirectional iterator that can advance forwards or backwards any number of
positions at a time.
Contiguous Iterators (since C++17) : A random access iterator that guaranties that underlying data is
contiguous in memory.

Algorithms can vary depending on the concept modeled by the iterators they are given. For example, although
random_shuffle can be implemented for forward iterators, a more efficient variant that requires random access
iterators could be provided.

Iterator traits

Iterator traits provide uniform interface to the properties of iterators. They allow you to retrieve value, difference,
pointer, reference types and also category of iterator:

template<class Iter>
Iter find(Iter first, Iter last, typename std::iterator_traits<Iter>::value_type val) {
while (first != last) {
if (*first == val)
return first;
++first;
}
return last;
}

Category of iterator can be used to specialize algorithms:

template<class BidirIt>

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 37

void test(BidirIt a, std::bidirectional_iterator_tag) {
std::cout << "Bidirectional iterator is used" << std::endl;
}

template<class ForwIt>
void test(ForwIt a, std::forward_iterator_tag) {
std::cout << "Forward iterator is used" << std::endl;
}

template<class Iter>
void test(Iter a) {
test(a, typename std::iterator_traits<Iter>::iterator_category());
}

Categories of iterators are basically iterators concepts, except Contiguous Iterators don't have their own tag, since it
was found to break code.

Section 9.2: Vector Iterator

begin returns an iterator to the first element in the sequence container.

end returns an iterator to the first element past the end.

If the vector object is const, both begin and end return a const_iterator. If you want a const_iterator to be
returned even if your vector is not const, you can use cbegin and cend.

Example:

#include <vector>
#include <iostream>

int main() {
std::vector<int> v = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }; //intialize vector using an initializer_list

for (std::vector<int>::iterator it = v.begin(); it != v.end(); ++it) {

std::cout << *it << " ";
}

return 0;
}

Output:

12345

Section 9.3: Map Iterator

An iterator to the first element in the container.

If a map object is const-qualified, the function returns a const_iterator. Otherwise, it returns an iterator.

// Create a map and insert some values

std::map<char,int> mymap;
mymap['b'] = 100;
mymap['a'] = 200;
mymap['c'] = 300;

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 38

// Iterate over all tuples
for (std::map<char,int>::iterator it = mymap.begin(); it != mymap.end(); ++it)
std::cout << it->first << " => " << it->second << '\n';

Output:

a => 200
b => 100
c => 300

Section 9.4: Reverse Iterators

If we want to iterate backwards through a list or vector we can use a reverse_iterator. A reverse iterator is made
from a bidirectional, or random access iterator which it keeps as a member which can be accessed through base().

To iterate backwards use rbegin() and rend() as the iterators for the end of the collection, and the start of the
collection respectively.

For instance, to iterate backwards use:

std::vector<int> v{1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

for (std::vector<int>::reverse_iterator it = v.rbegin(); it != v.rend(); ++it)
{
cout << *it;
} // prints 54321

A reverse iterator can be converted to a forward iterator via the base() member function. The relationship is that
the reverse iterator references one element past the base() iterator:

std::vector<int>::reverse_iterator r = v.rbegin();
std::vector<int>::iterator i = r.base();
assert(&*r == &*(i-1)); // always true if r, (i-1) are dereferenceable
// and are not proxy iterators

+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
| | | |
rend() | rbegin() end()
| rbegin().base()
begin()
rend().base()

In the visualization where iterators mark positions between elements, the relationship is simpler:

+---+---+---+---+---+
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
+---+---+---+---+---+
↑ ↑
| |
| end()
| rbegin()
begin() rbegin().base()
rend()
rend().base()

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 39

Section 9.5: Stream Iterators
Stream iterators are useful when we need to read a sequence or print formatted data from a container:

// Data stream. Any number of various whitespace characters will be OK.

std::istringstream istr("1\t 2 3 4");
std::vector<int> v;

// Constructing stream iterators and copying data from stream into vector.
std::copy(
// Iterator which will read stream data as integers.
std::istream_iterator<int>(istr),
// Default constructor produces end-of-stream iterator.
std::istream_iterator<int>(),
std::back_inserter(v));

// Print vector contents.

std::copy(v.begin(), v.end(),
//Will print values to standard output as integers delimeted by " -- ".
std::ostream_iterator<int>(std::cout, " -- "));

The example program will print 1 -- 2 -- 3 -- 4 -- to standard output.

Section 9.6: C Iterators (Pointers)

// This creates an array with 5 values.
const int array[] = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };

#ifdef BEFORE_CPP11

// You can use `sizeof` to determine how many elements are in an array.
const int* first = array;
const int* afterLast = first + sizeof(array) / sizeof(array[0]);

// Then you can iterate over the array by incrementing a pointer until
// it reaches past the end of our array.
for (const int* i = first; i < afterLast; ++i) {
std::cout << *i << std::endl;
}

#else

// With C++11, you can let the STL compute the start and end iterators:
for (auto i = std::begin(array); i != std::end(array); ++i) {
std::cout << *i << std::endl;
}

#endif

This code would output the numbers 1 through 5, one on each line like this:

1
2
3
4

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 40

 5

Breaking It Down
const int array[] = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };

This line creates a new integer array with 5 values. C arrays are just pointers to memory where each value is stored
together in a contiguous block.

const int* first = array;

const int* afterLast = first + sizeof(array) / sizeof(array[0]);

These lines create two pointers. The first pointer is given the value of the array pointer, which is the address of the
first element in the array. The sizeof operator when used on a C array returns the size of the array in bytes.
Divided by the size of an element this gives the number of elements in the array. We can use this to find the
address of the block after the array.

for (const int* i = first; i < afterLast; ++i) {

Here we create a pointer which we will use as an iterator. It is initialized with the address of the first element we
want to iterate over, and we'll continue to iterate as long as i is less than afterLast, which means as long as i is
pointing to an address within array.

std::cout << *i << std::endl;

Finally, within the loop we can access the value our iterator i is pointing to by dereferencing it. Here the
dereference operator * returns the value at the address in i.

Section 9.7: Write your own generator-backed iterator

A common pattern in other languages is having a function that produces a "stream" of objects, and being able to
use loop-code to loop over it.

We can model this in C++ as

template<class T>
struct generator_iterator {
using difference_type=std::ptrdiff_t;
using value_type=T;
using pointer=T*;
using reference=T;
using iterator_category=std::input_iterator_tag;
std::optional<T> state;
std::function< std::optional<T>() > operation;
// we store the current element in "state" if we have one:
T operator*() const {
return *state;
}
// to advance, we invoke our operation. If it returns a nullopt
// we have reached the end:
generator_iterator& operator++() {
state = operation();
return *this;
}
generator_iterator operator++(int) {
auto r = *this;

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 41

 ++(*this);
return r;
}
// generator iterators are only equal if they are both in the "end" state:
friend bool operator==( generator_iterator const& lhs, generator_iterator const& rhs ) {
if (!lhs.state && !rhs.state) return true;
return false;
}
friend bool operator!=( generator_iterator const& lhs, generator_iterator const& rhs ) {
return !(lhs==rhs);
}
// We implicitly construct from a std::function with the right signature:
generator_iterator( std::function< std::optional<T>() > f ):operation(std::move(f))
{
if (operation)
state = operation();
}
// default all special member functions:
generator_iterator( generator_iterator && ) =default;
generator_iterator( generator_iterator const& ) =default;
generator_iterator& operator=( generator_iterator && ) =default;
generator_iterator& operator=( generator_iterator const& ) =default;
generator_iterator() =default;
};

live example.

We store the generated element early so we can more easily detect if we are already at the end.

As the function of an end generator iterator is never used, we can create a range of generator iterators by only
copying the std::function once. A default constructed generator iterator compares equal to itself, and to all other
end-generator-iterators.

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 42

Chapter 10: Basic input/output in c++
Section 10.1: user input and standard output
#include <iostream>

int main()
{
int value;
std::cout << "Enter a value: " << std::endl;
std::cin >> value;
std::cout << "The square of entered value is: " << value * value << std::endl;
return 0;
}

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 43

Chapter 11: Loops
A loop statement executes a group of statements repeatedly until a condition is met. There are 3 types of primitive
loops in C++: for, while, and do...while.

Section 11.1: Range-Based For

Version ≥ C++11

for loops can be used to iterate over the elements of a iterator-based range, without using a numeric index or
directly accessing the iterators:

vector<float> v = {0.4f, 12.5f, 16.234f};

for(auto val: v)
{
std::cout << val << " ";
}

std::cout << std::endl;

This will iterate over every element in v, with val getting the value of the current element. The following statement:

for (for-range-declaration : for-range-initializer ) statement

is equivalent to:

{
auto&& __range = for-range-initializer;
auto __begin = begin-expr, __end = end-expr;
for (; __begin != __end; ++__begin) {
for-range-declaration = *__begin;
statement
}
}
Version ≥ C++17
{
auto&& __range = for-range-initializer;
auto __begin = begin-expr;
auto __end = end-expr; // end is allowed to be a different type than begin in C++17
for (; __begin != __end; ++__begin) {
for-range-declaration = *__begin;
statement
}
}

This change was introduced for the planned support of Ranges TS in C++20.

In this case, our loop is equivalent to:

{
auto&& __range = v;
auto __begin = v.begin(), __end = v.end();
for (; __begin != __end; ++__begin) {
auto val = *__begin;
std::cout << val << " ";

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 44

 }
}

Note that auto val declares a value type, which will be a copy of a value stored in the range (we are copy-initializing
it from the iterator as we go). If the values stored in the range are expensive to copy, you may want to use const
auto &val. You are also not required to use auto; you can use an appropriate typename, so long as it is implicitly
convertible from the range's value type.

If you need access to the iterator, range-based for cannot help you (not without some effort, at least).

If you wish to reference it, you may do so:

vector<float> v = {0.4f, 12.5f, 16.234f};

for(float &val: v)
{
std::cout << val << " ";
}

You could iterate on const reference if you have const container:

const vector<float> v = {0.4f, 12.5f, 16.234f};

for(const float &val: v)

{
std::cout << val << " ";
}

One would use forwarding references when the sequence iterator returns a proxy object and you need to operate
on that object in a non-const way. Note: it will most likely confuse readers of your code.

vector<bool> v(10);

for(auto&& val: v)
{
val = true;
}

The "range" type provided to range-based for can be one of the following:

Language arrays:

float arr[] = {0.4f, 12.5f, 16.234f};

for(auto val: arr)

{
std::cout << val << " ";
}

Note that allocating a dynamic array does not count:

float *arr = new float[3]{0.4f, 12.5f, 16.234f};

for(auto val: arr) //Compile error.

{
std::cout << val << " ";
}

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 45

 Any type which has member functions begin() and end(), which return iterators to the elements of the type.
The standard library containers qualify, but user-defined types can be used as well:

struct Rng
{
float arr[3];

// pointers are iterators

const float* begin() const {return &arr[0];}
const float* end() const {return &arr[3];}
float* begin() {return &arr[0];}
float* end() {return &arr[3];}
};

int main()
{
Rng rng = {{0.4f, 12.5f, 16.234f}};

for(auto val: rng)

{
std::cout << val << " ";
}
}

Any type which has non-member begin(type) and end(type) functions which can found via argument
dependent lookup, based on type. This is useful for creating a range type without having to modify class type
itself:

namespace Mine
{
struct Rng {float arr[3];};

// pointers are iterators

const float* begin(const Rng &rng) {return &rng.arr[0];}
const float* end(const Rng &rng) {return &rng.arr[3];}
float* begin(Rng &rng) {return &rng.arr[0];}
float* end(Rng &rng) {return &rng.arr[3];}
}

int main()
{
Mine::Rng rng = {{0.4f, 12.5f, 16.234f}};

for(auto val: rng)

{
std::cout << val << " ";
}
}

Section 11.2: For loop

A for loop executes statements in the loop body, while the loop condition is true. Before the loop initialization
statement is executed exactly once. After each cycle, the iteration execution part is executed.

A for loop is defined as follows:

for (/*initialization statement*/; /*condition*/; /*iteration execution*/)

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 46

{
// body of the loop
}

Explanation of the placeholder statements:

initialization statement: This statement gets executed only once, at the beginning of the for loop. You
can enter a declaration of multiple variables of one type, such as int i = 0, a = 2, b = 3. These variables
are only valid in the scope of the loop. Variables defined before the loop with the same name are hidden
during execution of the loop.
condition: This statement gets evaluated ahead of each loop body execution, and aborts the loop if it
evaluates to false.
iteration execution: This statement gets executed after the loop body, ahead of the next condition
evaluation, unless the for loop is aborted in the body (by break, goto, return or an exception being thrown).
You can enter multiple statements in the iteration execution part, such as a++, b+=10, c=b+a.

The rough equivalent of a for loop, rewritten as a while loop is:

/*initialization*/
while (/*condition*/)
{
// body of the loop; using 'continue' will skip to increment part below
/*iteration execution*/
}

The most common case for using a for loop is to execute statements a specific number of times. For example,
consider the following:

for(int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {

std::cout << i << std::endl;
}

A valid loop is also:

for(int a = 0, b = 10, c = 20; (a+b+c < 100); c--, b++, a+=c) {

std::cout << a << " " << b << " " << c << std::endl;
}

An example of hiding declared variables before a loop is:

int i = 99; //i = 99

for(int i = 0; i < 10; i++) { //we declare a new variable i
//some operations, the value of i ranges from 0 to 9 during loop execution
}
//after the loop is executed, we can access i with value of 99

But if you want to use the already declared variable and not hide it, then omit the declaration part:

int i = 99; //i = 99

for(i = 0; i < 10; i++) { //we are using already declared variable i
//some operations, the value of i ranges from 0 to 9 during loop execution
}
//after the loop is executed, we can access i with value of 10

Notes:

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 47

 The initialization and increment statements can perform operations unrelated to the condition statement, or
nothing at all - if you wish to do so. But for readability reasons, it is best practice to only perform operations
directly relevant to the loop.
A variable declared in the initialization statement is visible only inside the scope of the for loop and is
released upon termination of the loop.
Don't forget that the variable which was declared in the initialization statement can be modified during
the loop, as well as the variable checked in the condition.

Example of a loop which counts from 0 to 10:

for (int counter = 0; counter <= 10; ++counter)

{
std::cout << counter << '\n';
}
// counter is not accessible here (had value 11 at the end)

Explanation of the code fragments:

int counter = 0 initializes the variable counter to 0. (This variable can only be used inside of the for loop.)
counter <= 10 is a Boolean condition that checks whether counter is less than or equal to 10. If it is true,
the loop executes. If it is false, the loop ends.
++counter is an increment operation that increments the value of counter by 1 ahead of the next condition
check.

By leaving all statements empty, you can create an infinite loop:

// infinite loop
for (;;)
std::cout << "Never ending!\n";

The while loop equivalent of the above is:

// infinite loop
while (true)
std::cout << "Never ending!\n";

However, an infinite loop can still be left by using the statements break, goto, or return or by throwing an
exception.

The next common example of iterating over all elements from an STL collection (e.g., a vector) without using the
<algorithm> header is:

std::vector<std::string> names = {"Albert Einstein", "Stephen Hawking", "Michael Ellis"};

for(std::vector<std::string>::iterator it = names.begin(); it != names.end(); ++it) {
std::cout << *it << std::endl;
}

Section 11.3: While loop

A while loop executes statements repeatedly until the given condition evaluates to false. This control statement is
used when it is not known, in advance, how many times a block of code is to be executed.

For example, to print all the numbers from 0 up to 9, the following code can be used:

int i = 0;

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 48

while (i < 10)
{
std::cout << i << " ";
++i; // Increment counter
}
std::cout << std::endl; // End of line; "0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9" is printed to the console
Version ≥ C++17

Note that since C++17, the first 2 statements can be combined

while (int i = 0; i < 10)

//... The rest is the same

To create an infinite loop, the following construct can be used:

while (true)
{
// Do something forever (however, you can exit the loop by calling 'break'
}

There is another variant of while loops, namely the do...while construct. See the do-while loop example for more
information.

Section 11.4: Do-while loop

A do-while loop is very similar to a while loop, except that the condition is checked at the end of each cycle, not at
the start. The loop is therefore guaranteed to execute at least once.

The following code will print 0, as the condition will evaluate to false at the end of the first iteration:

int i =0;
do
{
std::cout << i;
++i; // Increment counter
}
while (i < 0);
std::cout << std::endl; // End of line; 0 is printed to the console

Note: Do not forget the semicolon at the end of while(condition);, which is needed in the do-while construct.

In contrast to the do-while loop, the following will not print anything, because the condition evaluates to false at
the beginning of the first iteration:

int i =0;
while (i < 0)
{
std::cout << i;
++i; // Increment counter
}
std::cout << std::endl; // End of line; nothing is printed to the console

Note: A while loop can be exited without the condition becoming false by using a break, goto, or return statement.

int i = 0;
do
{

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 49

 std::cout << i;
++i; // Increment counter
if (i > 5)
{
break;
}
}
while (true);
std::cout << std::endl; // End of line; 0 1 2 3 4 5 is printed to the console

A trivial do-while loop is also occasionally used to write macros that require their own scope (in which case the
trailing semicolon is omitted from the macro definition and required to be provided by the user):

#define BAD_MACRO(x) f1(x); f2(x); f3(x);

// Only the call to f1 is protected by the condition here

if (cond) BAD_MACRO(var);

#define GOOD_MACRO(x) do { f1(x); f2(x); f3(x); } while(0)

// All calls are protected here

if (cond) GOOD_MACRO(var);

Section 11.5: Loop Control statements : Break and Continue

Loop control statements are used to change the flow of execution from its normal sequence. When execution
leaves a scope, all automatic objects that were created in that scope are destroyed. The break and continue are
loop control statements.

The break statement terminates a loop without any further consideration.

for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++)

{
if (i == 4)
break; // this will immediately exit our loop
std::cout << i << '\n';
}

The above code will print out:

1
2
3

The continue statement does not immediately exit the loop, but rather skips the rest of the loop body and goes to
the top of the loop (including checking the condition).

for (int i = 0; i < 6; i++)

{
if (i % 2 == 0) // evaluates to true if i is even
continue; // this will immediately go back to the start of the loop
/* the next line will only be reached if the above "continue" statement
does not execute */
std::cout << i << " is an odd number\n";
}

The above code will print out:

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 50

1 is an odd number
3 is an odd number
5 is an odd number

Because such control flow changes are sometimes difficult for humans to easily understand, break and continue
are used sparingly. More straightforward implementation are usually easier to read and understand. For example,
the first for loop with the break above might be rewritten as:

for (int i = 0; i < 4; i++)

{
std::cout << i << '\n';
}

The second example with continue might be rewritten as:

for (int i = 0; i < 6; i++)

{
if (i % 2 != 0) {
std::cout << i << " is an odd number\n";
}
}

Section 11.6: Declaration of variables in conditions

In the condition of the for and while loops, it's also permitted to declare an object. This object will be considered to
be in scope until the end of the loop, and will persist through each iteration of the loop:

for (int i = 0; i < 5; ++i) {

do_something(i);
}
// i is no longer in scope.

for (auto& a : some_container) {

a.do_something();
}
// a is no longer in scope.

while(std::shared_ptr<Object> p = get_object()) {
p->do_something();
}
// p is no longer in scope.

However, it is not permitted to do the same with a do...while loop; instead, declare the variable before the loop,
and (optionally) enclose both the variable and the loop within a local scope if you want the variable to go out of
scope after the loop ends:

//This doesn't compile

do {
s = do_something();
} while (short s > 0);

// Good
short s;
do {
s = do_something();
} while (s > 0);

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 51

This is because the statement portion of a do...while loop (the loop's body) is evaluated before the expression
portion (the while) is reached, and thus, any declaration in the expression will not be visible during the first iteration
of the loop.

Section 11.7: Range-for over a sub-range

Using range-base loops, you can loop over a sub-part of a given container or other range by generating a proxy
object that qualifies for range-based for loops.

template<class Iterator, class Sentinel=Iterator>

struct range_t {
Iterator b;
Sentinel e;
Iterator begin() const { return b; }
Sentinel end() const { return e; }
bool empty() const { return begin()==end(); }
range_t without_front( std::size_t count=1 ) const {
if (std::is_same< std::random_access_iterator_tag, typename
std::iterator_traits<Iterator>::iterator_category >{} ) {
count = (std::min)(std::size_t(std::distance(b,e)), count);
}
return {std::next(b, count), e};
}
range_t without_back( std::size_t count=1 ) const {
if (std::is_same< std::random_access_iterator_tag, typename
std::iterator_traits<Iterator>::iterator_category >{} ) {
count = (std::min)(std::size_t(std::distance(b,e)), count);
}
return {b, std::prev(e, count)};
}
};

template<class Iterator, class Sentinel>

range_t<Iterator, Sentinel> range( Iterator b, Sentinal e ) {
return {b,e};
}
template<class Iterable>
auto range( Iterable& r ) {
using std::begin; using std::end;
return range(begin(r),end(r));
}

template<class C>
auto except_first( C& c ) {
auto r = range(c);
if (r.empty()) return r;
return r.without_front();
}

now we can do:

std::vector<int> v = {1,2,3,4};

for (auto i : except_first(v))

std::cout << i << '\n';

and print out

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 52

3
4

Be aware that intermediate objects generated in the for(:range_expression) part of the for loop will have
expired by the time the for loop starts.

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 53

Chapter 12: File I/O
C++ file I/O is done via streams. The key abstractions are:

std::istream for reading text.

std::ostream for writing text.

std::streambuf for reading or writing characters.

Formatted input uses operator>>.

Formatted output uses operator<<.

Streams use std::locale, e.g., for details of the formatting and for translation between external encodings and the
internal encoding.

More on streams: <iostream> Library

Section 12.1: Writing to a file

There are several ways to write to a file. The easiest way is to use an output file stream (ofstream) together with the
stream insertion operator (<<):

std::ofstream os("foo.txt");
if(os.is_open()){
os << "Hello World!";
}

Instead of <<, you can also use the output file stream's member function write():

std::ofstream os("foo.txt");
if(os.is_open()){
char data[] = "Foo";

// Writes 3 characters from data -> "Foo".

os.write(data, 3);
}

After writing to a stream, you should always check if error state flag badbit has been set, as it indicates whether the
operation failed or not. This can be done by calling the output file stream's member function bad():

os << "Hello Badbit!"; // This operation might fail for any reason.
if (os.bad())
// Failed to write!

Section 12.2: Opening a file

Opening a file is done in the same way for all 3 file streams (ifstream, ofstream, and fstream).

You can open the file directly in the constructor:

std::ifstream ifs("foo.txt"); // ifstream: Opens file "foo.txt" for reading only.

std::ofstream ofs("foo.txt"); // ofstream: Opens file "foo.txt" for writing only.

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 54

std::fstream iofs("foo.txt"); // fstream: Opens file "foo.txt" for reading and writing.

Alternatively, you can use the file stream's member function open():

std::ifstream ifs;
ifs.open("bar.txt"); // ifstream: Opens file "bar.txt" for reading only.

std::ofstream ofs;
ofs.open("bar.txt"); // ofstream: Opens file "bar.txt" for writing only.

std::fstream iofs;
iofs.open("bar.txt"); // fstream: Opens file "bar.txt" for reading and writing.

You should always check if a file has been opened successfully (even when writing). Failures can include: the file
doesn't exist, file hasn't the right access rights, file is already in use, disk errors occurred, drive disconnected ...
Checking can be done as follows:

// Try to read the file 'foo.txt'.

std::ifstream ifs("fooo.txt"); // Note the typo; the file can't be opened.

// Check if the file has been opened successfully.

if (!ifs.is_open()) {
// The file hasn't been opened; take appropriate actions here.
throw CustomException(ifs, "File could not be opened");
}

When file path contains backslashes (for example, on Windows system) you should properly escape them:

// Open the file 'c:\\folder\\foo.txt' on Windows.

std::ifstream ifs("c:\\\\folder\\\\foo.txt"); // using escaped backslashes
Version ≥ C++11

or use raw literal:

// Open the file 'c:\\folder\\foo.txt' on Windows.

std::ifstream ifs(R"(c:\\folder\\foo.txt)"); // using raw literal

or use forward slashes instead:

// Open the file 'c:\\folder\\foo.txt' on Windows.

std::ifstream ifs("c:/folder/foo.txt");
Version ≥ C++11

If you want to open file with non-ASCII characters in path on Windows currently you can use non-standard wide
character path argument:

// Open the file 'пример\\foo.txt' on Windows.

std::ifstream ifs(LR"(пример\\foo.txt)"); // using wide characters with raw literal

Section 12.3: Reading from a file

There are several ways to read data from a file.

If you know how the data is formatted, you can use the stream extraction operator (>>). Let's assume you have a file
named foo.txt which contains the following data:

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 55

John Doe 25 4 6 1987
Jane Doe 15 5 24 1976

Then you can use the following code to read that data from the file:

// Define variables.
std::ifstream is("foo.txt");
std::string firstname, lastname;
int age, bmonth, bday, byear;

// Extract firstname, lastname, age, bday month, bday day, and bday year in that order.
// Note: '>>' returns false if it reached EOF (end of file) or if the input data doesn't
// correspond to the type of the input variable (for example, the string "foo" can't be
// extracted into an 'int' variable).
while (is >> firstname >> lastname >> age >> bmonth >> bday >> byear)
// Process the data that has been read.

The stream extraction operator >> extracts every character and stops if it finds a character that can't be stored or if
it is a special character:

For string types, the operator stops at a whitespace () or at a newline (\n).

For numbers, the operator stops at a non-number character.

This means that the following version of the file foo.txt will also be successfully read by the previous code:

John
Doe 25
4 6 1987

Jane
Doe
15 5
24
1976

The stream extraction operator >> always returns the stream given to it. Therefore, multiple operators can be
chained together in order to read data consecutively. However, a stream can also be used as a Boolean expression
(as shown in the while loop in the previous code). This is because the stream classes have a conversion operator
for the type bool. This bool() operator will return true as long as the stream has no errors. If a stream goes into an
error state (for example, because no more data can be extracted), then the bool() operator will return false.
Therefore, the while loop in the previous code will be exited after the input file has been read to its end.

If you wish to read an entire file as a string, you may use the following code:

// Opens 'foo.txt'.
std::ifstream is("foo.txt");
std::string whole_file;

// Sets position to the end of the file.

is.seekg(0, std::ios::end);

// Reserves memory for the file.

whole_file.reserve(is.tellg());

// Sets position to the start of the file.

is.seekg(0, std::ios::beg);

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 56

// Sets contents of 'whole_file' to all characters in the file.
whole_file.assign(std::istreambuf_iterator<char>(is),
std::istreambuf_iterator<char>());

This code reserves space for the string in order to cut down on unneeded memory allocations.

If you want to read a file line by line, you can use the function getline():

std::ifstream is("foo.txt");

// The function getline returns false if there are no more lines.

for (std::string str; std::getline(is, str);) {
// Process the line that has been read.
}

If you want to read a fixed number of characters, you can use the stream's member function read():

std::ifstream is("foo.txt");
char str[4];

// Read 4 characters from the file.

is.read(str, 4);

After executing a read command, you should always check if the error state flag failbit has been set, as it
indicates whether the operation failed or not. This can be done by calling the file stream's member function fail():

is.read(str, 4); // This operation might fail for any reason.

if (is.fail())
// Failed to read!

Section 12.4: Opening modes

When creating a file stream, you can specify an opening mode. An opening mode is basically a setting to control
how the stream opens the file.

(All modes can be found in the std::ios namespace.)

An opening mode can be provided as second parameter to the constructor of a file stream or to its open() member
function:

std::ofstream os("foo.txt", std::ios::out | std::ios::trunc);

std::ifstream is;
is.open("foo.txt", std::ios::in | std::ios::binary);

It is to be noted that you have to set ios::in or ios::out if you want to set other flags as they are not implicitly set
by the iostream members although they have a correct default value.

If you don't specify an opening mode, then the following default modes are used:

ifstream - in
ofstream - out
fstream - in and out

The file opening modes that you may specify by design are:

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 57

Mode Meaning For Description
app append Output Appends data at the end of the file.
binary binary Input/Output Input and output is done in binary.
in input Input Opens the file for reading.
out output Output Opens the file for writing.
trunc truncate Input/Output Removes contents of the file when opening.
ate at end Input Goes to the end of the file when opening.

Note: Setting the binary mode lets the data be read/written exactly as-is; not setting it enables the translation of
the newline '\n' character to/from a platform specific end of line sequence.

For example on Windows the end of line sequence is CRLF ("\r\n").

Write: "\n" => "\r\n"
Read: "\r\n" => "\n"

Section 12.5: Reading an ASCII file into a std::string

std::ifstream f("file.txt");

if (f)
{
std::stringstream buffer;
buffer << f.rdbuf();
f.close();

// The content of "file.txt" is available in the string `buffer.str()`

}

The rdbuf() method returns a pointer to a streambuf that can be pushed into buffer via the
stringstream::operator<< member function.

Another possibility (popularized in Effective STL by Scott Meyers) is:

std::ifstream f("file.txt");

if (f)
{
std::string str((std::istreambuf_iterator<char>(f)),
std::istreambuf_iterator<char>());

// Operations on `str`...
}

This is nice because requires little code (and allows reading a file directly into any STL container, not only strings)
but can be slow for big files.

NOTE: the extra parentheses around the first argument to the string constructor are essential to prevent the most
vexing parse problem.

Last but not least:

std::ifstream f("file.txt");

if (f)
{
f.seekg(0, std::ios::end);

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 58

 const auto size = f.tellg();

std::string str(size, ' ');

f.seekg(0);
f.read(&str[0], size);
f.close();

// Operations on `str`...
}

which is probably the fastest option (among the three proposed).

Section 12.6: Writing files with non-standard locale settings

If you need to write a file using different locale settings to the default, you can use std::locale and
std::basic_ios::imbue() to do that for a specific file stream:

Guidance for use:

You should always apply a local to a stream before opening the file.
Once the stream has been imbued you should not change the locale.

Reasons for Restrictions: Imbuing a file stream with a locale has undefined behavior if the current locale is not
state independent or not pointing at the beginning of the file.

UTF-8 streams (and others) are not state independent. Also a file stream with a UTF-8 locale may try and read the
BOM marker from the file when it is opened; so just opening the file may read characters from the file and it will
not be at the beginning.

#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>
#include <locale>

int main()
{
std::cout << "User-preferred locale setting is "
<< std::locale("").name().c_str() << std::endl;

// Write a floating-point value using the user's preferred locale.

std::ofstream ofs1;
ofs1.imbue(std::locale(""));
ofs1.open("file1.txt");
ofs1 << 78123.456 << std::endl;

// Use a specific locale (names are system-dependent)

std::ofstream ofs2;
ofs2.imbue(std::locale("en_US.UTF-8"));
ofs2.open("file2.txt");
ofs2 << 78123.456 << std::endl;

// Switch to the classic "C" locale

std::ofstream ofs3;
ofs3.imbue(std::locale::classic());
ofs3.open("file3.txt");
ofs3 << 78123.456 << std::endl;
}

Explicitly switching to the classic "C" locale is useful if your program uses a different default locale and you want to

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 59

ensure a fixed standard for reading and writing files. With a "C" preferred locale, the example writes

78,123.456
78,123.456
78123.456

If, for example, the preferred locale is German and hence uses a different number format, the example writes

78 123,456
78,123.456
78123.456

(note the decimal comma in the first line).

Section 12.7: Checking end of file inside a loop condition, bad

practice?
eof returns true only after reading the end of file. It does NOT indicate that the next read will be the end of
stream.

while (!f.eof())
{
// Everything is OK

f >> buffer;

// What if *only* now the eof / fail bit is set?

/* Use `buffer` */
}

You could correctly write:

while (!f.eof())
{
f >> buffer >> std::ws;

if (f.fail())
break;

/* Use `buffer` */
}

but

while (f >> buffer)

{
/* Use `buffer` */
}

is simpler and less error prone.

Further references:

std::ws: discards leading whitespace from an input stream

std::basic_ios::fail: returns true if an error has occurred on the associated stream

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 60

Section 12.8: Flushing a stream
File streams are buffered by default, as are many other types of streams. This means that writes to the stream may
not cause the underlying file to change immediately. In oder to force all buffered writes to take place immediately,
you can flush the stream. You can do this either directly by invoking the flush() method or through the std::flush
stream manipulator:

std::ofstream os("foo.txt");
os << "Hello World!" << std::flush;

char data[3] = "Foo";

os.write(data, 3);
os.flush();

There is a stream manipulator std::endl that combines writing a newline with flushing the stream:

// Both following lines do the same thing

os << "Hello World!\n" << std::flush;
os << "Hello world!" << std::endl;

Buffering can improve the performance of writing to a stream. Therefore, applications that do a lot of writing
should avoid flushing unnecessarily. Contrary, if I/O is done infrequently, applications should consider flushing
frequently in order to avoid data getting stuck in the stream object.

Section 12.9: Reading a file into a container

In the example below we use std::string and operator>> to read items from the file.

std::ifstream file("file3.txt");

std::vector<std::string> v;

std::string s;
while(file >> s) // keep reading until we run out
{
v.push_back(s);
}

In the above example we are simply iterating through the file reading one "item" at a time using operator>>. This
same affect can be achieved using the std::istream_iterator which is an input iterator that reads one "item" at a
time from the stream. Also most containers can be constructed using two iterators so we can simplify the above
code to:

std::ifstream file("file3.txt");

std::vector<std::string> v(std::istream_iterator<std::string>{file},
std::istream_iterator<std::string>{});

We can extend this to read any object types we like by simply specifying the object we want to read as the template
parameter to the std::istream_iterator. Thus we can simply extend the above to read lines (rather than words)
like this:

// Unfortunately there is no built in type that reads line using >>

// So here we build a simple helper class to do it. That will convert
// back to a string when used in string context.
struct Line

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 61

{
// Store data here
std::string data;
// Convert object to string
operator std::string const&() const {return data;}
// Read a line from a stream.
friend std::istream& operator>>(std::istream& stream, Line& line)
{
return std::getline(stream, line.data);
}
};

std::ifstream file("file3.txt");

// Read the lines of a file into a container.

std::vector<std::string> v(std::istream_iterator<Line>{file},
std::istream_iterator<Line>{});

Section 12.10: Copying a file

std::ifstream src("source_filename", std::ios::binary);
std::ofstream dst("dest_filename", std::ios::binary);
dst << src.rdbuf();
Version ≥ C++17

With C++17 the standard way to copy a file is including the <filesystem> header and using copy_file:

std::fileystem::copy_file("source_filename", "dest_filename");

The filesystem library was originally developed as boost.filesystem and finally merged to ISO C++ as of C++17.

Section 12.11: Closing a file

Explicitly closing a file is rarely necessary in C++, as a file stream will automatically close its associated file in its
destructor. However, you should try to limit the lifetime of a file stream object, so that it does not keep the file
handle open longer than necessary. For example, this can be done by putting all file operations into an own scope
({}):

std::string const prepared_data = prepare_data();

{
// Open a file for writing.
std::ofstream output("foo.txt");

// Write data.
output << prepared_data;
} // The ofstream will go out of scope here.
// Its destructor will take care of closing the file properly.

Calling close() explicitly is only necessary if you want to reuse the same fstream object later, but don't want to
keep the file open in between:

// Open the file "foo.txt" for the first time.

std::ofstream output("foo.txt");

// Get some data to write from somewhere.

std::string const prepared_data = prepare_data();

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// Write data to the file "foo.txt".
output << prepared_data;

// Close the file "foo.txt".

output.close();

// Preparing data might take a long time. Therefore, we don't open the output file stream
// before we actually can write some data to it.
std::string const more_prepared_data = prepare_complex_data();

// Open the file "foo.txt" for the second time once we are ready for writing.
output.open("foo.txt");

// Write the data to the file "foo.txt".

output << more_prepared_data;

// Close the file "foo.txt" once again.

output.close();

Section 12.12: Reading a `struct` from a formatted text file

Version ≥ C++11
struct info_type
{
std::string name;
int age;
float height;

// we define an overload of operator>> as a friend function which

// gives in privileged access to private data members
friend std::istream& operator>>(std::istream& is, info_type& info)
{
// skip whitespace
is >> std::ws;
std::getline(is, info.name);
is >> info.age;
is >> info.height;
return is;
}
};

void func4()
{
auto file = std::ifstream("file4.txt");

std::vector<info_type> v;

for(info_type info; file >> info;) // keep reading until we run out
{
// we only get here if the read succeeded
v.push_back(info);
}

for(auto const& info: v)

{
std::cout << " name: " << info.name << '\n';
std::cout << " age: " << info.age << " years" << '\n';
std::cout << "height: " << info.height << "lbs" << '\n';
std::cout << '\n';
}
}

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 63

file4.txt

Wogger Wabbit
2
6.2
Bilbo Baggins
111
81.3
Mary Poppins
29
154.8

Output:

name: Wogger Wabbit

age: 2 years
height: 6.2lbs

name: Bilbo Baggins

age: 111 years
height: 81.3lbs

name: Mary Poppins

age: 29 years
height: 154.8lbs

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 64

Chapter 13: C++ Streams
Section 13.1: String streams
std::ostringstream is a class whose objects look like an output stream (that is, you can write to them via
operator<<), but actually store the writing results, and provide them in the form of a stream.

Consider the following short code:

#include <sstream>
#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main()
{
ostringstream ss;
ss << "the answer to everything is " << 42;
const string result = ss.str();
}

The line

ostringstream ss;

creates such an object. This object is first manipulated like a regular stream:

ss << "the answer to everything is " << 42;

Following that, though, the resulting stream can be obtained like this:

const string result = ss.str();

(the string result will be equal to "the answer to everything is 42").

This is mainly useful when we have a class for which stream serialization has been defined, and for which we want a
string form. For example, suppose we have some class

class foo
{
// All sort of stuff here.
};

ostream &operator<<(ostream &os, const foo &f);

To get the string representation of a foo object,

foo f;

we could use

ostringstream ss;
ss << f;
const string result = ss.str();

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 65

Then result contains the string representation of the foo object.

Section 13.2: Printing collections with iostream

Basic printing

std::ostream_iterator allows to print contents of an STL container to any output stream without explicit loops.
The second argument of std::ostream_iterator constructor sets the delimiter. For example, the following code:

std::vector<int> v = {1,2,3,4};
std::copy(v.begin(), v.end(), std::ostream_iterator<int>(std::cout, " ! "));

will print

1 ! 2 ! 3 ! 4 !

Implicit type cast

std::ostream_iterator allows to cast container's content type implicitly. For example, let's tune std::cout to print
floating-point values with 3 digits after decimal point:

std::cout << std::setprecision(3);

std::fixed(std::cout);

and instantiate std::ostream_iterator with float, while the contained values remain int:

std::vector<int> v = {1,2,3,4};
std::copy(v.begin(), v.end(), std::ostream_iterator<float>(std::cout, " ! "));

so the code above yields

1.000 ! 2.000 ! 3.000 ! 4.000 !

despite std::vector holds ints.

Generation and transformation

std::generate, std::generate_n and std::transform functions provide a very powerful tool for on-the-fly data
manipulation. For example, having a vector:

std::vector<int> v = {1,2,3,4,8,16};

we can easily print boolean value of "x is even" statement for each element:

std::boolalpha(std::cout); // print booleans alphabetically

std::transform(v.begin(), v.end(), std::ostream_iterator<bool>(std::cout, " "),
[](int val) {
return (val % 2) == 0;
});

or print the squared element:

std::transform(v.begin(), v.end(), std::ostream_iterator<int>(std::cout, " "),

[](int val) {
return val * val;

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 66

});

Printing N space-delimited random numbers:

const int N = 10;

std::generate_n(std::ostream_iterator<int>(std::cout, " "), N, std::rand);

Arrays

As in the section about reading text files, almost all these considerations may be applied to native arrays. For
example, let's print squared values from a native array:

int v[] = {1,2,3,4,8,16};

std::transform(v, std::end(v), std::ostream_iterator<int>(std::cout, " "),
[](int val) {
return val * val;
});

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 67

Chapter 14: Stream manipulators
Manipulators are special helper functions that help controlling input and output streams using operator >> or
operator <<.

They all can be included by #include <iomanip>.

Section 14.1: Stream manipulators

std::boolalpha and std::noboolalpha - switch between textual and numeric representation of booleans.

std::cout << std::boolalpha << 1;

// Output: true

std::cout << std::noboolalpha << false;

// Output: 0

bool boolValue;
std::cin >> std::boolalpha >> boolValue;
std::cout << "Value \"" << std::boolalpha << boolValue
<< "\" was parsed as " << std::noboolalpha << boolValue;
// Input: true
// Output: Value "true" was parsed as 0

std::showbase and std::noshowbase - control whether prefix indicating numeric base is used.

std::dec (decimal), std::hex (hexadecimal) and std::oct (octal) - are used for changing base for integers.

#include <sstream>

std::cout << std::dec << 29 << ' - '

<< std::hex << 29 << ' - '
<< std::showbase << std::oct << 29 << ' - '
<< std::noshowbase << 29 '\n';
int number;
std::istringstream("3B") >> std::hex >> number;
std::cout << std::dec << 10;
// Output: 22 - 1D - 35 - 035
// 59

Default values are std::ios_base::noshowbase and std::ios_base::dec.

If you want to see more about std::istringstream check out the <sstream> header.

std::uppercase and std::nouppercase - control whether uppercase characters are used in floating-point and
hexadecimal integer output. Have no effect on input streams.

std::cout << std::hex << std::showbase

<< "0x2a with nouppercase: " << std::nouppercase << 0x2a << '\n'
<< "1e-10 with uppercase: " << std::uppercase << 1e-10 << '\n'
}
// Output: 0x2a with nouppercase: 0x2a
// 1e-10 with uppercase: 1E-10

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 68

Default is std::nouppercase.

std::setw(n) - changes the width of the next input/output field to exactly n.

The width property n is resetting to 0 when some functions are called (full list is here).

std::cout << "no setw:" << 51 << '\n'

<< "setw(7): " << std::setw(7) << 51 << '\n'
<< "setw(7), more output: " << 13
<< std::setw(7) << std::setfill('*') << 67 << ' ' << 94 << '\n';

char* input = "Hello, world!";

char arr[10];
std::cin >> std::setw(6) >> arr;
std::cout << "Input from \"Hello, world!\" with setw(6) gave \"" << arr << "\"\n";

// Output: 51
// setw(7): 51
// setw(7), more output: 13*****67 94

// Input: Hello, world!

// Output: Input from "Hello, world!" with setw(6) gave "Hello"

Default is std::setw(0).

std::left, std::right and std::internal - modify the default position of the fill characters by setting
std::ios_base::adjustfield to std::ios_base::left, std::ios_base::right and std::ios_base::internal
correspondingly. std::left and std::right apply to any output, std::internal - for integer, floating-point and
monetary output. Have no effect on input streams.

#include <locale>
...

std::cout.imbue(std::locale("en_US.utf8"));

std::cout << std::left << std::showbase << std::setfill('*')

<< "flt: " << std::setw(15) << -9.87 << '\n'
<< "hex: " << std::setw(15) << 41 << '\n'
<< " $: " << std::setw(15) << std::put_money(367, false) << '\n'
<< "usd: " << std::setw(15) << std::put_money(367, true) << '\n'
<< "usd: " << std::setw(15)
<< std::setfill(' ') << std::put_money(367, false) << '\n';
// Output:
// flt: -9.87**********
// hex: 41*************
// $: $3.67**********
// usd: USD *3.67******
// usd: $3.67

std::cout << std::internal << std::showbase << std::setfill('*')

<< "flt: " << std::setw(15) << -9.87 << '\n'
<< "hex: " << std::setw(15) << 41 << '\n'
<< " $: " << std::setw(15) << std::put_money(367, false) << '\n'
<< "usd: " << std::setw(15) << std::put_money(367, true) << '\n'
<< "usd: " << std::setw(15)
<< std::setfill(' ') << std::put_money(367, true) << '\n';

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 69

// Output:
// flt: -**********9.87
// hex: *************41
// $: $3.67**********
// usd: USD *******3.67
// usd: USD 3.67

std::cout << std::right << std::showbase << std::setfill('*')

<< "flt: " << std::setw(15) << -9.87 << '\n'
<< "hex: " << std::setw(15) << 41 << '\n'
<< " $: " << std::setw(15) << std::put_money(367, false) << '\n'
<< "usd: " << std::setw(15) << std::put_money(367, true) << '\n'
<< "usd: " << std::setw(15)
<< std::setfill(' ') << std::put_money(367, true) << '\n';
// Output:
// flt: **********-9.87
// hex: *************41
// $: **********$3.67
// usd: ******USD *3.67
// usd: USD 3.67

Default is std::left.

std::fixed, std::scientific, std::hexfloat [C++11] and std::defaultfloat [C++11] - change formatting for
floating-point input/output.

std::fixed sets the std::ios_base::floatfield to std::ios_base::fixed,

std::scientific - to std::ios_base::scientific,
std::hexfloat - to std::ios_base::fixed | std::ios_base::scientific and
std::defaultfloat - to std::ios_base::fmtflags(0).

fmtflags

#include <sstream>
...

std::cout << '\n'

<< "The number 0.07 in fixed: " << std::fixed << 0.01 << '\n'
<< "The number 0.07 in scientific: " << std::scientific << 0.01 << '\n'
<< "The number 0.07 in hexfloat: " << std::hexfloat << 0.01 << '\n'
<< "The number 0.07 in default: " << std::defaultfloat << 0.01 << '\n';

double f;
std::istringstream is("0x1P-1022");
double f = std::strtod(is.str().c_str(), NULL);
std::cout << "Parsing 0x1P-1022 as hex gives " << f << '\n';

// Output:
// The number 0.01 in fixed: 0.070000
// The number 0.01 in scientific: 7.000000e-02
// The number 0.01 in hexfloat: 0x1.1eb851eb851ecp-4
// The number 0.01 in default: 0.07
// Parsing 0x1P-1022 as hex gives 2.22507e-308

Default is std::ios_base::fmtflags(0).

There is a bug on some compilers which causes

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double f;
std::istringstream("0x1P-1022") >> std::hexfloat >> f;
std::cout << "Parsing 0x1P-1022 as hex gives " << f << '\n';
// Output: Parsing 0x1P-1022 as hex gives 0

std::showpoint and std::noshowpoint - control whether decimal point is always included in floating-point
representation. Have no effect on input streams.

std::cout << "7.0 with showpoint: " << std::showpoint << 7.0 << '\n'
<< "7.0 with noshowpoint: " << std::noshowpoint << 7.0 << '\n';
// Output: 1.0 with showpoint: 7.00000
// 1.0 with noshowpoint: 7

Default is std::showpoint.

std::showpos and std::noshowpos - control displaying of the + sign in non-negative output. Have no effect on input
streams.

std::cout << "With showpos: " << std::showpos

<< 0 << ' ' << -2.718 << ' ' << 17 << '\n'
<< "Without showpos: " << std::noshowpos
<< 0 << ' ' << -2.718 << ' ' << 17 << '\n';
// Output: With showpos: +0 -2.718 +17
// Without showpos: 0 -2.718 17

Default if std::noshowpos.

std::unitbuf, std::nounitbuf - control flushing output stream after every operation. Have no effect on input
stream. std::unitbuf causes flushing.

std::setbase(base) - sets the numeric base of the stream.

std::setbase(8) equals to setting std::ios_base::basefield to std::ios_base::oct,

std::setbase(16) - to std::ios_base::hex,
std::setbase(10) - to std::ios_base::dec.

If base is other then 8, 10 or 16 then std::ios_base::basefield is setting to std::ios_base::fmtflags(0). It

means decimal output and prefix-dependent input.

As default std::ios_base::basefield is std::ios_base::dec then by default std::setbase(10).

std::setprecision(n) - changes floating-point precision.

#include <cmath>
#include <limits>
...

typedef std::numeric_limits<long double> ld;

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const long double pi = std::acos(-1.L);

std::cout << '\n'

<< "default precision (6): pi: " << pi << '\n'
<< " 10pi: " << 10 * pi << '\n'
<< "std::setprecision(4): 10pi: " << std::setprecision(4) << 10 * pi << '\n'
<< " 10000pi: " << 10000 * pi << '\n'
<< "std::fixed: 10000pi: " << std::fixed << 10000 * pi << std::defaultfloat <<
'\n'
<< "std::setprecision(10): pi: " << std::setprecision(10) << pi << '\n'
<< "max-1 radix precicion: pi: " << std::setprecision(ld::digits - 1) << pi << '\n'
<< "max+1 radix precision: pi: " << std::setprecision(ld::digits + 1) << pi << '\n'
<< "significant digits prec: pi: " << std::setprecision(ld::digits10) << pi << '\n';

// Output:
// default precision (6): pi: 3.14159
// 10pi: 31.4159
// std::setprecision(4): 10pi: 31.42
// 10000pi: 3.142e+04
// std::fixed: 10000pi: 31415.9265
// std::setprecision(10): pi: 3.141592654
// max-1 radix precicion: pi: 3.14159265358979323851280895940618620443274267017841339111328125
// max+1 radix precision: pi: 3.14159265358979323851280895940618620443274267017841339111328125
// significant digits prec: pi: 3.14159265358979324

Default is std::setprecision(6).

std::setiosflags(mask) and std::resetiosflags(mask) - set and clear flags specified in mask of

std::ios_base::fmtflags type.

#include <sstream>
...

std::istringstream in("10 010 10 010 10 010");

int num1, num2;

in >> std::oct >> num1 >> num2;

std::cout << "Parsing \"10 010\" with std::oct gives: " << num1 << ' ' << num2 << '\n';
// Output: Parsing "10 010" with std::oct gives: 8 8

in >> std::dec >> num1 >> num2;

std::cout << "Parsing \"10 010\" with std::dec gives: " << num1 << ' ' << num2 << '\n';
// Output: Parsing "10 010" with std::oct gives: 10 10

in >> std::resetiosflags(std::ios_base::basefield) >> num1 >> num2;

std::cout << "Parsing \"10 010\" with autodetect gives: " << num1 << ' ' << num2 << '\n';
// Parsing "10 010" with autodetect gives: 10 8

std::cout << std::setiosflags(std::ios_base::hex |

std::ios_base::uppercase |
std::ios_base::showbase) << 42 << '\n';
// Output: OX2A

std::skipws and std::noskipws - control skipping of leading whitespace by the formatted input functions. Have no
effect on output streams.

#include <sstream>

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 72

...

char c1, c2, c3;

std::istringstream("a b c") >> c1 >> c2 >> c3;
std::cout << "Default behavior: c1 = " << c1 << " c2 = " << c2 << " c3 = " << c3 << '\n';

std::istringstream("a b c") >> std::noskipws >> c1 >> c2 >> c3;

std::cout << "noskipws behavior: c1 = " << c1 << " c2 = " << c2 << " c3 = " << c3 << '\n';
// Output: Default behavior: c1 = a c2 = b c3 = c
// noskipws behavior: c1 = a c2 = c3 = b

Default is std::ios_base::skipws.

std::quoted(s[, delim[, escape]]) [C++14] - inserts or extracts quoted strings with embedded spaces.

s - the string to insert or extract.

delim - the character to use as the delimiter, " by default.
escape - the character to use as the escape character, \ by default.

#include <sstream>
...

std::stringstream ss;
std::string in = "String with spaces, and embedded \"quotes\" too";
std::string out;

ss << std::quoted(in);
std::cout << "read in [" << in << "]\n"
<< "stored as [" << ss.str() << "]\n";

ss >> std::quoted(out);
std::cout << "written out [" << out << "]\n";
// Output:
// read in [String with spaces, and embedded "quotes" too]
// stored as ["String with spaces, and embedded \"quotes\" too"]
// written out [String with spaces, and embedded "quotes" too]

For more information see the link above.

Section 14.2: Output stream manipulators

std::ends - inserts a null character '\0' to output stream. More formally this manipulator's declaration looks like

template <class charT, class traits>

std::basic_ostream<charT, traits>& ends(std::basic_ostream<charT, traits>& os);

and this manipulator places character by calling os.put(charT()) when used in an expression
os << std::ends;

std::endl and std::flush both flush output stream out by calling out.flush(). It causes immediately producing
output. But std::endl inserts end of line '\n' symbol before flushing.

std::cout << "First line." << std::endl << "Second line. " << std::flush
<< "Still second line.";

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// Output: First line.
// Second line. Still second line.

std::setfill(c) - changes the fill character to c. Often used with std::setw.

std::cout << "\nDefault fill: " << std::setw(10) << 79 << '\n'
<< "setfill('#'): " << std::setfill('#')
<< std::setw(10) << 42 << '\n';
// Output:
// Default fill: 79
// setfill('#'): ########79

std::put_money(mon[, intl]) [C++11]. In an expression out << std::put_money(mon, intl), converts the
monetary value mon (of long double or std::basic_string type) to its character representation as specified by the
std::money_put facet of the locale currently imbued in out. Use international currency strings if intl is true, use
currency symbols otherwise.

long double money = 123.45;

// or std::string money = "123.45";

std::cout.imbue(std::locale("en_US.utf8"));
std::cout << std::showbase << "en_US: " << std::put_money(money)
<< " or " << std::put_money(money, true) << '\n';
// Output: en_US: $1.23 or USD 1.23

std::cout.imbue(std::locale("ru_RU.utf8"));
std::cout << "ru_RU: " << std::put_money(money)
<< " or " << std::put_money(money, true) << '\n';
// Output: ru_RU: 1.23 руб or 1.23 RUB

std::cout.imbue(std::locale("ja_JP.utf8"));
std::cout << "ja_JP: " << std::put_money(money)
<< " or " << std::put_money(money, true) << '\n';
// Output: ja_JP: ￥123 or JPY 123

std::put_time(tmb, fmt) [C++11] - formats and outputs a date/time value to std::tm according to the specified
format fmt.

tmb - pointer to the calendar time structure const std::tm* as obtained from localtime() or gmtime().
fmt - pointer to a null-terminated string const CharT* specifying the format of conversion.

#include <ctime>
...

std::time_t t = std::time(nullptr);
std::tm tm = *std::localtime(&t);

std::cout.imbue(std::locale("ru_RU.utf8"));
std::cout << "\nru_RU: " << std::put_time(&tm, "%c %Z") << '\n';
// Possible output:
// ru_RU: Вт 04 июл 2017 15:08:35 UTC

For more information see the link above.

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Section 14.3: Input stream manipulators
std::ws - consumes leading whitespaces in input stream. It different from std::skipws.

#include <sstream>
...

std::string str;
std::istringstream(" \v\n\r\t Wow!There is no whitespaces!") >> std::ws >> str;
std::cout << str;
// Output: Wow!There is no whitespaces!

std::get_money(mon[, intl]) [C++11]. In an expression in >> std::get_money(mon, intl) parses the character
input as a monetary value, as specified by the std::money_get facet of the locale currently imbued in in, and stores
the value in mon (of long double or std::basic_string type). Manipulator expects required international currency
strings if intl is true, expects optional currency symbols otherwise.

#include <sstream>
#include <locale>
...

std::istringstream in("$1,234.56 2.22 USD 3.33");

long double v1, v2;
std::string v3;

in.imbue(std::locale("en_US.UTF-8"));
in >> std::get_money(v1) >> std::get_money(v2) >> std::get_money(v3, true);
if (in) {
std::cout << std::quoted(in.str()) << " parsed as: "
<< v1 << ", " << v2 << ", " << v3 << '\n';
}
// Output:
// "$1,234.56 2.22 USD 3.33" parsed as: 123456, 222, 333

std::get_time(tmb, fmt) [C++11] - parses a date/time value stored in tmb of specified format fmt.

tmb - valid pointer to the const std::tm* object where the result will be stored.
fmt - pointer to a null-terminated string const CharT* specifying the conversion format.

#include <sstream>
#include <locale>
...

std::tm t = {};
std::istringstream ss("2011-Februar-18 23:12:34");

ss.imbue(std::locale("de_DE.utf-8"));
ss >> std::get_time(&t, "%Y-%b-%d %H:%M:%S");
if (ss.fail()) {
std::cout << "Parse failed\n";
}
else {
std::cout << std::put_time(&t, "%c") << '\n';
}
// Possible output:
// Sun Feb 18 23:12:34 2011

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 75

For more information see the link above.

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 76

Chapter 15: Flow Control
Section 15.1: case
Introduces a case label of a switch statement. The operand must be a constant expression and match the switch
condition in type. When the switch statement is executed, it will jump to the case label with operand equal to the
condition, if any.

char c = getchar();
bool confirmed;
switch (c) {
case 'y':
confirmed = true;
break;
case 'n':
confirmed = false;
break;
default:
std::cout << "invalid response!\n";
abort();
}

Section 15.2: switch

According to the C++ standard,

The switch statement causes control to be transferred to one of several statements depending on the
value of a condition.

The keyword switch is followed by a parenthesized condition and a block, which may contain case labels and an
optional default label. When the switch statement is executed, control will be transferred either to a case label
with a value matching that of the condition, if any, or to the default label, if any.

The condition must be an expression or a declaration, which has either integer or enumeration type, or a class type
with a conversion function to integer or enumeration type.

char c = getchar();
bool confirmed;
switch (c) {
case 'y':
confirmed = true;
break;
case 'n':
confirmed = false;
break;
default:
std::cout << "invalid response!\n";
abort();
}

Section 15.3: catch

The catch keyword introduces an exception handler, that is, a block into which control will be transferred when an
exception of compatible type is thrown. The catch keyword is followed by a parenthesized exception declaration,

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 77

which is similar in form to a function parameter declaration: the parameter name may be omitted, and the ellipsis
... is allowed, which matches any type. The exception handler will only handle the exception if its declaration is
compatible with the type of the exception. For more details, see catching exceptions.

try {
std::vector<int> v(N);
// do something
} catch (const std::bad_alloc&) {
std::cout << "failed to allocate memory for vector!" << std::endl;
} catch (const std::runtime_error& e) {
std::cout << "runtime error: " << e.what() << std::endl;
} catch (...) {
std::cout << "unexpected exception!" << std::endl;
throw;
}

Section 15.4: throw

1. When throw occurs in an expression with an operand, its effect is to throw an exception, which is a copy of
the operand.

void print_asterisks(int count) {

if (count < 0) {
throw std::invalid_argument("count cannot be negative!");
}
while (count--) { putchar('*'); }
}

2. When throw occurs in an expression without an operand, its effect is to rethrow the current exception. If
there is no current exception, std::terminate is called.

try {
// something risky
} catch (const std::bad_alloc&) {
std::cerr << "out of memory" << std::endl;
} catch (...) {
std::cerr << "unexpected exception" << std::endl;
// hope the caller knows how to handle this exception
throw;
}

3. When throw occurs in a function declarator, it introduces a dynamic exception specification, which lists the
types of exceptions that the function is allowed to propagate.

// this function might propagate a std::runtime_error,

// but not, say, a std::logic_error
void risky() throw(std::runtime_error);
// this function can't propagate any exceptions
void safe() throw();

Dynamic exception specifications are deprecated as of C++11.

Note that the first two uses of throw listed above constitute expressions rather than statements. (The type of a
throw expression is void.) This makes it possible to nest them within expressions, like so:

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unsigned int predecessor(unsigned int x) {
return (x > 0) ? (x - 1) : (throw std::invalid_argument("0 has no predecessor"));
}

Section 15.5: default

In a switch statement, introduces a label that will be jumped to if the condition's value is not equal to any of the
case labels' values.

char c = getchar();
bool confirmed;
switch (c) {
case 'y':
confirmed = true;
break;
case 'n':
confirmed = false;
break;
default:
std::cout << "invalid response!\n";
abort();
}
Version ≥ C++11

Defines a default constructor, copy constructor, move constructor, destructor, copy assignment operator, or move
assignment operator to have its default behaviour.

class Base {
// ...
// we want to be able to delete derived classes through Base*,
// but have the usual behaviour for Base's destructor.
virtual ~Base() = default;
};

Section 15.6: try

The keyword try is followed by a block, or by a constructor initializer list and then a block (see here). The try block is
followed by one or more catch blocks. If an exception propagates out of the try block, each of the corresponding
catch blocks after the try block has the opportunity to handle the exception, if the types match.

std::vector<int> v(N); // if an exception is thrown here,

// it will not be caught by the following catch block
try {
std::vector<int> v(N); // if an exception is thrown here,
// it will be caught by the following catch block
// do something with v
} catch (const std::bad_alloc&) {
// handle bad_alloc exceptions from the try block
}

Section 15.7: if
Introduces an if statement. The keyword if must be followed by a parenthesized condition, which can be either an
expression or a declaration. If the condition is truthy, the substatement after the condition will be executed.

int x;

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std::cout << "Please enter a positive number." << std::endl;
std::cin >> x;
if (x <= 0) {
std::cout << "You didn't enter a positive number!" << std::endl;
abort();
}

Section 15.8: else

The first substatement of an if statement may be followed by the keyword else. The substatement after the else
keyword will be executed when the condition is falsey (that is, when the first substatement is not executed).

int x;
std::cin >> x;
if (x%2 == 0) {
std::cout << "The number is even\n";
} else {
std::cout << "The number is odd\n";
}

Section 15.9: Conditional Structures: if, if..else

if and else:

it used to check whether the given expression returns true or false and acts as such:

if (condition) statement

the condition can be any valid C++ expression that returns something that be checked against truth/falsehood for
example:

if (true) { /* code here */ } // evaluate that true is true and execute the code in the brackets
if (false) { /* code here */ } // always skip the code since false is always false

the condition can be anything, a function, a variable, or a comparison for example

if(istrue()) { } // evaluate the function, if it returns true, the if will execute the code
if(isTrue(var)) { } //evaluate the return of the function after passing the argument var
if(a == b) { } // this will evaluate the return of the experssion (a==b) which will be true if
equal and false if unequal
if(a) { } //if a is a boolean type, it will evaluate for its value, if it's an integer, any non
zero value will be true,

if we want to check for a multiple expressions we can do it in two ways :

using binary operators :

if (a && b) { } // will be true only if both a and b are true (binary operators are outside the
scope here
if (a || b ) { } //true if a or b is true

using if/ifelse/else:

for a simple switch either if or else

if (a== "test") {

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 //will execute if a is a string "test"
} else {
// only if the first failed, will execute
}

for multiple choices :

if (a=='a') {
// if a is a char valued 'a'
} else if (a=='b') {
// if a is a char valued 'b'
} else if (a=='c') {
// if a is a char valued 'c'
} else {
//if a is none of the above
}

however it must be noted that you should use 'switch' instead if your code checks for the same variable's value

Section 15.10: goto

Jumps to a labelled statement, which must be located in the current function.

bool f(int arg) {

bool result = false;
hWidget widget = get_widget(arg);
if (!g()) {
// we can't continue, but must do cleanup still
goto end;
}
// ...
result = true;
end:
release_widget(widget);
return result;
}

Section 15.11: Jump statements : break, continue, goto, exit

The break instruction:

Using break we can leave a loop even if the condition for its end is not fulfilled. It can be used to end an infinite
loop, or to force it to end before its natural end

The syntax is

break;

Example: we often use break in switch cases,ie once a case i switch is satisfied then the code block of that
condition is executed .

switch(conditon){
case 1: block1;
case 2: block2;
case 3: block3;
default: blockdefault;
}

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in this case if case 1 is satisfied then block 1 is executed , what we really want is only the block1 to be processed but
instead once the block1 is processed remaining blocks,block2,block3 and blockdefault are also processed even
though only case 1 was satified.To avoid this we use break at the end of each block like :

switch(condition){
case 1: block1;
break;
case 2: block2;
break;
case 3: block3;
break;
default: blockdefault;
break;
}

so only one block is processed and the control moves out of the switch loop.

break can also be used in other conditional and non conditional loops like if,while,for etc;

example:

if(condition1){
....
if(condition2){
.......
break;
}
...
}

The continue instruction:

The continue instruction causes the program to skip the rest of the loop in the present iteration as if the end of the
statement block would have been reached, causing it to jump to the following iteration.

The syntax is

continue;

Example consider the following :

for(int i=0;i<10;i++){
if(i%2==0)
continue;
cout<<"\n @"<<i;
}

which produces the output:

@1
@3
@5
@7
@9

i this code whenever the condition i%2==0 is satisfied continue is processed,this causes the compiler to skip all the
remaining code( printing @ and i) and increment/decrement statement of the loop gets executed.

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The goto instruction:

It allows making an absolute jump to another point in the program. You should use this feature carefully since its
execution ignores any type of nesting limitation. The destination point is identified by a label, which is then used as
an argument for the goto instruction. A label is made of a valid identifier followed by a colon (:)

The syntax is

goto label;
..
.
label: statement;

Note: Use of goto statement is highly discouraged because it makes difficult to trace the control flow of a program,
making the program hard to understand and hard to modify.

Example :

int num = 1;
STEP:
do{

if( num%2==0 )
{
num = num + 1;

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 goto STEP;
}

cout << "value of num : " << num << endl;

num = num + 1;
}while( num < 10 );

output :

value of num : 1
value of num : 3
value of num : 5
value of num : 7
value of num : 9

whenever the condition num%2==0 is satisfied the goto sends the execution control to the beginning of the do-while
loop.

The exit function:

exit is a function defined in cstdlib. The purpose of exit is to terminate the running program with an specific exit
code. Its prototype is:

void exit (int exit code);

cstdlib defines the standard exit codes EXIT_SUCCESS and EXIT_FAILURE.

Section 15.12: return

Returns control from a function to its caller.

If return has an operand, the operand is converted to the function's return type, and the converted value is
returned to the caller.

int f() {
return 42;
}
int x = f(); // x is 42
int g() {
return 3.14;
}
int y = g(); // y is 3

If return does not have an operand, the function must have void return type. As a special case, a void-returning
function can also return an expression if the expression has type void.

void f(int x) {
if (x < 0) return;
std::cout << sqrt(x);
}
int g() { return 42; }
void h() {
return f(); // calls f, then returns
return g(); // ill-formed
}

When main returns, std::exit is implicitly called with the return value, and the value is thus returned to the

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execution environment. (However, returning from main destroys automatic local variables, while calling std::exit
directly does not.)

int main(int argc, char** argv) {

if (argc < 2) {
std::cout << "Missing argument\n";
return EXIT_FAILURE; // equivalent to: exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
}
}

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Chapter 16: Metaprogramming
In C++ Metaprogramming refers to the use of macros or templates to generate code at compile-time.

In general, macros are frowned upon in this role and templates are preferred, although they are not as generic.

Template metaprogramming often makes use of compile-time computations, whether via templates or constexpr
functions, to achieve its goals of generating code, however compile-time computations are not metaprogramming
per se.

Section 16.1: Calculating Factorials

Factorials can be computed at compile-time using template metaprogramming techniques.

#include <iostream>

template<unsigned int n>

struct factorial
{
enum
{
value = n * factorial<n - 1>::value
};
};

template<>
struct factorial<0>
{
enum { value = 1 };
};

int main()
{
std::cout << factorial<7>::value << std::endl; // prints "5040"
}

factorial is a struct, but in template metaprogramming it is treated as a template metafunction. By convention,

template metafunctions are evaluated by checking a particular member, either ::type for metafunctions that result
in types, or ::value for metafunctions that generate values.

In the above code, we evaluate the factorial metafunction by instantiating the template with the parameters we
want to pass, and using ::value to get the result of the evaluation.

The metafunction itself relies on recursively instantiating the same metafunction with smaller values. The
factorial<0> specialization represents the terminating condition. Template metaprogramming has most of the
restrictions of a functional programming language, so recursion is the primary "looping" construct.

Since template metafunctions execute at compile time, their results can be used in contexts that require compile-
time values. For example:

int my_array[factorial<5>::value];

Automatic arrays must have a compile-time defined size. And the result of a metafunction is a compile-time
constant, so it can be used here.

Limitation: Most of the compilers won't allow recursion depth beyond a limit. For example, g++ compiler by default

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limits recursion depeth to 256 levels. In case of g++, programmer can set recursion depth using -ftemplate-depth-
X option.

Version ≥ C++11

Since C++11, the std::integral_constant template can be used for this kind of template computation:

#include <iostream>
#include <type_traits>

template<long long n>

struct factorial :
std::integral_constant<long long, n * factorial<n - 1>::value> {};

template<>
struct factorial<0> :
std::integral_constant<long long, 1> {};

int main()
{
std::cout << factorial<7>::value << std::endl; // prints "5040"
}

Additionally, constexpr functions become a cleaner alternative.

#include <iostream>

constexpr long long factorial(long long n)

{
return (n == 0) ? 1 : n * factorial(n - 1);
}

int main()
{
char test[factorial(3)];
std::cout << factorial(7) << '\n';
}

The body of factorial() is written as a single statement because in C++11 constexpr functions can only use a
quite limited subset of the language.

Version ≥ C++14

Since C++14, many restrictions for constexpr functions have been dropped and they can now be written much
more conveniently:

constexpr long long factorial(long long n)

{
if (n == 0)
return 1;
else
return n * factorial(n - 1);
}

Or even:

constexpr long long factorial(int n)

{
long long result = 1;

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 for (int i = 1; i <= n; ++i) {
result *= i;
}
return result;
}
Version ≥ C++17

Since c++17 one can use fold expression to calculate factorial:

#include <iostream>
#include <utility>

template <class T, T N, class I = std::make_integer_sequence<T, N>>

struct factorial;

template <class T, T N, T... Is>

struct factorial<T,N,std::index_sequence<T, Is...>> {
static constexpr T value = (static_cast<T>(1) * ... * (Is + 1));
};

int main() {
std::cout << factorial<int, 5>::value << std::endl;
}

Section 16.2: Iterating over a parameter pack

Often, we need to perform an operation over every element in a variadic template parameter pack. There are many
ways to do this, and the solutions get easier to read and write with C++17. Suppose we simply want to print every
element in a pack. The simplest solution is to recurse:

Version ≥ C++11
void print_all(std::ostream& os) {
// base case
}

template <class T, class... Ts>

void print_all(std::ostream& os, T const& first, Ts const&... rest) {
os << first;

print_all(os, rest...);
}

We could instead use the expander trick, to perform all the streaming in a single function. This has the advantage of
not needing a second overload, but has the disadvantage of less than stellar readability:

Version ≥ C++11
template <class... Ts>
void print_all(std::ostream& os, Ts const&... args) {
using expander = int[];
(void)expander{0,
(void(os << args), 0)...
};
}

For an explanation of how this works, see T.C's excellent answer.

Version ≥ C++17

With C++17, we get two powerful new tools in our arsenal for solving this problem. The first is a fold-expression:

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template <class... Ts>
void print_all(std::ostream& os, Ts const&... args) {
((os << args), ...);
}

And the second is if constexpr, which allows us to write our original recursive solution in a single function:

template <class T, class... Ts>

void print_all(std::ostream& os, T const& first, Ts const&... rest) {
os << first;

if constexpr (sizeof...(rest) > 0) {

// this line will only be instantiated if there are further
// arguments. if rest... is empty, there will be no call to
// print_all(os).
print_all(os, rest...);
}
}

Section 16.3: Iterating with std::integer_sequence

Since C++14, the standard provides the class template

template <class T, T... Ints>

class integer_sequence;

template <std::size_t... Ints>

using index_sequence = std::integer_sequence<std::size_t, Ints...>;

and a generating metafunction for it:

template <class T, T N>

using make_integer_sequence = std::integer_sequence<T, /* a sequence 0, 1, 2, ..., N-1 */ >;

template<std::size_t N>
using make_index_sequence = make_integer_sequence<std::size_t, N>;

While this comes standard in C++14, this can be implemented using C++11 tools.

We can use this tool to call a function with a std::tuple of arguments (standardized in C++17 as std::apply):

namespace detail {
template <class F, class Tuple, std::size_t... Is>
decltype(auto) apply_impl(F&& f, Tuple&& tpl, std::index_sequence<Is...> ) {
return std::forward<F>(f)(std::get<Is>(std::forward<Tuple>(tpl))...);
}
}

template <class F, class Tuple>

decltype(auto) apply(F&& f, Tuple&& tpl) {
return detail::apply_impl(std::forward<F>(f),
std::forward<Tuple>(tpl),
std::make_index_sequence<std::tuple_size<std::decay_t<Tuple>>::value>{});
}

// this will print 3

int f(int, char, double);

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auto some_args = std::make_tuple(42, 'x', 3.14);
int r = apply(f, some_args); // calls f(42, 'x', 3.14)

Section 16.4: Tag Dispatching

A simple way of selecting between functions at compile time is to dispatch a function to an overloaded pair of
functions that take a tag as one (usually the last) argument. For example, to implement std::advance(), we can
dispatch on the iterator category:

namespace details {
template <class RAIter, class Distance>
void advance(RAIter& it, Distance n, std::random_access_iterator_tag) {
it += n;
}

template <class BidirIter, class Distance>

void advance(BidirIter& it, Distance n, std::bidirectional_iterator_tag) {
if (n > 0) {
while (n--) ++it;
}
else {
while (n++) --it;
}
}

template <class InputIter, class Distance>

void advance(InputIter& it, Distance n, std::input_iterator_tag) {
while (n--) {
++it;
}
}
}

template <class Iter, class Distance>

void advance(Iter& it, Distance n) {
details::advance(it, n,
typename std::iterator_traits<Iter>::iterator_category{} );
}

The std::XY_iterator_tag arguments of the overloaded details::advance functions are unused function
parameters. The actual implementation does not matter (actually it is completely empty). Their only purpose is to
allow the compiler to select an overload based on which tag class details::advance is called with.

In this example, advance uses the iterator_traits<T>::iterator_category metafunction which returns one of
the iterator_tag classes, depending on the actual type of Iter. A default-constructed object of the
iterator_category<Iter>::type then lets the compiler select one of the different overloads of details::advance.
(This function parameter is likely to be completely optimized away, as it is a default-constructed object of an empty
struct and never used.)

Tag dispatching can give you code that's much easier to read than the equivalents using SFINAE and enable_if.

Note: while C++17's if constexpr may simplify the implementation of advance in particular, it is not suitable for open
implementations unlike tag dispatching.

Section 16.5: Detect Whether Expression is Valid

It is possible to detect whether an operator or function can be called on a type. To test if a class has an overload of

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std::hash, one can do this:

#include <functional> // for std::hash

#include <type_traits> // for std::false_type and std::true_type
#include <utility> // for std::declval

template<class, class = void>

struct has_hash
: std::false_type
{};

template<class T>
struct has_hash<T, decltype(std::hash<T>()(std::declval<T>()), void())>
: std::true_type
{};
Version ≥ C++17

Since C++17, std::void_t can be used to simplify this type of construct

#include <functional> // for std::hash

#include <type_traits> // for std::false_type, std::true_type, std::void_t
#include <utility> // for std::declval

template<class, class = std::void_t<> >

struct has_hash
: std::false_type
{};

template<class T>
struct has_hash<T, std::void_t< decltype(std::hash<T>()(std::declval<T>())) > >
: std::true_type
{};

where std::void_t is defined as:

template< class... > using void_t = void;

For detecting if an operator, such as operator< is defined, the syntax is almost the same:

template<class, class = void>

struct has_less_than
: std::false_type
{};

template<class T>
struct has_less_than<T, decltype(std::declval<T>() < std::declval<T>(), void())>
: std::true_type
{};

These can be used to use a std::unordered_map<T> if T has an overload for std::hash, but otherwise attempt to
use a std::map<T>:

template <class K, class V>

using hash_invariant_map = std::conditional_t<
has_hash<K>::value,
std::unordered_map<K, V>,
std::map<K,V>>;

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Section 16.6: If-then-else
Version ≥ C++11

The type std::conditional in the standard library header <type_traits> can select one type or the other, based
on a compile-time boolean value:

template<typename T>
struct ValueOrPointer
{
typename std::conditional<(sizeof(T) > sizeof(void*)), T*, T>::type vop;
};

This struct contains a pointer to T if T is larger than the size of a pointer, or T itself if it is smaller or equal to a
pointer's size. Therefore sizeof(ValueOrPointer) will always be <= sizeof(void*).

Section 16.7: Manual distinction of types when given any type

T
When implementing SFINAE using std::enable_if, it is often useful to have access to helper templates that
determines if a given type T matches a set of criteria.

To help us with that, the standard already provides two types analog to true and false which are std::true_type
and std::false_type.

The following example show how to detect if a type T is a pointer or not, the is_pointer template mimic the
behavior of the standard std::is_pointer helper:

template <typename T>

struct is_pointer_: std::false_type {};

template <typename T>

struct is_pointer_<T*>: std::true_type {};

template <typename T>

struct is_pointer: is_pointer_<typename std::remove_cv<T>::type> { }

There are three steps in the above code (sometimes you only need two):

1. The first declaration of is_pointer_ is the default case, and inherits from std::false_type. The default case
should always inherit from std::false_type since it is analogous to a "false condition".

2. The second declaration specialize the is_pointer_ template for pointer T* without caring about what T is
really. This version inherits from std::true_type.

3. The third declaration (the real one) simply remove any unnecessary information from T (in this case we
remove const and volatile qualifiers) and then fall backs to one of the two previous declarations.

Since is_pointer<T> is a class, to access its value you need to either:

Use ::value, e.g. is_pointer<int>::value – value is a static class member of type bool inherited from
std::true_type or std::false_type;
Construct an object of this type, e.g. is_pointer<int>{} – This works because std::is_pointer inherits its
default constructor from std::true_type or std::false_type (which have constexpr constructors) and both
std::true_type and std::false_type have constexpr conversion operators to bool.

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It is a good habit to provides "helper helper templates" that let you directly access the value:

template <typename T>

constexpr bool is_pointer_v = is_pointer<T>::value;
Version ≥ C++17

In C++17 and above, most helper templates already provide a _v version, e.g.:

template< class T > constexpr bool is_pointer_v = is_pointer<T>::value;

template< class T > constexpr bool is_reference_v = is_reference<T>::value;

Section 16.8: Calculating power with C++11 (and higher)

With C++11 and higher calculations at compile time can be much easier. For example calculating the power of a
given number at compile time will be following:

template <typename T>

constexpr T calculatePower(T value, unsigned power) {
return power == 0 ? 1 : value * calculatePower(value, power-1);
}

Keyword constexpr is responsible for calculating function in compilation time, then and only then, when all the
requirements for this will be met (see more at constexpr keyword reference) for example all the arguments must
be known at compile time.

Note: In C++11 constexpr function must compose only from one return statement.

Advantages: Comparing this to the standard way of compile time calculation, this method is also useful for runtime
calculations. It means, that if the arguments of the function are not known at the compilation time (e.g. value and
power are given as input via user), then function is run in a compilation time, so there's no need to duplicate a code
(as we would be forced in older standards of C++).

E.g.

void useExample() {
constexpr int compileTimeCalculated = calculatePower(3, 3); // computes at compile time,
// as both arguments are known at compilation time
// and used for a constant expression.
int value;
std::cin >> value;
int runtimeCalculated = calculatePower(value, 3); // runtime calculated,
// because value is known only at runtime.
}
Version ≥ C++17

Another way to calculate power at compile time can make use of fold expression as follows:

#include <iostream>
#include <utility>

template <class T, T V, T N, class I = std::make_integer_sequence<T, N>>

struct power;

template <class T, T V, T N, T... Is>

struct power<T, V, N, std::integer_sequence<T, Is...>> {
static constexpr T value = (static_cast<T>(1) * ... * (V * static_cast<bool>(Is + 1)));
};

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int main() {
std::cout << power<int, 4, 2>::value << std::endl;
}

Section 16.9: Generic Min/Max with variable argument count

Version > C++11

It's possible to write a generic function (for example min) which accepts various numerical types and arbitrary
argument count by template meta-programming. This function declares a min for two arguments and recursively
for more.

template <typename T1, typename T2>

auto min(const T1 &a, const T2 &b)
-> typename std::common_type<const T1&, const T2&>::type
{
return a < b ? a : b;
}

template <typename T1, typename T2, typename ... Args>

auto min(const T1 &a, const T2 &b, const Args& ... args)
-> typename std::common_type<const T1&, const T2&, const Args& ...>::type
{
return min(min(a, b), args...);
}

auto minimum = min(4, 5.8f, 3, 1.8, 3, 1.1, 9);

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Chapter 17: const keyword
Section 17.1: Avoiding duplication of code in const and non-
const getter methods
In C++ methods that differs only by const qualifier can be overloaded. Sometimes there may be a need of two
versions of getter that return a reference to some member.

Let Foo be a class, that has two methods that perform identical operations and returns a reference to an object of
type Bar:

class Foo
{
public:
Bar& GetBar(/* some arguments */)
{
/* some calculations */
return bar;
}

const Bar& GetBar(/* some arguments */) const

{
/* some calculations */
return bar;
}

// ...
};

The only difference between them is that one method is non-const and return a non-const reference (that can be
use to modify object) and the second is const and returns const reference.

To avoid the code duplication, there is a temptation to call one method from another. However, we can not call
non-const method from the const one. But we can call const method from non-const one. That will require as to
use 'const_cast' to remove the const qualifier.

The solution is:

struct Foo
{
Bar& GetBar(/*arguments*/)
{
return const_cast<Bar&>(const_cast<const Foo*>(this)->GetBar(/*arguments*/));
}

const Bar& GetBar(/*arguments*/) const

{
/* some calculations */
return foo;
}
};

In code above, we call const version of GetBar from the non-const GetBar by casting this to const type:
const_cast<const Foo*>(this). Since we call const method from non-const, the object itself is non-const, and
casting away the const is allowed.

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Examine the following more complete example:

#include <iostream>

class Student
{
public:
char& GetScore(bool midterm)
{
return const_cast<char&>(const_cast<const Student*>(this)->GetScore(midterm));
}

const char& GetScore(bool midterm) const

{
if (midterm)
{
return midtermScore;
}
else
{
return finalScore;
}
}

private:
char midtermScore;
char finalScore;
};

int main()
{
// non-const object
Student a;
// We can assign to the reference. Non-const version of GetScore is called
a.GetScore(true) = 'B';
a.GetScore(false) = 'A';

// const object
const Student b(a);
// We still can call GetScore method of const object,
// because we have overloaded const version of GetScore
std::cout << b.GetScore(true) << b.GetScore(false) << '\n';
}

Section 17.2: Const member functions

Member functions of a class can be declared const, which tells the compiler and future readers that this function
will not modify the object:

class MyClass
{
private:
int myInt_;
public:
int myInt() const { return myInt_; }
void setMyInt(int myInt) { myInt_ = myInt; }
};

In a const member function, the this pointer is effectively a const MyClass * instead of a MyClass *. This means
that you cannot change any member variables within the function; the compiler will emit a warning. So setMyInt

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could not be declared const.

You should almost always mark member functions as const when possible. Only const member functions can be
called on a const MyClass.

static methods cannot be declared as const. This is because a static method belongs to a class and is not called
on object; therefore it can never modify object's internal variables. So declaring static methods as const would be
redundant.

Section 17.3: Const local variables

Declaration and usage.

// a is const int, so it can't be changed

const int a = 15;
a = 12; // Error: can't assign new value to const variable
a += 1; // Error: can't assign new value to const variable

Binding of references and pointers

int &b = a; // Error: can't bind non-const reference to const variable

const int &c = a; // OK; c is a const reference

int *d = &a; // Error: can't bind pointer-to-non-const to const variable

const int *e = &a // OK; e is a pointer-to-const

int f = 0;
e = &f; // OK; e is a non-const pointer-to-const,
// which means that it can be rebound to new int* or const int*

*e = 1 // Error: e is a pointer-to-const which means that

// the value it points to can't be changed through dereferencing e

int *g = &f;
*g = 1; // OK; this value still can be changed through dereferencing
// a pointer-not-to-const

Section 17.4: Const pointers

int a = 0, b = 2;

const int* pA = &a; // pointer-to-const. `a` can't be changed through this

int* const pB = &a; // const pointer. `a` can be changed, but this pointer can't.
const int* const pC = &a; // const pointer-to-const.

//Error: Cannot assign to a const reference

*pA = b;

pA = &b;

*pB = b;

//Error: Cannot assign to const pointer

pB = &b;

//Error: Cannot assign to a const reference

*pC = b;

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//Error: Cannot assign to const pointer
pC = &b;

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Chapter 18: mutable keyword
Section 18.1: mutable lambdas
By default, the implicit operator() of a lambda is const. This disallows performing non-const operations on the
lambda. In order to allow modifying members, a lambda may be marked mutable, which makes the implicit
operator() non-const:

int a = 0;

auto bad_counter = [a] {

return a++; // error: operator() is const
// cannot modify members
};

auto good_counter = [a]() mutable {

return a++; // OK
}

good_counter(); // 0
good_counter(); // 1
good_counter(); // 2

Section 18.2: non-static class member modifier

mutable modifier in this context is used to indicate that a data field of a const object may be modified without
affecting the externally-visible state of the object.

If you are thinking about caching a result of expensive computation, you should probably use this keyword.

If you have a lock (for example, std::unique_lock) data field which is locked and unlocked inside a const method,
this keyword is also what you could use.

You should not use this keyword to break logical const-ness of an object.

Example with caching:

class pi_calculator {
public:
double get_pi() const {
if (pi_calculated) {
return pi;
} else {
double new_pi = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < 1000000000; ++i) {
// some calculation to refine new_pi
}
// note: if pi and pi_calculated were not mutable, we would get an error from a
compiler
// because in a const method we can not change a non-mutable field
pi = new_pi;
pi_calculated = true;
return pi;
}
}
private:
mutable bool pi_calculated = false;

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 99

 mutable double pi = 0;
};

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 100

Chapter 19: Friend keyword
Well-designed classes encapsulate their functionality, hiding their implementation while providing a clean,
documented interface. This allows redesign or change so long as the interface is unchanged.

In a more complex scenario, multiple classes that rely on each others' implementation details may be required.
Friend classes and functions allow these peers access to each others' details, without compromising the
encapsulation and information hiding of the documented interface.

Section 19.1: Friend function

A class or a structure may declare any function it's friend. If a function is a friend of a class, it may access all it's
protected and private members:

// Forward declaration of functions.

void friend_function();
void non_friend_function();

class PrivateHolder {
public:
PrivateHolder(int val) : private_value(val) {}
private:
int private_value;
// Declare one of the function as a friend.
friend void friend_function();
};

void non_friend_function() {
PrivateHolder ph(10);
// Compilation error: private_value is private.
std::cout << ph.private_value << std::endl;
}

void friend_function() {
// OK: friends may access private values.
PrivateHolder ph(10);
std::cout << ph.private_value << std::endl;
}

Access modifiers do not alter friend semantics. Public, protected and private declarations of a friend are equivalent.

Friend declarations are not inherited. For example, if we subclass PrivateHolder:

class PrivateHolderDerived : public PrivateHolder {

public:
PrivateHolderDerived(int val) : PrivateHolder(val) {}
private:
int derived_private_value = 0;
};

and try to access it's members, we'll get the following:

void friend_function() {
PrivateHolderDerived pd(20);
// OK.
std::cout << pd.private_value << std::endl;
// Compilation error: derived_private_value is private.

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 std::cout << pd.derived_private_value << std::endl;
}

Note that PrivateHolderDerived member function cannot access PrivateHolder::private_value, while friend
function can do it.

Section 19.2: Friend method

Methods may declared as friends as well as functions:

class Accesser {
public:
void private_accesser();
};

class PrivateHolder {
public:
PrivateHolder(int val) : private_value(val) {}
friend void Accesser::private_accesser();
private:
int private_value;
};

void Accesser::private_accesser() {
PrivateHolder ph(10);
// OK: this method is declares as friend.
std::cout << ph.private_value << std::endl;
}

Section 19.3: Friend class

A whole class may be declared as friend. Friend class declaration means that any member of the friend may access
private and protected members of the declaring class:

class Accesser {
public:
void private_accesser1();
void private_accesser2();
};

class PrivateHolder {
public:
PrivateHolder(int val) : private_value(val) {}
friend class Accesser;
private:
int private_value;
};

void Accesser::private_accesser1() {
PrivateHolder ph(10);
// OK.
std::cout << ph.private_value << std::endl;
}

void Accesser::private_accesser2() {
PrivateHolder ph(10);
// OK.
std::cout << ph.private_value + 1 << std::endl;

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 102

}

Friend class declaration is not reflexive. If classes need private access in both directions, both of them need friend
declarations.

class Accesser {
public:
void private_accesser1();
void private_accesser2();
private:
int private_value = 0;
};

class PrivateHolder {
public:
PrivateHolder(int val) : private_value(val) {}
// Accesser is a friend of PrivateHolder
friend class Accesser;
void reverse_accesse() {
// but PrivateHolder cannot access Accesser's members.
Accesser a;
std::cout << a.private_value;
}
private:
int private_value;
};

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Chapter 20: Type Keywords
Section 20.1: class
1. Introduces the definition of a class type.

class foo {
int x;
public:
int get_x();
void set_x(int new_x);
};

2. Introduces an elaborated type specifier, which specifies that the following name is the name of a class type. If
the class name has been declared already, it can be found even if hidden by another name. If the class name
has not been declared already, it is forward-declared.

class foo; // elaborated type specifier -> forward declaration

class bar {
public:
bar(foo& f);
};
void baz();
class baz; // another elaborated type specifer; another forward declaration
// note: the class has the same name as the function void baz()
class foo {
bar b;
friend class baz; // elaborated type specifier refers to the class,
// not the function of the same name
public:
foo();
};

3. Introduces a type parameter in the declaration of a template.

template <class T>

const T& min(const T& x, const T& y) {
return b < a ? b : a;
}

4. In the declaration of a template template parameter, the keyword class precedes the name of the
parameter. Since the argument for a template template parameter can only be a class template, the use of
class here is redundant. However, the grammar of C++ requires it.

template <template <class T> class U>

// ^^^^^ "class" used in this sense here;
// U is a template template parameter
void f() {
U<int>::do_it();
U<double>::do_it();
}

5. Note that sense 2 and sense 3 may be combined in the same declaration. For example:

template <class T>

class foo {

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 };

foo<class bar> x; // <- bar does not have to have previously appeared.

Version ≥ C++11

6. In the declaration or definition of an enum, declares the enum to be a scoped enum.

enum class Format {

TEXT,
PDF,
OTHER,
};
Format f = F::TEXT;

Section 20.2: enum

1. Introduces the definition of an enumeration type.

enum Direction {
UP,
LEFT,
DOWN,
RIGHT
};
Direction d = UP;

Version ≥ C++11

In C++11, enum may optionally be followed by class or struct to define a scoped enum. Furthermore, both scoped
and unscoped enums can have their underlying type explicitly specified by : T following the enum name, where T
refers to an integer type.

enum class Format : char {

TEXT,
PDF,
OTHER
};
Format f = Format::TEXT;

enum Language : int {

ENGLISH,
FRENCH,
OTHER
};

Enumerators in normal enums may also be preceded by the scope operator, although they are still considered to be
in the scope the enum was defined in.

Language l1, l2;

l1 = ENGLISH;
l2 = Language::OTHER;

2. Introduces an elaborated type specifier, which specifies that the following name is the name of a previously
declared enum type. (An elaborated type specifier cannot be used to forward-declare an enum type.) An

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 105

 enum can be named in this way even if hidden by another name.

enum Foo { FOO };

void Foo() {}
Foo foo = FOO; // ill-formed; Foo refers to the function
enum Foo foo = FOO; // ok; Foo refers to the enum type

Version ≥ C++11

3. Introduces an opaque enum declaration, which declares an enum without defining it. It can either redeclare a
previously declared enum, or forward-declare an enum that has not been previously declared.

An enum first declared as scoped cannot later be declared as unscoped, or vice versa. All declarations of an
enum must agree in underlying type.

When forward-declaring an unscoped enum, the underlying type must be explicitly specified, since it cannot
be inferred until the values of the enumerators are known.

enum class Format; // underlying type is implicitly int

void f(Format f);
enum class Format {
TEXT,
PDF,
OTHER,
};

enum Direction; // ill-formed; must specify underlying type

Section 20.3: struct

Interchangeable with class, except for the following differences:

If a class type is defined using the keyword struct, then the default accessibility of bases and members is
public rather than private.
struct cannot be used to declare a template type parameter or template template parameter; only class
can.

Section 20.4: union

1. Introduces the definition of a union type.

// Example is from POSIX

union sigval {
int sival_int;
void *sival_ptr;
};

2. Introduces an elaborated type specifier, which specifies that the following name is the name of a union type. If
the union name has been declared already, it can be found even if hidden by another name. If the union
name has not been declared already, it is forward-declared.

union foo; // elaborated type specifier -> forward declaration

class bar {

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 public:
bar(foo& f);
};
void baz();
union baz; // another elaborated type specifer; another forward declaration
// note: the class has the same name as the function void baz()
union foo {
long l;
union baz* b; // elaborated type specifier refers to the class,
// not the function of the same name
};

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 107

Chapter 21: Basic Type Keywords
Section 21.1: char
An integer type which is "large enough to store any member of the implementation’s basic character set". It is
implementation-defined whether char is signed (and has a range of at least -127 to +127, inclusive) or unsigned
(and has a range of at least 0 to 255, inclusive).

const char zero = '0';

const char one = zero + 1;
const char newline = '\n';
std::cout << one << newline; // prints 1 followed by a newline

Section 21.2: char16_t

Version ≥ C++11

An unsigned integer type with the same size and alignment as uint_least16_t, which is therefore large enough to
hold a UTF-16 code unit.

const char16_t message[] = u"你好，世界\\n"; // Chinese for "hello, world\\n"

std::cout << sizeof(message)/sizeof(char16_t) << "\\n"; // prints 7

Section 21.3: char32_t

Version ≥ C++11

An unsigned integer type with the same size and alignment as uint_least32_t, which is therefore large enough to
hold a UTF-32 code unit.

const char32_t full_house[] = U" "; // non-BMP characters

std::cout << sizeof(full_house)/sizeof(char32_t) << "\\n"; // prints 6

Section 21.4: int

Denotes a signed integer type with "the natural size suggested by the architecture of the execution environment",
whose range includes at least -32767 to +32767, inclusive.

int x = 2;
int y = 3;
int z = x + y;

Can be combined with unsigned, short, long, and long long (q.v.) in order to yield other integer types.

Section 21.5: void

An incomplete type; it is not possible for an object to have type void, nor are there arrays of void or references to
void. It is used as the return type of functions that do not return anything.

Moreover, a function may redundantly be declared with a single parameter of type void; this is equivalent to
declaring a function with no parameters (e.g. int main() and int main(void) declare the same function). This
syntax is allowed for compatibility with C (where function declarations have a different meaning than in C++).

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 108

The type void* ("pointer to void") has the property that any object pointer can be converted to it and back and
result in the same pointer. This feature makes the type void* suitable for certain kinds of (type-unsafe) type-erasing
interfaces, for example for generic contexts in C-style APIs (e.g. qsort, pthread_create).

Any expression may be converted to an expression of type void; this is called a discarded-value expression:

static_cast<void>(std::printf("Hello, %s!\n", name)); // discard return value

This may be useful to signal explicitly that the value of an expression is not of interest and that the expression is to
be evaluated for its side effects only.

Section 21.6: wchar_t

An integer type large enough to represent all characters of the largest supported extended character set, also
known as the wide-character set. (It is not portable to make the assumption that wchar_t uses any particular
encoding, such as UTF-16.)

It is normally used when you need to store characters over ASCII 255 , as it has a greater size than the character
type char.

const wchar_t message_ahmaric[] = L" \\n"; //Ahmaric for "hello, world\\n"

const wchar_t message_chinese[] = L"你好，世界\\n";// Chinese for "hello, world\\n"
const wchar_t message_hebrew[] = L"‫\\שלום עולם‬n"; //Hebrew for "hello, world\\n"
const wchar_t message_russian[] = L"Привет мир\\n"; //Russian for "hello, world\\n"
const wchar_t message_tamil[] = L"ஹலே◌◌ா உலகம◌்\\n"; //Tamil for "hello, world\\n"

Section 21.7: float

A floating point type. Has the narrowest range out of the three floating point types in C++.

float area(float radius) {

const float pi = 3.14159f;
return pi*radius*radius;
}

Section 21.8: double

A floating point type. Its range includes that of float. When combined with long, denotes the long double floating
point type, whose range includes that of double.

double area(double radius) {

const double pi = 3.141592653589793;
return pi*radius*radius;
}

Section 21.9: long

Denotes a signed integer type that is at least as long as int, and whose range includes at least -2147483647 to
+2147483647, inclusive (that is, -(2^31 - 1) to +(2^31 - 1)). This type can also be written as long int.

const long approx_seconds_per_year = 60L*60L*24L*365L;

The combination long double denotes a floating point type, which has the widest range out of the three floating

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point types.

long double area(long double radius) {

const long double pi = 3.1415926535897932385L;
return pi*radius*radius;
}
Version ≥ C++11

When the long specifier occurs twice, as in long long, it denotes a signed integer type that is at least as long as
long, and whose range includes at least -9223372036854775807 to +9223372036854775807, inclusive (that is, -
(2^63 - 1) to +(2^63 - 1)).

// support files up to 2 TiB

const long long max_file_size = 2LL << 40;

Section 21.10: short

Denotes a signed integer type that is at least as long as char, and whose range includes at least -32767 to +32767,
inclusive. This type can also be written as short int.

// (during the last year)

short hours_worked(short days_worked) {
return 8*days_worked;
}

Section 21.11: bool

An integer type whose value can be either true or false.

bool is_even(int x) {
return x%2 == 0;
}
const bool b = is_even(47); // false

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Chapter 22: Variable Declaration
Keywords
Section 22.1: decltype
Version ≥ C++11

Yields the type of its operand, which is not evaluated.

If the operand e is a name without any additional parentheses, then decltype(e) is the declared type of e.

int x = 42;
std::vector<decltype(x)> v(100, x); // v is a vector<int>

If the operand e is a class member access without any additional parentheses, then decltype(e) is the
declared type of the member accessed.

struct S {
int x = 42;
};
const S s;
decltype(s.x) y; // y has type int, even though s.x is const

In all other cases, decltype(e) yields both the type and the value category of the expression e, as follows:

If e is an lvalue of type T, then decltype(e) is T&.

If e is an xvalue of type T, then decltype(e) is T&&.
If e is a prvalue of type T, then decltype(e) is T.

This includes the case with extraneous parentheses.

int f() { return 42; }

int& g() { static int x = 42; return x; }
int x = 42;
decltype(f()) a = f(); // a has type int
decltype(g()) b = g(); // b has type int&
decltype((x)) c = x; // c has type int&, since x is an lvalue

Version ≥ C++14

The special form decltype(auto) deduces the type of a variable from its initializer or the return type of a function
from the return statements in its definition, using the type deduction rules of decltype rather than those of auto.

const int x = 123;

auto y = x; // y has type int
decltype(auto) z = x; // z has type const int, the declared type of x

Section 22.2: const

A type specifier; when applied to a type, produces the const-qualified version of the type. See const keyword for
details on the meaning of const.

const int x = 123;

x = 456; // error

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int& r = x; // error

struct S {
void f();
void g() const;
};
const S s;
s.f(); // error
s.g(); // OK

Section 22.3: volatile

A type qualifier; when applied to a type, produces the volatile-qualified version of the type. Volatile qualification
plays the same role as const qualification in the type system, but volatile does not prevent objects from being
modified; instead, it forces the compiler to treat all accesses to such objects as side effects.

In the example below, if memory_mapped_port were not volatile, the compiler could optimize the function so that it
performs only the final write, which would be incorrect if sizeof(int) is greater than 1. The volatile qualification
forces it to treat all sizeof(int) writes as different side effects and hence perform all of them (in order).

extern volatile char memory_mapped_port;

void write_to_device(int x) {
const char* p = reinterpret_cast<const char*>(&x);
for (int i = 0; i < sizeof(int); i++) {
memory_mapped_port = p[i];
}
}

Section 22.4: signed

A keyword that is part of certain integer type names.

When used alone, int is implied, so that signed, signed int, and int are the same type.
When combined with char, yields the type signed char, which is a different type from char, even if char is
also signed. signed char has a range that includes at least -127 to +127, inclusive.
When combined with short, long, or long long, it is redundant, since those types are already signed.
signed cannot be combined with bool, wchar_t, char16_t, or char32_t.

Example:

signed char celsius_temperature;

std::cin >> celsius_temperature;
if (celsius_temperature < -35) {
std::cout << "cold day, eh?\n";
}

Section 22.5: unsigned

A type specifier that requests the unsigned version of an integer type.

When used alone, int is implied, so unsigned is the same type as unsigned int.
The type unsigned char is different from the type char, even if char is unsigned. It can hold integers up to at
least 255.
unsigned can also be combined with short, long, or long long. It cannot be combined with bool, wchar_t,
char16_t, or char32_t.

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 112

Example:

char invert_case_table[256] = { ..., 'a', 'b', 'c', ..., 'A', 'B', 'C', ... };
char invert_case(char c) {
unsigned char index = c;
return invert_case_table[index];
// note: returning invert_case_table[c] directly does the
// wrong thing on implementations where char is a signed type
}

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 113

Chapter 23: Keywords
Keywords have fixed meaning defined by the C++ standard and cannot be used as identifiers. It is illegal to redefine
keywords using the preprocessor in any translation unit that includes a standard library header. However,
keywords lose their special meaning inside attributes.

Section 23.1: asm

The asm keyword takes a single operand, which must be a string literal. It has an implementation-defined meaning,
but is typically passed to the implementation's assembler, with the assembler's output being incorporated into the
translation unit.

The asm statement is a definition, not an expression, so it may appear either at block scope or namespace scope
(including global scope). However, since inline assembly cannot be constrained by the rules of the C++ language,
asm may not appear inside a constexpr function.

Example:

[[noreturn]] void halt_system() {

asm("hlt");
}

Section 23.2: Dierent keywords

void C++

1. When used as a function return type, the void keyword specifies that the function does not return a value.
When used for a function's parameter list, void specifies that the function takes no parameters. When used
in the declaration of a pointer, void specifies that the pointer is "universal."

2. If a pointer's type is void *, the pointer can point to any variable that is not declared with the const or volatile
keyword. A void pointer cannot be dereferenced unless it is cast to another type. A void pointer can be
converted into any other type of data pointer.

3. A void pointer can point to a function, but not to a class member in C++.

void vobject; // C2182

void *pv; // okay
int *pint; int i;
int main() {
pv = &i;
// Cast optional in C required in C++
pint = (int *)pv;

Volatile C++

1. A type qualifier that you can use to declare that an object can be modified in the program by the hardware.

volatile declarator ;

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 virtual C++

1. The virtual keyword declares a virtual function or a virtual base class.

virtual [type-specifiers] member-function-declarator

virtual [access-specifier] base-class-name

Parameters

1. type-specifiers Specifies the return type of the virtual member function.

2. member-function-declarator Declares a member function.

3. access-specifier Defines the level of access to the base class, public, protected or private. Can appear before
or after the virtual keyword.

4. base-class-name Identifies a previously declared class type

this pointer

1. The this pointer is a pointer accessible only within the nonstatic member functions of a class, struct, or union
type. It points to the object for which the member function is called. Static member functions do not have a
this pointer.

this->member-identifier

An object's this pointer is not part of the object itself; it is not reflected in the result of a sizeof statement on the
object. Instead, when a nonstatic member function is called for an object, the address of the object is passed by the
compiler as a hidden argument to the function. For example, the following function call:

myDate.setMonth( 3 );

can be interpreted this way:

setMonth( &myDate, 3 );

The object's address is available from within the member function as the this pointer. Most uses of this are implicit.
It is legal, though unnecessary, to explicitly use this when referring to members of the class. For example:

void Date::setMonth( int mn )

{
month = mn; // These three statements
this->month = mn; // are equivalent
(*this).month = mn;
}

The expression *this is commonly used to return the current object from a member function: return *this; The this
pointer is also used to guard against self-reference:

if (&Object != this) {
// do not execute in cases of self-reference

try, throw, and catch Statements (C++)

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 1. To implement exception handling in C++, you use try, throw, and catch expressions.
2. First, use a try block to enclose one or more statements that might throw an exception.
3. A throw expression signals that an exceptional condition—often, an error—has occurred in a try block. You
can use an object of any type as the operand of a throw expression. Typically, this object is used to
communicate information about the error. In most cases, we recommend that you use the std::exception
class or one of the derived classes that are defined in the standard library. If one of those is not appropriate,
we recommend that you derive your own exception class from std::exception.
4. To handle exceptions that may be thrown, implement one or more catch blocks immediately following a try
block. Each catch block specifies the type of exception it can handle.

MyData md;
try {
// Code that could throw an exception
md = GetNetworkResource();
}
catch (const networkIOException& e) {
// Code that executes when an exception of type
// networkIOException is thrown in the try block
// ...
// Log error message in the exception object
cerr << e.what();
}
catch (const myDataFormatException& e) {
// Code that handles another exception type
// ...
cerr << e.what();
}

// The following syntax shows a throw expression

MyData GetNetworkResource()
{
// ...
if (IOSuccess == false)
throw networkIOException("Unable to connect");
// ...
if (readError)
throw myDataFormatException("Format error");
// ...
}

The code after the try clause is the guarded section of code. The throw expression throws—that is,
raises—an exception. The code block after the catch clause is the exception handler. This is the handler
that catches the exception that's thrown if the types in the throw and catch expressions are compatible.

try {
throw CSomeOtherException();
}
catch(...) {
// Catch all exceptions – dangerous!!!
// Respond (perhaps only partially) to the exception, then
// re-throw to pass the exception to some other handler
// ...
throw;
}

friend (C++)

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 1. In some circumstances, it is more convenient to grant member-level access to functions that are not
members of a class or to all members in a separate class. Only the class implementer can declare who its
friends are. A function or class cannot declare itself as a friend of any class. In a class definition, use the
friend keyword and the name of a non-member function or other class to grant it access to the private and
protected members of your class. In a template definition, a type parameter can be declared as a friend.

2. If you declare a friend function that was not previously declared, that function is exported to the enclosing
nonclass scope.

class friend F
friend F;
class ForwardDeclared;// Class name is known.
class HasFriends
{
friend int ForwardDeclared::IsAFriend();// C2039 error expected
};

friend functions

1. A friend function is a function that is not a member of a class but has access to the class's private and
protected members.Friend functions are not considered class members; they are normal external functions
that are given special access privileges.

2. Friends are not in the class's scope, and they are not called using the member-selection operators (. and –>)
unless they are members of another class.

3. A friend function is declared by the class that is granting access. The friend declaration can be placed
anywhere in the class declaration. It is not affected by the access control keywords.

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class Point
{
friend void ChangePrivate( Point & );
public:
Point( void ) : m_i(0) {}
void PrintPrivate( void ){cout << m_i << endl; }

private:
int m_i;
};

void ChangePrivate ( Point &i ) { i.m_i++; }

int main()
{
Point sPoint;
sPoint.PrintPrivate();
ChangePrivate(sPoint);
sPoint.PrintPrivate();
// Output: 0
1
}

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Class members as friends

class B;

class A {
public:
int Func1( B& b );

private:
int Func2( B& b );
};

class B {
private:
int _b;

// A::Func1 is a friend function to class B

// so A::Func1 has access to all members of B
friend int A::Func1( B& );
};

int A::Func1( B& b ) { return b._b; } // OK

int A::Func2( B& b ) { return b._b; } // C2248

Section 23.3: typename

1. When followed by a qualified name, typename specifies that it is the name of a type. This is often required in
templates, in particular, when the nested name specifier is a dependent type other than the current
instantiation. In this example, std::decay<T> depends on the template parameter T, so in order to name the
nested type type, we need to prefix the entire qualified name with typename. For more deatils, see Where
and why do I have to put the "template" and "typename" keywords?

template <class T>

auto decay_copy(T&& r) -> typename std::decay<T>::type;

2. Introduces a type parameter in the declaration of a template. In this context, it is interchangeable with class.

template <typename T>

const T& min(const T& x, const T& y) {
return b < a ? b : a;
}

Version ≥ C++17

3. typename can also be used when declaring a template template parameter, preceding the name of the
parameter, just like class.

template <template <class T> typename U>

void f() {
U<int>::do_it();
U<double>::do_it();
}

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Section 23.4: explicit
1. When applied to a single-argument constructor, prevents that constructor from being used to perform
implicit conversions.

class MyVector {
public:
explicit MyVector(uint64_t size);
};
MyVector v1(100); // ok
uint64_t len1 = 100;
MyVector v2{len1}; // ok, len1 is uint64_t
int len2 = 100;
MyVector v3{len2}; // ill-formed, implicit conversion from int to uint64_t

Since C++11 introduced initializer lists, in C++11 and later, explicit can be applied to a constructor with any
number of arguments, with the same meaning as in the single-argument case.

struct S {
explicit S(int x, int y);
};
S f() {
return {12, 34}; // ill-formed
return S{12, 34}; // ok
}

Version ≥ C++11

2. When applied to a conversion function, prevents that conversion function from being used to perform
implicit conversions.

class C {
const int x;
public:
C(int x) : x(x) {}
explicit operator int() { return x; }
};
C c(42);
int x = c; // ill-formed
int y = static_cast<int>(c); // ok; explicit conversion

Section 23.5: sizeof

A unary operator that yields the size in bytes of its operand, which may be either an expression or a type. If the
operand is an expression, it is not evaluated. The size is a constant expression of type std::size_t.

If the operand is a type, it must be parenthesized.

It is illegal to apply sizeof to a function type.

It is illegal to apply sizeof to an incomplete type, including void.
If sizeof is applied to a reference type T& or T&&, it is equivalent to sizeof(T).
When sizeof is applied to a class type, it yields the number of bytes in a complete object of that type,
including any padding bytes in the middle or at the end. Therefore, a sizeof expression can never have a
value of 0. See layout of object types for more details.

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 The char, signed char, and unsigned char types have a size of 1. Conversely, a byte is defined to be the
amount of memory required to store a char object. It does not necessarily mean 8 bits, as some systems
have char objects longer than 8 bits.

If expr is an expression, sizeof(expr) is equivalent to sizeof(T) where T is the type of expr.

int a[100];
std::cout << "The number of bytes in `a` is: " << sizeof a;
memset(a, 0, sizeof a); // zeroes out the array
Version ≥ C++11

The sizeof... operator yields the number of elements in a parameter pack.

template <class... T>

void f(T&&...) {
std::cout << "f was called with " << sizeof...(T) << " arguments\n";
}

Section 23.6: noexcept

Version ≥ C++11

1. A unary operator that determines whether the evaluation of its operand can propagate an exception. Note
that the bodies of called functions are not examined, so noexcept can yield false negatives. The operand is
not evaluated.

#include <iostream>
#include <stdexcept>
void foo() { throw std::runtime_error("oops"); }
void bar() {}
struct S {};
int main() {
std::cout << noexcept(foo()) << '\n'; // prints 0
std::cout << noexcept(bar()) << '\n'; // prints 0
std::cout << noexcept(1 + 1) << '\n'; // prints 1
std::cout << noexcept(S()) << '\n'; // prints 1
}

In this example, even though bar() can never throw an exception, noexcept(bar()) is still false because the
fact that bar() cannot propagate an exception has not been explicitly specified.

2. When declaring a function, specifies whether or not the function can propagate an exception. Alone, it
declares that the function cannot propagate an exception. With a parenthesized argument, it declares that
the function can or cannot propagate an exception depending on the truth value of the argument.

void f1() { throw std::runtime_error("oops"); }

void f2() noexcept(false) { throw std::runtime_error("oops"); }
void f3() {}
void f4() noexcept {}
void f5() noexcept(true) {}
void f6() noexcept {
try {
f1();
} catch (const std::runtime_error&) {}
}

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 In this example, we have declared that f4, f5, and f6 cannot propagate exceptions. (Although an exception
can be thrown during execution of f6, it is caught and not allowed to propagate out of the function.) We have
declared that f2 may propagate an exception. When the noexcept specifier is omitted, it is equivalent to
noexcept(false), so we have implicitly declared that f1 and f3 may propagate exceptions, even though
exceptions cannot actually be thrown during the execution of f3.

Version ≥ C++17

Whether or not a function is noexcept is part of the function's type: that is, in the example above, f1, f2, and f3
have different types from f4, f5, and f6. Therefore, noexcept is also significant in function pointers, template
arguments, and so on.

void g1() {}
void g2() noexcept {}
void (*p1)() noexcept = &g1; // ill-formed, since g1 is not noexcept
void (*p2)() noexcept = &g2; // ok; types match
void (*p3)() = &g1; // ok; types match
void (*p4)() = &g2; // ok; implicit conversion

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Chapter 24: Returning several values from
a function
There are many situations where it is useful to return several values from a function: for example, if you want to
input an item and return the price and number in stock, this functionality could be useful. There are many ways to
do this in C++, and most involve the STL. However, if you wish to avoid the STL for some reason, there are still
several ways to do this, including structs/classes and arrays.

Section 24.1: Using std::tuple

Version ≥ C++11

The type std::tuple can bundle any number of values, potentially including values of different types, into a single
return object:

std::tuple<int, int, int, int> foo(int a, int b) { // or auto (C++14)

return std::make_tuple(a + b, a - b, a * b, a / b);
}

In C++17, a braced initializer list can be used:

Version ≥ C++17
std::tuple<int, int, int, int> foo(int a, int b) {
return {a + b, a - b, a * b, a / b};
}

Retrieving values from the returned tuple can be cumbersome, requiring the use of the std::get template
function:

auto mrvs = foo(5, 12);

auto add = std::get<0>(mrvs);
auto sub = std::get<1>(mrvs);
auto mul = std::get<2>(mrvs);
auto div = std::get<3>(mrvs);

If the types can be declared before the function returns, then std::tie can be employed to unpack a tuple into
existing variables:

int add, sub, mul, div;

std::tie(add, sub, mul, div) = foo(5, 12);

If one of the returned values is not needed, std::ignore can be used:

std::tie(add, sub, std::ignore, div) = foo(5, 12);

Version ≥ C++17

Structured bindings can be used to avoid std::tie:

auto [add, sub, mul, div] = foo(5,12);

If you want to return a tuple of lvalue references instead of a tuple of values, use std::tie in place of
std::make_tuple.

std::tuple<int&, int&> minmax( int& a, int& b ) {

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 if (b<a)
return std::tie(b,a);
else
return std::tie(a,b);
}

which permits

void increase_least(int& a, int& b) {

std::get<0>(minmax(a,b))++;
}

In some rare cases you'll use std::forward_as_tuple instead of std::tie; be careful if you do so, as temporaries
may not last long enough to be consumed.

Section 24.2: Structured Bindings

Version ≥ C++17

C++17 introduces structured bindings, which makes it even easier to deal with multiple return types, as you do not
need to rely upon std::tie() or do any manual tuple unpacking:

std::map<std::string, int> m;

// insert an element into the map and check if insertion succeeded

auto [iterator, success] = m.insert({"Hello", 42});

if (success) {
// your code goes here
}

// iterate over all elements without having to use the cryptic 'first' and 'second' names
for (auto const& [key, value] : m) {
std::cout << "The value for " << key << " is " << value << '\n';
}

Structured bindings can be used by default with std::pair, std::tuple, and any type whose non-static data
members are all either public direct members or members of an unambiguous base class:

struct A { int x; };
struct B : A { int y; };
B foo();

// with structured bindings

const auto [x, y] = foo();

// equivalent code without structured bindings

const auto result = foo();
auto& x = result.x;
auto& y = result.y;

If you make your type "tuple-like" it will also automatically work with your type. A tuple-like is a type with
appropriate tuple_size, tuple_element and get written:

namespace my_ns {
struct my_type {
int x;

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 double d;
std::string s;
};
struct my_type_view {
my_type* ptr;
};
}

namespace std {
template<>
struct tuple_size<my_ns::my_type_view> : std::integral_constant<std::size_t, 3>
{};

template<> struct tuple_element<my_ns::my_type_view, 0>{ using type = int; };

template<> struct tuple_element<my_ns::my_type_view, 1>{ using type = double; };
template<> struct tuple_element<my_ns::my_type_view, 2>{ using type = std::string; };
}

namespace my_ns {
template<std::size_t I>
decltype(auto) get(my_type_view const& v) {
if constexpr (I == 0)
return v.ptr->x;
else if constexpr (I == 1)
return v.ptr->d;
else if constexpr (I == 2)
return v.ptr->s;
static_assert(I < 3, "Only 3 elements");
}
}

now this works:

my_ns::my_type t{1, 3.14, "hello world"};

my_ns::my_type_view foo() {
return {&t};
}

int main() {
auto[x, d, s] = foo();
std::cout << x << ',' << d << ',' << s << '\n';
}

Section 24.3: Using struct

A struct can be used to bundle multiple return values:

Version ≥ C++11
struct foo_return_type {
int add;
int sub;
int mul;
int div;
};

foo_return_type foo(int a, int b) {

return {a + b, a - b, a * b, a / b};
}

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auto calc = foo(5, 12);
Version < C++11

Instead of assignment to individual fields, a constructor can be used to simplify the constructing of returned values:

struct foo_return_type {
int add;
int sub;
int mul;
int div;
foo_return_type(int add, int sub, int mul, int div)
: add(add), sub(sub), mul(mul), div(div) {}
};

foo_return_type foo(int a, int b) {

return foo_return_type(a + b, a - b, a * b, a / b);
}

foo_return_type calc = foo(5, 12);

The individual results returned by the function foo() can be retrieved by accessing the member variables of the
struct calc:

std::cout << calc.add << ' ' << calc.sub << ' ' << calc.mul << ' ' << calc.div << '\n';

Output:

17 -7 60 0

Note: When using a struct, the returned values are grouped together in a single object and accessible using
meaningful names. This also helps to reduce the number of extraneous variables created in the scope of the
returned values.

Version ≥ C++17

In order to unpack a struct returned from a function, structured bindings can be used. This places the out-
parameters on an even footing with the in-parameters:

int a=5, b=12;

auto[add, sub, mul, div] = foo(a, b);
std::cout << add << ' ' << sub << ' ' << mul << ' ' << div << '\n';

The output of this code is identical to that above. The struct is still used to return the values from the function.
This permits you do deal with the fields individually.

Section 24.4: Using Output Parameters

Parameters can be used for returning one or more values; those parameters are required to be non-const pointers
or references.

References:

void calculate(int a, int b, int& c, int& d, int& e, int& f) {

c = a + b;
d = a - b;

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 e = a * b;
f = a / b;
}

Pointers:

void calculate(int a, int b, int* c, int* d, int* e, int* f) {

*c = a + b;
*d = a - b;
*e = a * b;
*f = a / b;
}

Some libraries or frameworks use an empty 'OUT' #define to make it abundantly obvious which parameters are
output parameters in the function signature. This has no functional impact, and will be compiled out, but makes the
function signature a bit clearer;

#define OUT

void calculate(int a, int b, OUT int& c) {

c = a + b;
}

Section 24.5: Using a Function Object Consumer

We can provide a consumer that will be called with the multiple relevant values:

Version ≥ C++11
template <class F>
void foo(int a, int b, F consumer) {
consumer(a + b, a - b, a * b, a / b);
}

// use is simple... ignoring some results is possible as well

foo(5, 12, [](int sum, int , int , int ){
std::cout << "sum is " << sum << '\n';
});

This is known as "continuation passing style".

You can adapt a function returning a tuple into a continuation passing style function via:

Version ≥ C++17
template<class Tuple>
struct continuation {
Tuple t;
template<class F>
decltype(auto) operator->*(F&& f)&&{
return std::apply( std::forward<F>(f), std::move(t) );
}
};
std::tuple<int,int,int,int> foo(int a, int b);

continuation(foo(5,12))->*[](int sum, auto&&...) {

std::cout << "sum is " << sum << '\n';
};

with more complex versions being writable in C++14 or C++11.

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Section 24.6: Using std::pair
The struct template std::pair can bundle together exactly two return values, of any two types:

#include <utility>
std::pair<int, int> foo(int a, int b) {
return std::make_pair(a+b, a-b);
}

With C++11 or later, an initializer list can be used instead of std::make_pair:

Version ≥ C++11
#include <utility>
std::pair<int, int> foo(int a, int b) {
return {a+b, a-b};
}

The individual values of the returned std::pair can be retrieved by using the pair's first and second member
objects:

std::pair<int, int> mrvs = foo(5, 12);

std::cout << mrvs.first + mrvs.second << std::endl;

Output:

10

Section 24.7: Using std::array

Version ≥ C++11

The container std::array can bundle together a fixed number of return values. This number has to be known at
compile-time and all return values have to be of the same type:

std::array<int, 4> bar(int a, int b) {

return { a + b, a - b, a * b, a / b };
}

This replaces c style arrays of the form int bar[4]. The advantage being that various c++ std functions can now be
used on it. It also provides useful member functions like at which is a safe member access function with bound
checking, and size which allows you to return the size of the array without calculation.

Section 24.8: Using Output Iterator

Several values of the same type can be returned by passing an output iterator to the function. This is particularly
common for generic functions (like the algorithms of the standard library).

Example:

template<typename Incrementable, typename OutputIterator>

void generate_sequence(Incrementable from, Incrementable to, OutputIterator output) {
for (Incrementable k = from; k != to; ++k)
*output++ = k;

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}

Example usage:

std::vector<int> digits;
generate_sequence(0, 10, std::back_inserter(digits));
// digits now contains {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

Section 24.9: Using std::vector

A std::vector can be useful for returning a dynamic number of variables of the same type. The following example
uses int as data type, but a std::vector can hold any type that is trivially copyable:

#include <vector>
#include <iostream>

// the following function returns all integers between and including 'a' and 'b' in a vector
// (the function can return up to std::vector::max_size elements with the vector, given that
// the system's main memory can hold that many items)
std::vector<int> fillVectorFrom(int a, int b) {
std::vector<int> temp;
for (int i = a; i <= b; i++) {
temp.push_back(i);
}
return temp;
}

int main() {
// assigns the filled vector created inside the function to the new vector 'v'
std::vector<int> v = fillVectorFrom(1, 10);

// prints "1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 "

for (int i = 0; i < v.size(); i++) {
std::cout << v[i] << " ";
}
std::cout << std::endl;
return 0;
}

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Chapter 25: Polymorphism
Section 25.1: Define polymorphic classes
The typical example is an abstract shape class, that can then be derived into squares, circles, and other concrete
shapes.

The parent class:

Let's start with the polymorphic class:

class Shape {
public:
virtual ~Shape() = default;
virtual double get_surface() const = 0;
virtual void describe_object() const { std::cout << "this is a shape" << std::endl; }

double get_doubled_surface() const { return 2 * get_surface(); }

};

How to read this definition ?

You can define polymorphic behavior by introduced member functions with the keyword virtual. Here
get_surface() and describe_object() will obviously be implemented differently for a square than for a
circle. When the function is invoked on an object, function corresponding to the real class of the object will be
determined at runtime.

It makes no sense to define get_surface() for an abstract shape. This is why the function is followed by = 0.
This means that the function is pure virtual function.

A polymorphic class should always define a virtual destructor.

You may define non virtual member functions. When these function will be invoked for an object, the
function will be chosen depending on the class used at compile-time. Here get_double_surface() is defined
in this way.

A class that contains at least one pure virtual function is an abstract class. Abstract classes cannot be
instantiated. You may only have pointers or references of an abstract class type.

Derived classes

Once a polymorphic base class is defined you can derive it. For example:

class Square : public Shape {

Point top_left;
double side_length;
public:
Square (const Point& top_left, double side)
: top_left(top_left), side_length(side_length) {}

double get_surface() override { return side_length * side_length; }

void describe_object() override {
std::cout << "this is a square starting at " << top_left.x << ", " << top_left.y
<< " with a length of " << side_length << std::endl;
}
};

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Some explanations:

You can define or override any of the virtual functions of the parent class. The fact that a function was virtual
in the parent class makes it virtual in the derived class. No need to tell the compiler the keyword virtual
again. But it's recommended to add the keyword override at the end of the function declaration, in order to
prevent subtle bugs caused by unnoticed variations in the function signature.
If all the pure virtual functions of the parent class are defined you can instantiate objects for this class, else it
will also become an abstract class.
You are not obliged to override all the virtual functions. You can keep the version of the parent if it suits your
need.

Example of instantiation

int main() {

Square square(Point(10.0, 0.0), 6); // we know it's a square, the compiler also
square.describe_object();
std::cout << "Surface: " << square.get_surface() << std::endl;

Circle circle(Point(0.0, 0.0), 5);

Shape *ps = nullptr; // we don't know yet the real type of the object
ps = &circle; // it's a circle, but it could as well be a square
ps->describe_object();
std::cout << "Surface: " << ps->get_surface() << std::endl;
}

Section 25.2: Safe downcasting

Suppose that you have a pointer to an object of a polymorphic class:

Shape *ps; // see example on defining a polymorphic class

ps = get_a_new_random_shape(); // if you don't have such a function yet, you
// could just write ps = new Square(0.0,0.0, 5);

a downcast would be to cast from a general polymorphic Shape down to one of its derived and more specific shape
like Square or Circle.

Why to downcast ?

Most of the time, you would not need to know which is the real type of the object, as the virtual functions allow you
to manipulate your object independently of its type:

std::cout << "Surface: " << ps->get_surface() << std::endl;

If you don't need any downcast, your design would be perfect.

However, you may need sometimes to downcast. A typical example is when you want to invoke a non virtual
function that exist only for the child class.

Consider for example circles. Only circles have a diameter. So the class would be defined as :

class Circle: public Shape { // for Shape, see example on defining a polymorphic class
Point center;
double radius;
public:

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 Circle (const Point& center, double radius)
: center(center), radius(radius) {}

double get_surface() const override { return r * r * M_PI; }

// this is only for circles. Makes no sense for other shapes

double get_diameter() const { return 2 * r; }
};

The get_diameter() member function only exist for circles. It was not defined for a Shape object:

Shape* ps = get_any_shape();
ps->get_diameter(); // OUCH !!! Compilation error

How to downcast ?

If you'd know for sure that ps points to a circle you could opt for a static_cast:

std::cout << "Diameter: " << static_cast<Circle*>(ps)->get_diameter() << std::endl;

This will do the trick. But it's very risky: if ps appears to by anything else than a Circle the behavior of your code
will be undefined.

So rather than playing Russian roulette, you should safely use a dynamic_cast. This is specifically for polymorphic
classes :

int main() {
Circle circle(Point(0.0, 0.0), 10);
Shape &shape = circle;

std::cout << "The shape has a surface of " << shape.get_surface() << std::endl;

//shape.get_diameter(); // OUCH !!! Compilation error

Circle *pc = dynamic_cast<Circle*>(&shape); // will be nullptr if ps wasn't a circle

if (pc)
std::cout << "The shape is a circle of diameter " << pc->get_diameter() << std::endl;
else
std::cout << "The shape isn't a circle !" << std::endl;
}

Note that dynamic_cast is not possible on a class that is not polymorphic. You'd need at least one virtual function in
the class or its parents to be able to use it.

Section 25.3: Polymorphism & Destructors

If a class is intended to be used polymorphically, with derived instances being stored as base pointers/references,
its base class' destructor should be either virtual or protected. In the former case, this will cause object
destruction to check the vtable, automatically calling the correct destructor based on the dynamic type. In the
latter case, destroying the object through a base class pointer/reference is disabled, and the object can only be
deleted when explicitly treated as its actual type.

struct VirtualDestructor {
virtual ~VirtualDestructor() = default;
};

struct VirtualDerived : VirtualDestructor {};

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struct ProtectedDestructor {
protected:
~ProtectedDestructor() = default;
};

struct ProtectedDerived : ProtectedDestructor {

~ProtectedDerived() = default;
};

// ...

VirtualDestructor* vd = new VirtualDerived;

delete vd; // Looks up VirtualDestructor::~VirtualDestructor() in vtable, sees it's
// VirtualDerived::~VirtualDerived(), calls that.

ProtectedDestructor* pd = new ProtectedDerived;

delete pd; // Error: ProtectedDestructor::~ProtectedDestructor() is protected.
delete static_cast<ProtectedDerived*>(pd); // Good.

Both of these practices guarantee that the derived class' destructor will always be called on derived class instances,
preventing memory leaks.

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Chapter 26: References
Section 26.1: Defining a reference
References behaves similarly, but not entirely like const pointers. A reference is defined by suffixing an ampersand
& to a type name.

int i = 10;
int &refi = i;

Here, refi is a reference bound to i.

References abstracts the semantics of pointers, acting like an alias to the underlying object:

refi = 20; // i = 20;

You can also define multiple references in a single definition:

int i = 10, j = 20;

int &refi = i, &refj = j;

// Common pitfall :
// int& refi = i, k = j;
// refi will be of type int&.
// though, k will be of type int, not int&!

References must be initialized correctly at the time of definition, and cannot be modified afterwards. The following
piece of codes causes a compile error:

int &i; // error: declaration of reference variable 'i' requires an initializer

You also cannot bind directly a reference to nullptr, unlike pointers:

int *const ptri = nullptr;

int &refi = nullptr; // error: non-const lvalue reference to type 'int' cannot bind to a temporary
of type 'nullptr_t'

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Chapter 27: Value and Reference
Semantics
Section 27.1: Definitions
A type has value semantics if the object's observable state is functionally distinct from all other objects of that type.
This means that if you copy an object, you have a new object, and modifications of the new object will not be in any
way visible from the old object.

Most basic C++ types have value semantics:

int i = 5;
int j = i; //Copied
j += 20;
std::cout << i; //Prints 5; i is unaffected by changes to j.

Most standard-library defined types have value semantics too:

std::vector<int> v1(5, 12); //array of 5 values, 12 in each.

std::vector<int> v2 = v1; //Copies the vector.
v2[3] = 6; v2[4] = 9;
std::cout << v1[3] << " " << v1[4]; //Writes "12 12", since v1 is unchanged.

A type is said to have reference semantics if an instance of that type can share its observable state with another
object (external to it), such that manipulating one object will cause the state to change within another object.

C++ pointers have value semantics with regard to which object they point to, but they have reference semantics
with regard to the state of the object they point to:

int *pi = new int(4);

int *pi2 = pi;
pi = new int(16);
assert(pi2 != pi); //Will always pass.

int *pj = pi;

*pj += 5;
std::cout << *pi; //Writes 9, since `pi` and `pj` reference the same object.

C++ references have reference semantics as well.

Section 27.2: Deep copying and move support

If a type wishes to have value semantics, and it needs to store objects that are dynamically allocated, then on copy
operations, the type will need to allocate new copies of those objects. It must also do this for copy assignment.

This kind of copying is called a "deep copy". It effectively takes what would have otherwise been reference
semantics and turns it into value semantics:

struct Inner {int i;};

const int NUM_INNER = 5;

class Value
{
private:
Inner *array_; //Normally has reference semantics.

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 134

public:
Value() : array_(new Inner[NUM_INNER]){}

~Value() {delete[] array_;}

Value(const Value &val) : array_(new Inner[NUM_INNER])

{
for(int i = 0; i < NUM_INNER; ++i)
array_[i] = val.array_[i];
}

Value &operator=(const Value &val)

{
for(int i = 0; i < NUM_INNER; ++i)
array_[i] = val.array_[i];
return *this;
}
};
Version ≥ C++11

Move semantics allow a type like Value to avoid truly copying its referenced data. If the user uses the value in a way
that provokes a move, the "copied" from object can be left empty of the data it referenced:

struct Inner {int i;};

constexpr auto NUM_INNER = 5;

class Value
{
private:
Inner *array_; //Normally has reference semantics.

public:
Value() : array_(new Inner[NUM_INNER]){}

//OK to delete even if nullptr

~Value() {delete[] array_;}

Value(const Value &val) : array_(new Inner[NUM_INNER])

{
for(int i = 0; i < NUM_INNER; ++i)
array_[i] = val.array_[i];
}

Value &operator=(const Value &val)

{
for(int i = 0; i < NUM_INNER; ++i)
array_[i] = val.array_[i];
return *this;
}

//Movement means no memory allocation.

//Cannot throw exceptions.
Value(Value &&val) noexcept : array_(val.array_)
{
//We've stolen the old value.
val.array_ = nullptr;
}

//Cannot throw exceptions.

Value &operator=(Value &&val) noexcept
{

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 135

 //Clever trick. Since `val` is going to be destroyed soon anyway,
//we swap his data with ours. His destructor will destroy our data.
std::swap(array_, val.array_);
}
};

Indeed, we can even make such a type non-copyable, if we want to forbid deep copies while still allowing the object
to be moved around.

struct Inner {int i;};

constexpr auto NUM_INNER = 5;

class Value
{
private:
Inner *array_; //Normally has reference semantics.

public:
Value() : array_(new Inner[NUM_INNER]){}

//OK to delete even if nullptr

~Value() {delete[] array_;}

Value(const Value &val) = delete;

Value &operator=(const Value &val) = delete;

//Movement means no memory allocation.

//Cannot throw exceptions.
Value(Value &&val) noexcept : array_(val.array_)
{
//We've stolen the old value.
val.array_ = nullptr;
}

//Cannot throw exceptions.

Value &operator=(Value &&val) noexcept
{
//Clever trick. Since `val` is going to be destroyed soon anyway,
//we swap his data with ours. His destructor will destroy our data.
std::swap(array_, val.array_);
}
};

We can even apply the Rule of Zero, through the use of unique_ptr:

struct Inner {int i;};

constexpr auto NUM_INNER = 5;

class Value
{
private:
unique_ptr<Inner []>array_; //Move-only type.

public:
Value() : array_(new Inner[NUM_INNER]){}

//No need to explicitly delete. Or even declare.

~Value() = default; {delete[] array_;}

//No need to explicitly delete. Or even declare.

Value(const Value &val) = default;

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 Value &operator=(const Value &val) = default;

//Will perform an element-wise move.

Value(Value &&val) noexcept = default;

//Will perform an element-wise move.

Value &operator=(Value &&val) noexcept = default;
};

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 137

Chapter 28: C++ function "call by value" vs.
"call by reference"
The scope of this section is to explain the differences in theory and implementation for what happens with the
parameters of a function upon calling.

In detail the parameters can be seen as variables before the function call and inside the function, where the visible
behaviour and accessibility to these variables differs with the method used to hand them over.

Additionally, the reusability of variables and their respective values after the function call also is explained by this
topic.

Section 28.1: Call by value

Upon calling a function there are new elements created on the program stack. These include some information
about the function and also space (memory locations) for the parameters and the return value.

When handing over a parameter to a function the value of the used variable (or literal) is copied into the memory
location of the function parameter. This implies that now there a two memory locations with the same value. Inside
of the function we only work on the parameter memory location.

After leaving the function the memory on the program stack is popped (removed) which erases all data of the
function call, including the memory location of the parameters we used inside. Thus, the values changed inside the
function do not affect the outside variables values.

int func(int f, int b) {

//new variables are created and values from the outside copied
//f has a value of 0
//inner_b has a value of 1
f = 1;
//f has a value of 1
b = 2;
//inner_b has a value of 2
return f+b;
}

int main(void) {
int a = 0;
int b = 1; //outer_b
int c;

c = func(a,b);
//the return value is copied to c

//a has a value of 0

//outer_b has a value of 1 <--- outer_b and inner_b are different variables
//c has a value of 3
}

In this code we create variables inside the main function. These get assigned values. Upon calling the functions
there are two new variables created: f and inner_b where b shares the name with the outer variable it does not
share the memory location. The behaviour of a<->f and b<->b is identical.

The following graphic symbolizes what is happening on the stack and why there is no change in varibale b. The
graphic is not fully accurate but emphazises the example.

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 138

It is called "call by value" because we do not hand over the variables but only the values of these variables.

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 139

Chapter 29: Copying vs Assignment
Right Hand Side of the equality for both copy and assignment constructors. For example the
rhs
assignment constructor : MyClass operator=( MyClass& rhs );
Placeholder Placeholder

Section 29.1: Assignment Operator

The Assignment Operator is when you replace the data with an already existing(previously initialized) object with
some other object's data. Lets take this as an example:

// Assignment Operator
#include <iostream>
#include <string>

using std::cout;
using std::endl;

class Foo
{
public:
Foo(int data)
{
this->data = data;
}
~Foo(){};
Foo& operator=(const Foo& rhs)
{
data = rhs.data;
return *this;
}

int data;
};

int main()
{
Foo foo(2); //Foo(int data) called
Foo foo2(42);
foo = foo2; // Assignment Operator Called
cout << foo.data << endl; //Prints 42
}

You can see here I call the assignment operator when I already initialized the foo object. Then later I assign foo2 to
foo . All the changes to appear when you call that equal sign operator is defined in your operator= function. You
can see a runnable output here: http://cpp.sh/3qtbm

Section 29.2: Copy Constructor

Copy constructor on the other hand , is the complete opposite of the Assignment Constructor. This time, it is used
to initialize an already nonexistent(or non-previously initialized) object. This means it copies all the data from the
object you are assigning it to , without actually initializing the object that is being copied onto. Now Let's take a look
at the same code as before but modify the assignment constructor to be a copy constructor :

// Copy Constructor
#include <iostream>
#include <string>

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 using std::cout;
using std::endl;

class Foo
{
public:
Foo(int data)
{
this->data = data;
}
~Foo(){};
Foo(const Foo& rhs)
{
data = rhs.data;
}

int data;
};

int main()
{
Foo foo(2); //Foo(int data) called
Foo foo2 = foo; // Copy Constructor called
cout << foo2.data << endl;
}

You can see here Foo foo2 = foo; in the main function I immediately assign the object before actually initializing it,
which as said before means it's a copy constructor. And notice that I didn't need to pass the parameter int for the
foo2 object since I automatically pulled the previous data from the object foo. Here is an example output :
http://cpp.sh/5iu7

Section 29.3: Copy Constructor Vs Assignment Constructor

Ok we have briefly looked over what the copy constructor and assignment constructor are above and gave
examples of each now let's see both of them in the same code. This code will be similar as above two. Let's take this
:

// Copy vs Assignment Constructor

#include <iostream>
#include <string>

using std::cout;
using std::endl;

class Foo
{
public:
Foo(int data)
{
this->data = data;
}
~Foo(){};
Foo(const Foo& rhs)
{
data = rhs.data;
}

Foo& operator=(const Foo& rhs)

{
data = rhs.data;

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 141

 return *this;
}

int data;
};

int main()
{
Foo foo(2); //Foo(int data) / Normal Constructor called
Foo foo2 = foo; //Copy Constructor Called
cout << foo2.data << endl;

Foo foo3(42);
foo3=foo; //Assignment Constructor Called
cout << foo3.data << endl;
}

Output:

2
2

Here you can see we first call the copy constructor by executing the line Foo foo2 = foo; . Since we didn't initialize
it previously. And then next we call the assignment operator on foo3 since it was already initialized foo3=foo;

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 142

Chapter 30: Pointers
A pointer is an address that refers to a location in memory. They're commonly used to allow functions or data
structures to know of and modify memory without having to copy the memory referred to. Pointers are usable with
both primitive (built-in) or user-defined types.

Pointers make use of the "dereference" * , "address of" & , and "arrow" -> operators. The '*' and '->' operators are
used to access the memory being pointed at, and the & operator is used to get an address in memory.

Section 30.1: Pointer Operations

There are two operators for pointers: Address-of operator (&): Returns the memory address of its operand.
Contents-of (Dereference) operator(*): Returns the value of the variable located at the address specified by its
operator.

int var = 20;

int *ptr;
ptr = &var;

cout << var << endl;

//Outputs 20 (The value of var)

cout << ptr << endl;

//Outputs 0x234f119 (var's memory location)

cout << *ptr << endl;

//Outputs 20(The value of the variable stored in the pointer ptr

The asterisk (*) is used in declaring a pointer for simple purpose of indicating that it is a pointer. Don't confuse this
with the dereference operator, which is used to obtain the value located at the specified address. They are simply
two different things represented with the same sign.

Section 30.2: Pointer basics

Version < C++11

Note: in all the following, the existence of the C++11 constant nullptr is assumed. For earlier versions, replace
nullptr with NULL, the constant that used to play a similar role.

Creating a pointer variable

A pointer variable can be created using the specific * syntax, e.g. int *pointer_to_int;.
When a variable is of a pointer type (int *), it just contains a memory address. The memory address is the location
at which data of the underlying type (int) is stored.

The difference is clear when comparing the size of a variable with the size of a pointer to the same type:

// Declare a struct type `big_struct` that contains

// three long long ints.
typedef struct {
long long int foo1;
long long int foo2;
long long int foo3;
} big_struct;

// Create a variable `bar` of type `big_struct`

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big_struct bar;
// Create a variable `p_bar` of type `pointer to big_struct`.
// Initialize it to `nullptr` (a null pointer).
big_struct *p_bar0 = nullptr;

// Print the size of `bar`

std::cout << "sizeof(bar) = " << sizeof(bar) << std::endl;
// Print the size of `p_bar`.
std::cout << "sizeof(p_bar0) = " << sizeof(p_bar0) << std::endl;

/* Produces:
sizeof(bar) = 24
sizeof(p_bar0) = 8
*/

Taking the address of another variable

Pointers can be assigned between each other just as normal variables; in this case, it is the memory address that is
copied from one pointer to another, not the actual data that a pointer points to.
Moreover, they can take the value nullptr which represents a null memory location. A pointer equal to nullptr
contains an invalid memory location and hence it does not refer to valid data.

You can get the memory address of a variable of a given type by prefixing the variable with the address of operator
&. The value returned by & is a pointer to the underlying type which contains the memory address of the variable
(which is valid data as long as the variable does not go out of scope).

// Copy `p_bar0` into `p_bar_1`.

big_struct *p_bar1 = p_bar0;

// Take the address of `bar` into `p_bar_2`

big_struct *p_bar2 = &bar;

// p_bar1 is now nullptr, p_bar2 is &bar.

p_bar0 = p_bar2;

// p_bar0 is now &bar.

p_bar2 = nullptr;

// p_bar0 == &bar
// p_bar1 == nullptr
// p_bar2 == nullptr

In contrast with references:

assigning two pointers does not overwrite the memory that the assigned pointer refers to;
pointers can be null.
the address of operator is required explicitly.

Accessing the content of a pointer

As taking an address requires &, as well accessing the content requires the usage of the dereference operator *, as a
prefix. When a pointer is dereferenced, it becomes a variable of the underlying type (actually, a reference to it). It
can then be read and modified, if not const.

(*p_bar0).foo1 = 5;

// `p_bar0` points to `bar`. This prints 5.

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 144

std::cout << "bar.foo1 = " << bar.foo1 << std::endl;

// Assign the value pointed to by `p_bar0` to `baz`.

big_struct baz;
baz = *p_bar0;

// Now `baz` contains a copy of the data pointed to by `p_bar0`.

// Indeed, it contains a copy of `bar`.

// Prints 5 as well
std::cout << "baz.foo1 = " << baz.foo1 << std::endl;

The combination of * and the operator . is abbreviated by ->:

std::cout << "bar.foo1 = " << (*p_bar0).foo1 << std::endl; // Prints 5

std::cout << "bar.foo1 = " << p_bar0->foo1 << std::endl; // Prints 5

Dereferencing invalid pointers

When dereferencing a pointer, you should make sure it points to valid data. Dereferencing an invalid pointer (or a
null pointer) can lead to memory access violation, or to read or write garbage data.

big_struct *never_do_this() {
// This is a local variable. Outside `never_do_this` it doesn't exist.
big_struct retval;
retval.foo1 = 11;
// This returns the address of `retval`.
return &retval;
// `retval` is destroyed and any code using the value returned
// by `never_do_this` has a pointer to a memory location that
// contains garbage data (or is inaccessible).
}

In such scenario, g++ and clang++ correctly issue the warnings:

(Clang) warning: address of stack memory associated with local variable 'retval' returned [-
Wreturn-stack-address]
(Gcc) warning: address of local variable ‘retval’ returned [-Wreturn-local-addr]

Hence, care must be taken when pointers are arguments of functions, as they could be null:

void naive_code(big_struct *ptr_big_struct) {

// ... some code which doesn't check if `ptr_big_struct` is valid.
ptr_big_struct->foo1 = 12;
}

// Segmentation fault.
naive_code(nullptr);

Section 30.3: Pointer Arithmetic

Increment / Decrement

A pointer can be incremented or decremented (prefix and postfix). Incrementing a pointer advances the pointer
value to the element in the array one element past the currently pointed to element. Decrementing a pointer
moves it to the previous element in the array.

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Pointer arithmetic is not permitted if the type that the pointer points to is not complete. void is always an
incomplete type.

char* str = new char[10]; // str = 0x010

++str; // str = 0x011 in this case sizeof(char) = 1 byte

int* arr = new int[10]; // arr = 0x00100

++arr; // arr = 0x00104 if sizeof(int) = 4 bytes

void* ptr = (void*)new char[10];

++ptr; // void is incomplete.

If a pointer to the end element is incremented, then the pointer points to one element past the end of the array.
Such a pointer cannot be dereferenced, but it can be decremented.

Incrementing a pointer to the one-past-the-end element in the array, or decrementing a pointer to the first element
in an array yields undefined behavior.

A pointer to a non-array object can be treated, for the purposes of pointer arithmetic, as though it were an array of
size 1.

Addition / Subtraction

Integer values can be added to pointers; they act as incrementing, but by a specific number rather than by 1.
Integer values can be subtracted from pointers as well, acting as pointer decrementing. As with
incrementing/decrementing, the pointer must point to a complete type.

char* str = new char[10]; // str = 0x010

str += 2; // str = 0x010 + 2 * sizeof(char) = 0x012

int* arr = new int[10]; // arr = 0x100

arr += 2; // arr = 0x100 + 2 * sizeof(int) = 0x108, assuming sizeof(int) == 4.

Pointer Differencing

The difference between two pointers to the same type can be computed. The two pointers must be within the same
array object; otherwise undefined behavior results.

Given two pointers P and Q in the same array, if P is the ith element in the array, and Q is the jth element, then P -
Q shall be i - j. The type of the result is std::ptrdiff_t, from <cstddef>.

char* start = new char[10]; // str = 0x010

char* test = &start[5];
std::ptrdiff_t diff = test - start; //Equal to 5.
std::ptrdiff_t diff = start - test; //Equal to -5; ptrdiff_t is signed.

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 146

Chapter 31: Pointers to members
Section 31.1: Pointers to static member functions
A static member function is just like an ordinary C/C++ function, except with scope:

It is inside a class, so it needs its name decorated with the class name;
It has accessibility, with public, protected or private.

So, if you have access to the static member function and decorate it correctly, then you can point to the function
like any normal function outside a class:

typedef int Fn(int); // Fn is a type-of function that accepts an int and returns an int

// Note that MyFn() is of type 'Fn'

int MyFn(int i) { return 2*i; }

class Class {
public:
// Note that Static() is of type 'Fn'
static int Static(int i) { return 3*i; }
}; // Class

int main() {
Fn *fn; // fn is a pointer to a type-of Fn

fn = &MyFn; // Point to one function

fn(3); // Call it
fn = &Class::Static; // Point to the other function
fn(4); // Call it
} // main()

Section 31.2: Pointers to member functions

To access a member function of a class, you need to have a "handle" to the particular instance, as either the
instance itself, or a pointer or reference to it. Given a class instance, you can point to various of its members with a
pointer-to-member, IF you get the syntax correct! Of course, the pointer has to be declared to be of the same type
as what you are pointing to...

typedef int Fn(int); // Fn is a type-of function that accepts an int and returns an int

class Class {
public:
// Note that A() is of type 'Fn'
int A(int a) { return 2*a; }
// Note that B() is of type 'Fn'
int B(int b) { return 3*b; }
}; // Class

int main() {
Class c; // Need a Class instance to play with
Class *p = &c; // Need a Class pointer to play with

Fn Class::*fn; // fn is a pointer to a type-of Fn within Class

fn = &Class::A; // fn now points to A within any Class

(c.*fn)(5); // Pass 5 to c's function A (via fn)

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 147

 fn = &Class::B; // fn now points to B within any Class
(p->*fn)(6); // Pass 6 to c's (via p) function B (via fn)
} // main()

Unlike pointers to member variables (in the previous example), the association between the class instance and the
member pointer need to be bound tightly together with parentheses, which looks a little strange (as though the .*
and ->* aren't strange enough!)

Section 31.3: Pointers to member variables

To access a member of a class, you need to have a "handle" to the particular instance, as either the instance itself,
or a pointer or reference to it. Given a class instance, you can point to various of its members with a pointer-to-
member, IF you get the syntax correct! Of course, the pointer has to be declared to be of the same type as what you
are pointing to...

class Class {
public:
int x, y, z;
char m, n, o;
}; // Class

int x; // Global variable

int main() {
Class c; // Need a Class instance to play with
Class *p = &c; // Need a Class pointer to play with

int *p_i; // Pointer to an int

p_i = &x; // Now pointing to x

p_i = &c.x; // Now pointing to c's x

int Class::*p_C_i; // Pointer to an int within Class

p_C_i = &Class::x; // Point to x within any Class

int i = c.*p_C_i; // Use p_c_i to fetch x from c's instance
p_C_i = &Class::y; // Point to y within any Class
i = c.*p_C_i; // Use p_c_i to fetch y from c's instance

p_C_i = &Class::m; // ERROR! m is a char, not an int!

char Class::*p_C_c = &Class::m; // That's better...

} // main()

The syntax of pointer-to-member requires some extra syntactic elements:

To define the type of the pointer, you need to mention the base type, as well as the fact that it is inside a
class: int Class::*ptr;.
If you have a class or reference and want to use it with a pointer-to-member, you need to use the .* operator
(akin to the . operator).
If you have a pointer to a class and want to use it with a pointer-to-member, you need to use the ->*
operator (akin to the -> operator).

Section 31.4: Pointers to static member variables

A static member variable is just like an ordinary C/C++ variable, except with scope:

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 148

 It is inside a class, so it needs its name decorated with the class name;
It has accessibility, with public, protected or private.

So, if you have access to the static member variable and decorate it correctly, then you can point to the variable
like any normal variable outside a class:

class Class {
public:
static int i;
}; // Class

int Class::i = 1; // Define the value of i (and where it's stored!)

int j = 2; // Just another global variable

int main() {
int k = 3; // Local variable

int *p;

p = &k; // Point to k
*p = 2; // Modify it
p = &j; // Point to j
*p = 3; // Modify it
p = &Class::i; // Point to Class::i
*p = 4; // Modify it
} // main()

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 149

Chapter 32: The This Pointer
Section 32.1: this Pointer
All non-static member functions have a hidden parameter, a pointer to an instance of the class, named this; this
parameter is silently inserted at the beginning of the parameter list, and handled entirely by the compiler. When a
member of the class is accessed inside a member function, it is silently accessed through this; this allows the
compiler to use a single non-static member function for all instances, and allows a member function to call other
member functions polymorphically.

struct ThisPointer {
int i;

ThisPointer(int ii);

virtual void func();

int get_i() const;

void set_i(int ii);
};
ThisPointer::ThisPointer(int ii) : i(ii) {}
// Compiler rewrites as:
ThisPointer::ThisPointer(int ii) : this->i(ii) {}
// Constructor is responsible for turning allocated memory into 'this'.
// As the constructor is responsible for creating the object, 'this' will not be "fully"
// valid until the instance is fully constructed.

/* virtual */ void ThisPointer::func() {

if (some_external_condition) {
set_i(182);
} else {
i = 218;
}
}
// Compiler rewrites as:
/* virtual */ void ThisPointer::func(ThisPointer* this) {
if (some_external_condition) {
this->set_i(182);
} else {
this->i = 218;
}
}

int ThisPointer::get_i() const { return i; }

// Compiler rewrites as:
int ThisPointer::get_i(const ThisPointer* this) { return this->i; }

void ThisPointer::set_i(int ii) { i = ii; }

// Compiler rewrites as:
void ThisPointer::set_i(ThisPointer* this, int ii) { this->i = ii; }

In a constructor, this can safely be used to (implicitly or explicitly) access any field that has already been initialised,
or any field in a parent class; conversely, (implicitly or explicitly) accessing any fields that haven't yet been initialised,
or any fields in a derived class, is unsafe (due to the derived class not yet being constructed, and thus its fields
neither being initialised nor existing). It is also unsafe to call virtual member functions through this in the
constructor, as any derived class functions will not be considered (due to the derived class not yet being
constructed, and thus its constructor not yet updating the vtable).

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Also note that while in a constructor, the type of the object is the type which that constructor constructs. This holds
true even if the object is declared as a derived type. For example, in the below example, ctd_good and ctd_bad are
type CtorThisBase inside CtorThisBase(), and type CtorThis inside CtorThis(), even though their canonical type
is CtorThisDerived. As the more-derived classes are constructed around the base class, the instance gradually
goes through the class hierarchy until it is a fully-constructed instance of its intended type.

class CtorThisBase {
short s;

public:
CtorThisBase() : s(516) {}
};

class CtorThis : public CtorThisBase {

int i, j, k;

public:
// Good constructor.
CtorThis() : i(s + 42), j(this->i), k(j) {}

// Bad constructor.
CtorThis(int ii) : i(ii), j(this->k), k(b ? 51 : -51) {
virt_func();
}

virtual void virt_func() { i += 2; }

};

class CtorThisDerived : public CtorThis {

bool b;

public:
CtorThisDerived() : b(true) {}
CtorThisDerived(int ii) : CtorThis(ii), b(false) {}

void virt_func() override { k += (2 * i); }

};

// ...

CtorThisDerived ctd_good;
CtorThisDerived ctd_bad(3);

With these classes and member functions:

In the good constructor, for ctd_good:

CtorThisBase is fully constructed by the time the CtorThis constructor is entered. Therefore, s is in a
valid state while initialising i, and can thus be accessed.
i is initialised before j(this->i) is reached. Therefore, i is in a valid state while initialising j, and can
thus be accessed.
j is initialised before k(j) is reached. Therefore, j is in a valid state while initialising k, and can thus be
accessed.
In the bad constructor, for ctd_bad:
k is initialised after j(this->k) is reached. Therefore, k is in an invalid state while initialising j, and
accessing it causes undefined behaviour.
CtorThisDerived is not constructed until after CtorThis is constructed. Therefore, b is in an invalid
state while initialising k, and accessing it causes undefined behaviour.
The object ctd_bad is still a CtorThis until it leaves CtorThis(), and will not be updated to use

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 CtorThisDerived's vtable until CtorThisDerived(). Therefore, virt_func() will call
CtorThis::virt_func(), regardless of whether it is intended to call that or
CtorThisDerived::virt_func().

Section 32.2: Using the this Pointer to Access Member Data

In this context, using the this pointer isn't entirely necessary, but it will make your code clearer to the reader, by
indicating that a given function or variable is a member of the class. An example in this situation:

// Example for this pointer

#include <iostream>
#include <string>

using std::cout;
using std::endl;

class Class
{
public:
Class();
~Class();
int getPrivateNumber () const;
private:
int private_number = 42;
};

Class::Class(){}
Class::~Class(){}

int Class::getPrivateNumber() const

{
return this->private_number;
}

int main()
{
Class class_example;
cout << class_example.getPrivateNumber() << endl;
}

See it in action here.

Section 32.3: Using the this Pointer to Dierentiate Between

Member Data and Parameters
This is an actual useful strategy to differentiate member data from parameters... Lets take this example :

// Dog Class Example

#include <iostream>
#include <string>

using std::cout;
using std::endl;

/*
* @class Dog
* @member name
* Dog's name
* @function bark

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* Dog Barks!
* @function getName
* To Get Private
* Name Variable
*/
class Dog
{
public:
Dog(std::string name);
~Dog();
void bark() const;
std::string getName() const;
private:
std::string name;
};

Dog::Dog(std::string name)
{
/*
* this->name is the
* name variable from
* the class dog . and
* name is from the
* parameter of the function
*/
this->name = name;
}

Dog::~Dog(){}

void Dog::bark() const

{
cout << "BARK" << endl;
}

std::string Dog::getName() const

{
return this->name;
}

int main()
{
Dog dog("Max");
cout << dog.getName() << endl;
dog.bark();
}

You can see here in the constructor we execute the following:

this->name = name;

Here , you can see we are assinging the parameter name to the name of the private variable from the class
Dog(this->name) .

To see the output of above code : http://cpp.sh/75r7

Section 32.4: this Pointer CV-Qualifiers

this can also be cv-qualified, the same as any other pointer. However, due to the this parameter not being listed

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in the parameter list, special syntax is required for this; the cv-qualifiers are listed after the parameter list, but
before the function's body.

struct ThisCVQ {
void no_qualifier() {} // "this" is: ThisCVQ*
void c_qualifier() const {} // "this" is: const ThisCVQ*
void v_qualifier() volatile {} // "this" is: volatile ThisCVQ*
void cv_qualifier() const volatile {} // "this" is: const volatile ThisCVQ*
};

As this is a parameter, a function can be overloaded based on its this cv-qualifier(s).

struct CVOverload {
int func() { return 3; }
int func() const { return 33; }
int func() volatile { return 333; }
int func() const volatile { return 3333; }
};

When this is const (including const volatile), the function is unable to write to member variables through it,
whether implicitly or explicitly. The sole exception to this is mutable member variables, which can be written
regardless of const-ness. Due to this, const is used to indicate that the member function doesn't change the
object's logical state (the way the object appears to the outside world), even if it does modify the physical state (the
way the object looks under the hood).

Logical state is the way the object appears to outside observers. It isn't directly tied to physical state, and
indeed, might not even be stored as physical state. As long as outside observers can't see any changes,
the logical state is constant, even if you flip every single bit in the object.

Physical state, also known as bitwise state, is how the object is stored in memory. This is the object's nitty-
gritty, the raw 1s and 0s that make up its data. An object is only physically constant if its representation in
memory never changes.

Note that C++ bases constness on logical state, not physical state.

class DoSomethingComplexAndOrExpensive {
mutable ResultType cached_result;
mutable bool state_changed;

ResultType calculate_result();
void modify_somehow(const Param& p);

// ...

public:
DoSomethingComplexAndOrExpensive(Param p) : state_changed(true) {
modify_somehow(p);
}

void change_state(Param p) {
modify_somehow(p);
state_changed = true;
}

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 // Return some complex and/or expensive-to-calculate result.
// As this has no reason to modify logical state, it is marked as "const".
ResultType get_result() const;
};
ResultType DoSomethingComplexAndOrExpensive::get_result() const {
// cached_result and state_changed can be modified, even with a const "this" pointer.
// Even though the function doesn't modify logical state, it does modify physical state
// by caching the result, so it doesn't need to be recalculated every time the function
// is called. This is indicated by cached_result and state_changed being mutable.

if (state_changed) {
cached_result = calculate_result();
state_changed = false;
}

return cached_result;
}

Note that while you technically could use const_cast on this to make it non-cv-qualified, you really, REALLY
shouldn't, and should use mutable instead. A const_cast is liable to invoke undefined behaviour when used on an
object that actually is const, while mutable is designed to be safe to use. It is, however, possible that you may run
into this in extremely old code.

An exception to this rule is defining non-cv-qualified accessors in terms of const accessors; as the object is
guaranteed to not be const if the non-cv-qualified version is called, there's no risk of UB.

class CVAccessor {
int arr[5];

public:
const int& get_arr_element(size_t i) const { return arr[i]; }

int& get_arr_element(size_t i) {
return const_cast<int&>(const_cast<const CVAccessor*>(this)->get_arr_element(i));
}
};

This prevents unnecessary duplication of code.

As with regular pointers, if this is volatile (including const volatile), it is loaded from memory each time it is
accessed, instead of being cached. This has the same effects on optimisation as declaring any other pointer
volatile would, so care should be taken.

Note that if an instance is cv-qualified, the only member functions it is allowed to access are member functions
whose this pointer is at least as cv-qualified as the instance itself:

Non-cv instances can access any member functions.

const instances can access const and const volatile functions.
volatile instances can access volatile and const volatile functions.
const volatile instances can access const volatile functions.

This is one of the key tenets of const correctness.

struct CVAccess {
void func() {}
void func_c() const {}
void func_v() volatile {}
void func_cv() const volatile {}

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};

CVAccess cva;
cva.func(); // Good.
cva.func_c(); // Good.
cva.func_v(); // Good.
cva.func_cv(); // Good.

const CVAccess c_cva;

c_cva.func(); // Error.
c_cva.func_c(); // Good.
c_cva.func_v(); // Error.
c_cva.func_cv(); // Good.

volatile CVAccess v_cva;

v_cva.func(); // Error.
v_cva.func_c(); // Error.
v_cva.func_v(); // Good.
v_cva.func_cv(); // Good.

const volatile CVAccess cv_cva;

cv_cva.func(); // Error.
cv_cva.func_c(); // Error.
cv_cva.func_v(); // Error.
cv_cva.func_cv(); // Good.

Section 32.5: this Pointer Ref-Qualifiers

Version ≥ C++11

Similarly to this cv-qualifiers, we can also apply ref-qualifiers to *this. Ref-qualifiers are used to choose between
normal and rvalue reference semantics, allowing the compiler to use either copy or move semantics depending on
which are more appropriate, and are applied to *this instead of this.

Note that despite ref-qualifiers using reference syntax, this itself is still a pointer. Also note that ref-qualifiers don't
actually change the type of *this; it's just easier to describe and understand their effects by looking at them as if
they did.

struct RefQualifiers {
std::string s;

RefQualifiers(const std::string& ss = "The nameless one.") : s(ss) {}

// Normal version.
void func() & { std::cout << "Accessed on normal instance " << s << std::endl; }
// Rvalue version.
void func() && { std::cout << "Accessed on temporary instance " << s << std::endl; }

const std::string& still_a_pointer() & { return this->s; }

const std::string& still_a_pointer() && { this->s = "Bob"; return this->s; }
};

// ...

RefQualifiers rf("Fred");
rf.func(); // Output: Accessed on normal instance Fred
RefQualifiers{}.func(); // Output: Accessed on temporary instance The nameless one

A member function cannot have overloads both with and without ref-qualifiers; the programmer has to choose

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between one or the other. Thankfully, cv-qualifiers can be used in conjunction with ref-qualifiers, allowing const
correctness rules to be followed.

struct RefCV {
void func() & {}
void func() && {}
void func() const& {}
void func() const&& {}
void func() volatile& {}
void func() volatile&& {}
void func() const volatile& {}
void func() const volatile&& {}
};

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Chapter 33: Smart Pointers
Section 33.1: Unique ownership (std::unique_ptr)
Version ≥ C++11

A std::unique_ptr is a class template that manages the lifetime of a dynamically stored object. Unlike for
std::shared_ptr, the dynamic object is owned by only one instance of a std::unique_ptr at any time,

// Creates a dynamic int with value of 20 owned by a unique pointer

std::unique_ptr<int> ptr = std::make_unique<int>(20);

(Note: std::unique_ptr is available since C++11 and std::make_unique since C++14.)

Only the variable ptr holds a pointer to a dynamically allocated int. When a unique pointer that owns an object
goes out of scope, the owned object is deleted, i.e. its destructor is called if the object is of class type, and the
memory for that object is released.

To use std::unique_ptr and std::make_unique with array-types, use their array specializations:

// Creates a unique_ptr to an int with value 59

std::unique_ptr<int> ptr = std::make_unique<int>(59);

// Creates a unique_ptr to an array of 15 ints

std::unique_ptr<int[]> ptr = std::make_unique<int[]>(15);

You can access the std::unique_ptr just like a raw pointer, because it overloads those operators.

You can transfer ownership of the contents of a smart pointer to another pointer by using std::move, which will
cause the original smart pointer to point to nullptr.

// 1. std::unique_ptr
std::unique_ptr<int> ptr = std::make_unique<int>();

// Change value to 1
*ptr = 1;

// 2. std::unique_ptr (by moving 'ptr' to 'ptr2', 'ptr' doesn't own the object anymore)
std::unique_ptr<int> ptr2 = std::move(ptr);

int a = *ptr2; // 'a' is 1

int b = *ptr; // undefined behavior! 'ptr' is 'nullptr'
// (because of the move command above)

Passing unique_ptr to functions as parameter:

void foo(std::unique_ptr<int> ptr)

{
// Your code goes here
}

std::unique_ptr<int> ptr = std::make_unique<int>(59);

foo(std::move(ptr))

Returning unique_ptr from functions. This is the preferred C++11 way of writing factory functions, as it clearly

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conveys the ownership semantics of the return: the caller owns the resulting unique_ptr and is responsible for it.

std::unique_ptr<int> foo()
{
std::unique_ptr<int> ptr = std::make_unique<int>(59);
return ptr;
}

std::unique_ptr<int> ptr = foo();

Compare this to:

int* foo_cpp03();

int* p = foo_cpp03(); // do I own p? do I have to delete it at some point?

// it's not readily apparent what the answer is.
Version < C++14

The class template make_unique is provided since C++14. It's easy to add it manually to C++11 code:

template<typename T, typename... Args>

typename std::enable_if<!std::is_array<T>::value, std::unique_ptr<T>>::type
make_unique(Args&&... args)
{ return std::unique_ptr<T>(new T(std::forward<Args>(args)...)); }

// Use make_unique for arrays

template<typename T>
typename std::enable_if<std::is_array<T>::value, std::unique_ptr<T>>::type
make_unique(size_t n)
{ return std::unique_ptr<T>(new typename std::remove_extent<T>::type[n]()); }
Version ≥ C++11

Unlike the dumb smart pointer (std::auto_ptr), unique_ptr can also be instantiated with vector allocation (not
std::vector). Earlier examples were for scalar allocations. For example to have a dynamically allocated integer
array for 10 elements, you would specify int[] as the template type (and not just int):

std::unique_ptr<int[]> arr_ptr = std::make_unique<int[]>(10);

Which can be simplified with:

auto arr_ptr = std::make_unique<int[]>(10);

Now, you use arr_ptr as if it is an array:

arr_ptr[2] = 10; // Modify third element

You need not to worry about de-allocation. This template specialized version calls constructors and destructors
appropriately. Using vectored version of unique_ptr or a vector itself - is a personal choice.

In versions prior to C++11, std::auto_ptr was available. Unlike unique_ptr it is allowed to copy auto_ptrs, upon
which the source ptr will lose the ownership of the contained pointer and the target receives it.

Section 33.2: Sharing ownership (std::shared_ptr)

The class template std::shared_ptr defines a shared pointer that is able to share ownership of an object with

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other shared pointers. This contrasts to std::unique_ptr which represents exclusive ownership.

The sharing behavior is implemented through a technique known as reference counting, where the number of
shared pointers that point to the object is stored alongside it. When this count reaches zero, either through the
destruction or reassignment of the last std::shared_ptr instance, the object is automatically destroyed.

// Creation: 'firstShared' is a shared pointer for a new instance of 'Foo'

std::shared_ptr<Foo> firstShared = std::make_shared<Foo>(/*args*/);

To create multiple smart pointers that share the same object, we need to create another shared_ptr that aliases
the first shared pointer. Here are 2 ways of doing it:

std::shared_ptr<Foo> secondShared(firstShared); // 1st way: Copy constructing

std::shared_ptr<Foo> secondShared;
secondShared = firstShared; // 2nd way: Assigning

Either of the above ways makes secondShared a shared pointer that shares ownership of our instance of Foo with
firstShared.

The smart pointer works just like a raw pointer. This means, you can use * to dereference them. The regular ->
operator works as well:

secondShared->test(); // Calls Foo::test()

Finally, when the last aliased shared_ptr goes out of scope, the destructor of our Foo instance is called.

Warning: Constructing a shared_ptr might throw a bad_alloc exception when extra data for shared ownership
semantics needs to be allocated. If the constructor is passed a regular pointer it assumes to own the object pointed
to and calls the deleter if an exception is thrown. This means shared_ptr<T>(new T(args)) will not leak a T object if
allocation of shared_ptr<T> fails. However, it is advisable to use make_shared<T>(args) or
allocate_shared<T>(alloc, args), which enable the implementation to optimize the memory allocation.

Allocating Arrays([]) using shared_ptr

Version ≥ C++11 Version < C++17

Unfortunately, there is no direct way to allocate Arrays using make_shared<>.

It is possible to create arrays for shared_ptr<> using new and std::default_delete.

For example, to allocate an array of 10 integers, we can write the code as

shared_ptr<int> sh(new int[10], std::default_delete<int[]>());

Specifying std::default_delete is mandatory here to make sure that the allocated memory is correctly cleaned up
using delete[].

If we know the size at compile time, we can do it this way:

template<class Arr>
struct shared_array_maker {};
template<class T, std::size_t N>
struct shared_array_maker<T[N]> {
std::shared_ptr<T> operator()const{

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 auto r = std::make_shared<std::array<T,N>>();
if (!r) return {};
return {r.data(), r};
}
};
template<class Arr>
auto make_shared_array()
-> decltype( shared_array_maker<Arr>{}() )
{ return shared_array_maker<Arr>{}(); }

then make_shared_array<int[10]> returns a shared_ptr<int> pointing to 10 ints all default constructed.

Version ≥ C++17

With C++17, shared_ptr gained special support for array types. It is no longer necessary to specify the array-deleter
explicitly, and the shared pointer can be dereferenced using the [] array index operator:

std::shared_ptr<int[]> sh(new int[10]);

sh[0] = 42;

Shared pointers can point to a sub-object of the object it owns:

struct Foo { int x; };

std::shared_ptr<Foo> p1 = std::make_shared<Foo>();
std::shared_ptr<int> p2(p1, &p1->x);

Both p2 and p1 own the object of type Foo, but p2 points to its int member x. This means that if p1 goes out of
scope or is reassigned, the underlying Foo object will still be alive, ensuring that p2 does not dangle.

Important: A shared_ptr only knows about itself and all other shared_ptr that were created with the alias
constructor. It does not know about any other pointers, including all other shared_ptrs created with a reference to
the same Foo instance:

Foo *foo = new Foo;

std::shared_ptr<Foo> shared1(foo);
std::shared_ptr<Foo> shared2(foo); // don't do this

shared1.reset(); // this will delete foo, since shared1

// was the only shared_ptr that owned it

shared2->test(); // UNDEFINED BEHAVIOR: shared2's foo has been

// deleted already!!

Ownership Transfer of shared_ptr

By default, shared_ptr increments the reference count and doesn't transfer the ownership. However, it can be
made to transfer the ownership using std::move:

shared_ptr<int> up = make_shared<int>();
// Transferring the ownership
shared_ptr<int> up2 = move(up);
// At this point, the reference count of up = 0 and the
// ownership of the pointer is solely with up2 with reference count = 1

Section 33.3: Sharing with temporary ownership

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(std::weak_ptr)
Instances of std::weak_ptr can point to objects owned by instances of std::shared_ptr while only becoming
temporary owners themselves. This means that weak pointers do not alter the object's reference count and
therefore do not prevent an object's deletion if all of the object's shared pointers are reassigned or destroyed.

In the following example instances of std::weak_ptr are used so that the destruction of a tree object is not
inhibited:

#include <memory>
#include <vector>

struct TreeNode {
std::weak_ptr<TreeNode> parent;
std::vector< std::shared_ptr<TreeNode> > children;
};

int main() {
// Create a TreeNode to serve as the root/parent.
std::shared_ptr<TreeNode> root(new TreeNode);

// Give the parent 100 child nodes.

for (size_t i = 0; i < 100; ++i) {
std::shared_ptr<TreeNode> child(new TreeNode);
root->children.push_back(child);
child->parent = root;
}

// Reset the root shared pointer, destroying the root object, and
// subsequently its child nodes.
root.reset();
}

As child nodes are added to the root node's children, their std::weak_ptr member parent is set to the root node.
The member parent is declared as a weak pointer as opposed to a shared pointer such that the root node's
reference count is not incremented. When the root node is reset at the end of main(), the root is destroyed. Since
the only remaining std::shared_ptr references to the child nodes were contained in the root's collection children,
all child nodes are subsequently destroyed as well.

Due to control block implementation details, shared_ptr allocated memory may not be released until shared_ptr
reference counter and weak_ptr reference counter both reach zero.

#include <memory>
int main()
{
{
std::weak_ptr<int> wk;
{
// std::make_shared is optimized by allocating only once
// while std::shared_ptr<int>(new int(42)) allocates twice.
// Drawback of std::make_shared is that control block is tied to our integer
std::shared_ptr<int> sh = std::make_shared<int>(42);
wk = sh;
// sh memory should be released at this point...
}
// ... but wk is still alive and needs access to control block
}
// now memory is released (sh and wk)

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}

Since std::weak_ptr does not keep its referenced object alive, direct data access through a std::weak_ptr is not
possible. Instead it provides a lock() member function that attempts to retrieve a std::shared_ptr to the
referenced object:

#include <cassert>
#include <memory>
int main()
{
{
std::weak_ptr<int> wk;
std::shared_ptr<int> sp;
{
std::shared_ptr<int> sh = std::make_shared<int>(42);
wk = sh;
// calling lock will create a shared_ptr to the object referenced by wk
sp = wk.lock();
// sh will be destroyed after this point, but sp is still alive
}
// sp still keeps the data alive.
// At this point we could even call lock() again
// to retrieve another shared_ptr to the same data from wk
assert(*sp == 42);
assert(!wk.expired());
// resetting sp will delete the data,
// as it is currently the last shared_ptr with ownership
sp.reset();
// attempting to lock wk now will return an empty shared_ptr,
// as the data has already been deleted
sp = wk.lock();
assert(!sp);
assert(wk.expired());
}
}

Section 33.4: Using custom deleters to create a wrapper to a

C interface
Many C interfaces such as SDL2 have their own deletion functions. This means that you cannot use smart pointers
directly:

std::unique_ptr<SDL_Surface> a; // won't work, UNSAFE!

Instead, you need to define your own deleter. The examples here use the SDL_Surface structure which should be
freed using the SDL_FreeSurface() function, but they should be adaptable to many other C interfaces.

The deleter must be callable with a pointer argument, and therefore can be e.g. a simple function pointer:

std::unique_ptr<SDL_Surface, void(*)(SDL_Surface*)> a(pointer, SDL_FreeSurface);

Any other callable object will work, too, for example a class with an operator():

struct SurfaceDeleter {
void operator()(SDL_Surface* surf) {
SDL_FreeSurface(surf);
}
};

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std::unique_ptr<SDL_Surface, SurfaceDeleter> a(pointer, SurfaceDeleter{}); // safe
std::unique_ptr<SDL_Surface, SurfaceDeleter> b(pointer); // equivalent to the above
// as the deleter is value-initialized

This not only provides you with safe, zero overhead (if you use unique_ptr) automatic memory management, you
also get exception safety.

Note that the deleter is part of the type for unique_ptr, and the implementation can use the empty base
optimization to avoid any change in size for empty custom deleters. So while std::unique_ptr<SDL_Surface,
SurfaceDeleter> and std::unique_ptr<SDL_Surface, void(*)(SDL_Surface*)> solve the same problem in a
similar way, the former type is still only the size of a pointer while the latter type has to hold two pointers: both the
SDL_Surface* and the function pointer! When having free function custom deleters, it is preferable to wrap the
function in an empty type.

In cases where reference counting is important, one could use a shared_ptr instead of an unique_ptr. The
shared_ptr always stores a deleter, this erases the type of the deleter, which might be useful in APIs. The
disadvantages of using shared_ptr over unique_ptr include a higher memory cost for storing the deleter and a
performance cost for maintaining the reference count.

// deleter required at construction time and is part of the type

std::unique_ptr<SDL_Surface, void(*)(SDL_Surface*)> a(pointer, SDL_FreeSurface);

// deleter is only required at construction time, not part of the type

std::shared_ptr<SDL_Surface> b(pointer, SDL_FreeSurface);
Version ≥ C++17

With template auto, we can make it even easier to wrap our custom deleters:

template <auto DeleteFn>

struct FunctionDeleter {
template <class T>
void operator()(T* ptr) {
DeleteFn(ptr);
}
};

template <class T, auto DeleteFn>

using unique_ptr_deleter = std::unique_ptr<T, FunctionDeleter<DeleteFn>>;

With which the above example is simply:

unique_ptr_deleter<SDL_Surface, SDL_FreeSurface> c(pointer);

Here, the purpose of auto is to handle all free functions, whether they return void (e.g. SDL_FreeSurface) or not
(e.g. fclose).

Section 33.5: Unique ownership without move semantics

(auto_ptr)
Version < C++11

NOTE: std::auto_ptr has been deprecated in C++11 and will be removed in C++17. You should only use this if you
are forced to use C++03 or earlier and are willing to be careful. It is recommended to move to unique_ptr in
combination with std::move to replace std::auto_ptr behavior.

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Before we had std::unique_ptr, before we had move semantics, we had std::auto_ptr. std::auto_ptr provides
unique ownership but transfers ownership upon copy.

As with all smart pointers, std::auto_ptr automatically cleans up resources (see RAII):

{
std::auto_ptr<int> p(new int(42));
std::cout << *p;
} // p is deleted here, no memory leaked

but allows only one owner:

std::auto_ptr<X> px = ...;
std::auto_ptr<X> py = px;
// px is now empty

This allows to use std::auto_ptr to keep ownership explicit and unique at the danger of losing ownership
unintended:

void f(std::auto_ptr<X> ) {
// assumes ownership of X
// deletes it at end of scope
};

std::auto_ptr<X> px = ...;
f(px); // f acquires ownership of underlying X
// px is now empty
px->foo(); // NPE!
// px.~auto_ptr() does NOT delete

The transfer of ownership happened in the "copy" constructor. auto_ptr's copy constructor and copy assignment
operator take their operands by non-const reference so that they could be modified. An example implementation
might be:

template <typename T>

class auto_ptr {
T* ptr;
public:
auto_ptr(auto_ptr& rhs)
: ptr(rhs.release())
{ }

auto_ptr& operator=(auto_ptr& rhs) {

reset(rhs.release());
return *this;
}

T* release() {
T* tmp = ptr;
ptr = nullptr;
return tmp;
}

void reset(T* tmp = nullptr) {

if (ptr != tmp) {
delete ptr;
ptr = tmp;
}
}

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 /* other functions ... */
};

This breaks copy semantics, which require that copying an object leaves you with two equivalent versions of it. For
any copyable type, T, I should be able to write:

T a = ...;
T b(a);
assert(b == a);

But for auto_ptr, this is not the case. As a result, it is not safe to put auto_ptrs in containers.

Section 33.6: Casting std::shared_ptr pointers

It is not possible to directly use static_cast, const_cast, dynamic_cast and reinterpret_cast on
std::shared_ptr to retrieve a pointer sharing ownership with the pointer being passed as argument. Instead, the
functions std::static_pointer_cast, std::const_pointer_cast, std::dynamic_pointer_cast and
std::reinterpret_pointer_cast should be used:

struct Base { virtual ~Base() noexcept {}; };

struct Derived: Base {};
auto derivedPtr(std::make_shared<Derived>());
auto basePtr(std::static_pointer_cast<Base>(derivedPtr));
auto constBasePtr(std::const_pointer_cast<Base const>(basePtr));
auto constDerivedPtr(std::dynamic_pointer_cast<Derived const>(constBasePtr));

Note that std::reinterpret_pointer_cast is not available in C++11 and C++14, as it was only proposed by N3920
and adopted into Library Fundamentals TS in February 2014. However, it can be implemented as follows:

template <typename To, typename From>

inline std::shared_ptr<To> reinterpret_pointer_cast(
std::shared_ptr<From> const & ptr) noexcept
{ return std::shared_ptr<To>(ptr, reinterpret_cast<To *>(ptr.get())); }

Section 33.7: Writing a smart pointer: value_ptr

A value_ptr is a smart pointer that behaves like a value. When copied, it copies its contents. When created, it
creates its contents.

// Like std::default_delete:
template<class T>
struct default_copier {
// a copier must handle a null T const* in and return null:
T* operator()(T const* tin)const {
if (!tin) return nullptr;
return new T(*tin);
}
void operator()(void* dest, T const* tin)const {
if (!tin) return;
return new(dest) T(*tin);
}
};
// tag class to handle empty case:
struct empty_ptr_t {};
constexpr empty_ptr_t empty_ptr{};
// the value pointer type itself:

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template<class T, class Copier=default_copier<T>, class Deleter=std::default_delete<T>,
class Base=std::unique_ptr<T, Deleter>
>
struct value_ptr:Base, private Copier {
using copier_type=Copier;
// also typedefs from unique_ptr

using Base::Base;

value_ptr( T const& t ):
Base( std::make_unique<T>(t) ),
Copier()
{}
value_ptr( T && t ):
Base( std::make_unique<T>(std::move(t)) ),
Copier()
{}
// almost-never-empty:
value_ptr():
Base( std::make_unique<T>() ),
Copier()
{}
value_ptr( empty_ptr_t ) {}

value_ptr( Base b, Copier c={} ):

Base(std::move(b)),
Copier(std::move(c))
{}

Copier const& get_copier() const {

return *this;
}

value_ptr clone() const {

return {
Base(
get_copier()(this->get()),
this->get_deleter()
),
get_copier()
};
}
value_ptr(value_ptr&&)=default;
value_ptr& operator=(value_ptr&&)=default;

value_ptr(value_ptr const& o):value_ptr(o.clone()) {}

value_ptr& operator=(value_ptr const&o) {
if (o && *this) {
// if we are both non-null, assign contents:
**this = *o;
} else {
// otherwise, assign a clone (which could itself be null):
*this = o.clone();
}
return *this;
}
value_ptr& operator=( T const& t ) {
if (*this) {
**this = t;
} else {
*this = value_ptr(t);
}

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 return *this;
}
value_ptr& operator=( T && t ) {
if (*this) {
**this = std::move(t);
} else {
*this = value_ptr(std::move(t));
}
return *this;
}
T& get() { return **this; }
T const& get() const { return **this; }
T* get_pointer() {
if (!*this) return nullptr;
return std::addressof(get());
}
T const* get_pointer() const {
if (!*this) return nullptr;
return std::addressof(get());
}
// operator-> from unique_ptr
};
template<class T, class...Args>
value_ptr<T> make_value_ptr( Args&&... args ) {
return {std::make_unique<T>(std::forward<Args>(args)...)};
}

This particular value_ptr is only empty if you construct it with empty_ptr_t or if you move from it. It exposes the fact
it is a unique_ptr, so explicit operator bool() const works on it. .get() has been changed to return a
reference (as it is almost never empty), and .get_pointer() returns a pointer instead.

This smart pointer can be useful for pImpl cases, where we want value-semantics but we also don't want to expose
the contents of the pImpl outside of the implementation file.

With a non-default Copier, it can even handle virtual base classes that know how to produce instances of their
derived and turn them into value-types.

Section 33.8: Getting a shared_ptr referring to this

enable_shared_from_this enables you to get a valid shared_ptr instance to this.

By deriving your class from the class template enable_shared_from_this, you inherit a method shared_from_this
that returns a shared_ptr instance to this.

Note that the object must be created as a shared_ptr in first place:

#include <memory>
class A: public enable_shared_from_this<A> {
};
A* ap1 =new A();
shared_ptr<A> ap2(ap1); // First prepare a shared pointer to the object and hold it!
// Then get a shared pointer to the object from the object itself
shared_ptr<A> ap3 = ap1->shared_from_this();
int c3 =ap3.use_count(); // =2: pointing to the same object

Note(2) you cannot call enable_shared_from_this inside the constructor.

#include <memory> // enable_shared_from_this

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 168

class Widget : public std::enable_shared_from_this< Widget >
{
public:
void DoSomething()
{
std::shared_ptr< Widget > self = shared_from_this();
someEvent -> Register( self );
}
private:
...
};

int main()
{
...
auto w = std::make_shared< Widget >();
w -> DoSomething();
...
}

If you use shared_from_this() on an object not owned by a shared_ptr, such as a local automatic object or a
global object, then the behavior is undefined. Since C++17 it throws std::bad_alloc instead.

Using shared_from_this() from a constructor is equivalent to using it on an object not owned by a shared_ptr,
because the objects is possessed by the shared_ptr after the constructor returns.

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Chapter 34: Classes/Structures
Section 34.1: Class basics
A class is a user-defined type. A class is introduced with the class, struct or union keyword. In colloquial usage, the
term "class" usually refers only to non-union classes.

A class is a collection of class members, which can be:

member variables (also called "fields"),

member functions (also called "methods"),
member types or typedefs (e.g. "nested classes"),
member templates (of any kind: variable, function, class or alias template)

The class and struct keywords, called class keys, are largely interchangeable, except that the default access
specifier for members and bases is "private" for a class declared with the class key and "public" for a class declared
with the struct or union key (cf. Access modifiers).

For example, the following code snippets are identical:

struct Vector
{
int x;
int y;
int z;
};
// are equivalent to
class Vector
{
public:
int x;
int y;
int z;
};

By declaring a class` a new type is added to your program, and it is possible to instantiate objects of that class by

Vector my_vector;

Members of a class are accessed using dot-syntax.

my_vector.x = 10;
my_vector.y = my_vector.x + 1; // my_vector.y = 11;
my_vector.z = my_vector.y - 4; // my:vector.z = 7;

Section 34.2: Final classes and structs

Version ≥ C++11

Deriving a class may be forbidden with final specifier. Let's declare a final class:

class A final {
};

Now any attempt to subclass it will cause a compilation error:

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// Compilation error: cannot derive from final class:
class B : public A {
};

Final class may appear anywhere in class hierarchy:

class A {
};

// OK.
class B final : public A {
};

// Compilation error: cannot derive from final class B.

class C : public B {
};

Section 34.3: Access specifiers

There are three keywords that act as access specifiers. These limit the access to class members following the
specifier, until another specifier changes the access level again:

Keyword Description
public Everyone has access
protected Only the class itself, derived classes and friends have access
private Only the class itself and friends have access

When the type is defined using the class keyword, the default access specifier is private, but if the type is defined
using the struct keyword, the default access specifier is public:

struct MyStruct { int x; };

class MyClass { int x; };

MyStruct s;
s.x = 9; // well formed, because x is public

MyClass c;
c.x = 9; // ill-formed, because x is private

Access specifiers are mostly used to limit access to internal fields and methods, and force the programmer to use a
specific interface, for example to force use of getters and setters instead of referencing a variable directly:

class MyClass {

public: /* Methods: */

int x() const noexcept { return m_x; }

void setX(int const x) noexcept { m_x = x; }

private: /* Fields: */

int m_x;

};

Using protected is useful for allowing certain functionality of the type to be only accessible to the derived classes,
for example, in the following code, the method calculateValue() is only accessible to classes deriving from the

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base class Plus2Base, such as FortyTwo:

struct Plus2Base {
int value() noexcept { return calculateValue() + 2; }
protected: /* Methods: */
virtual int calculateValue() noexcept = 0;
};
struct FortyTwo: Plus2Base {
protected: /* Methods: */
int calculateValue() noexcept final override { return 40; }
};

Note that the friend keyword can be used to add access exceptions to functions or types for accessing protected
and private members.

The public, protected, and private keywords can also be used to grant or limit access to base class subobjects.
See the Inheritance example.

Section 34.4: Inheritance

Classes/structs can have inheritance relations.

If a class/struct B inherits from a class/struct A, this means that B has as a parent A. We say that B is a derived
class/struct from A, and A is the base class/struct.

struct A
{
public:
int p1;
protected:
int p2;
private:
int p3;
};

//Make B inherit publicly (default) from A

struct B : A
{
};

There are 3 forms of inheritance for a class/struct:

public
private
protected

Note that the default inheritance is the same as the default visibility of members: public if you use the struct
keyword, and private for the class keyword.

It's even possible to have a class derive from a struct (or vice versa). In this case, the default inheritance is
controlled by the child, so a struct that derives from a class will default to public inheritance, and a class that
derives from a struct will have private inheritance by default.

public inheritance:

struct B : public A // or just `struct B : A`

{

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 void foo()
{
p1 = 0; //well formed, p1 is public in B
p2 = 0; //well formed, p2 is protected in B
p3 = 0; //ill formed, p3 is private in A
}
};

B b;
b.p1 = 1; //well formed, p1 is public
b.p2 = 1; //ill formed, p2 is protected
b.p3 = 1; //ill formed, p3 is inaccessible

private inheritance:

struct B : private A
{
void foo()
{
p1 = 0; //well formed, p1 is private in B
p2 = 0; //well formed, p2 is private in B
p3 = 0; //ill formed, p3 is private in A
}
};

B b;
b.p1 = 1; //ill formed, p1 is private
b.p2 = 1; //ill formed, p2 is private
b.p3 = 1; //ill formed, p3 is inaccessible

protected inheritance:

struct B : protected A
{
void foo()
{
p1 = 0; //well formed, p1 is protected in B
p2 = 0; //well formed, p2 is protected in B
p3 = 0; //ill formed, p3 is private in A
}
};

B b;
b.p1 = 1; //ill formed, p1 is protected
b.p2 = 1; //ill formed, p2 is protected
b.p3 = 1; //ill formed, p3 is inaccessible

Note that although protected inheritance is allowed, the actual use of it is rare. One instance of how protected
inheritance is used in application is in partial base class specialization (usually referred to as "controlled
polymorphism").

When OOP was relatively new, (public) inheritance was frequently said to model an "IS-A" relationship. That is,
public inheritance is correct only if an instance of the derived class is also an instance of the base class.

This was later refined into the Liskov Substitution Principle: public inheritance should only be used when/if an
instance of the derived class can be substituted for an instance of the base class under any possible circumstance
(and still make sense).

Private inheritance is typically said to embody a completely different relationship: "is implemented in terms of"

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(sometimes called a "HAS-A" relationship). For example, a Stack class could inherit privately from a Vector class.
Private inheritance bears a much greater similarity to aggregation than to public inheritance.

Protected inheritance is almost never used, and there's no general agreement on what sort of relationship it
embodies.

Section 34.5: Friendship

The friend keyword is used to give other classes and functions access to private and protected members of the
class, even through they are defined outside the class`s scope.

class Animal{
private:
double weight;
double height;
public:
friend void printWeight(Animal animal);
friend class AnimalPrinter;
// A common use for a friend function is to overload the operator<< for streaming.
friend std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream& os, Animal animal);
};

void printWeight(Animal animal)

{
std::cout << animal.weight << "\n";
}

class AnimalPrinter
{
public:
void print(const Animal& animal)
{
// Because of the `friend class AnimalPrinter;" declaration, we are
// allowed to access private members here.
std::cout << animal.weight << ", " << animal.height << std::endl;
}
}

std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream& os, Animal animal)

{
os << "Animal height: " << animal.height << "\n";
return os;
}

int main() {
Animal animal = {10, 5};
printWeight(animal);

AnimalPrinter aPrinter;
aPrinter.print(animal);

std::cout << animal;

}

10
10, 5
Animal height: 5

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Section 34.6: Virtual Inheritance
When using inheritance, you can specify the virtual keyword:

struct A{};
struct B: public virtual A{};

When class B has virtual base A it means that A will reside in most derived class of inheritance tree, and thus that
most derived class is also responsible for initializing that virtual base:

struct A
{
int member;
A(int param)
{
member = param;
}
};

struct B: virtual A
{
B(): A(5){}
};

struct C: B
{
C(): /*A(88)*/ {}
};

void f()
{
C object; //error since C is not initializing it's indirect virtual base `A`
}

If we un-comment /*A(88)*/ we won't get any error since C is now initializing it's indirect virtual base A.

Also note that when we're creating variable object, most derived class is C, so C is responsible for creating(calling
constructor of) A and thus value of A::member is 88, not 5 (as it would be if we were creating object of type B).

It is useful when solving the diamond problem.:

A A A
/ \ | |
B C B C
\ / \ /
D D
virtual inheritance normal inheritance

B and C both inherit from A, and D inherits from B and C, so there are 2 instances of A in D! This results in ambiguity
when you're accessing member of A through D, as the compiler has no way of knowing from which class do you
want to access that member (the one which B inherits, or the one that is inherited byC?).

Virtual inheritance solves this problem: Since virtual base resides only in most derived object, there will be only one
instance of A in D.

struct A
{
void foo() {}

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};

struct B : public /*virtual*/ A {};

struct C : public /*virtual*/ A {};

struct D : public B, public C

{
void bar()
{
foo(); //Error, which foo? B::foo() or C::foo()? - Ambiguous
}
};

Removing the comments resolves the ambiguity.

Section 34.7: Private inheritance: restricting base class

interface
Private inheritance is useful when it is required to restrict the public interface of the class:

class A {
public:
int move();
int turn();
};

class B : private A {
public:
using A::turn;
};

B b;
b.move(); // compile error
b.turn(); // OK

This approach efficiently prevents an access to the A public methods by casting to the A pointer or reference:

B b;
A& a = static_cast<A&>(b); // compile error

In the case of public inheritance such casting will provide access to all the A public methods despite on alternative
ways to prevent this in derived B, like hiding:

class B : public A {
private:
int move();
};

or private using:

class B : public A {
private:
using A::move;
};

then for both cases it is possible:

B b;

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A& a = static_cast<A&>(b); // OK for public inheritance
a.move(); // OK

Section 34.8: Accessing class members

To access member variables and member functions of an object of a class, the . operator is used:

struct SomeStruct {
int a;
int b;
void foo() {}
};

SomeStruct var;
// Accessing member variable a in var.
std::cout << var.a << std::endl;
// Assigning member variable b in var.
var.b = 1;
// Calling a member function.
var.foo();

When accessing the members of a class via a pointer, the -> operator is commonly used. Alternatively, the instance
can be dereferenced and the . operator used, although this is less common:

struct SomeStruct {
int a;
int b;
void foo() {}
};

SomeStruct var;
SomeStruct *p = &var;
// Accessing member variable a in var via pointer.
std::cout << p->a << std::endl;
std::cout << (*p).a << std::endl;
// Assigning member variable b in var via pointer.
p->b = 1;
(*p).b = 1;
// Calling a member function via a pointer.
p->foo();
(*p).foo();

When accessing static class members, the :: operator is used, but on the name of the class instead of an instance
of it. Alternatively, the static member can be accessed from an instance or a pointer to an instance using the . or ->
operator, respectively, with the same syntax as accessing non-static members.

struct SomeStruct {
int a;
int b;
void foo() {}

static int c;
static void bar() {}
};
int SomeStruct::c;

SomeStruct var;
SomeStruct* p = &var;
// Assigning static member variable c in struct SomeStruct.

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SomeStruct::c = 5;
// Accessing static member variable c in struct SomeStruct, through var and p.
var.a = var.c;
var.b = p->c;
// Calling a static member function.
SomeStruct::bar();
var.bar();
p->bar();

Background

The -> operator is needed because the member access operator . has precedence over the dereferencing operator
*.

One would expect that *p.a would dereference p (resulting in a reference to the object p is pointing to) and then
accessing its member a. But in fact, it tries to access the member a of p and then dereference it. I.e. *p.a is
equivalent to *(p.a). In the example above, this would result in a compiler error because of two facts: First, p is a
pointer and does not have a member a. Second, a is an integer and, thus, can't be dereferenced.

The uncommonly used solution to this problem would be to explicitly control the precedence: (*p).a

Instead, the -> operator is almost always used. It is a short-hand for first dereferencing the pointer and then
accessing it. I.e. (*p).a is exactly the same as p->a.

The :: operator is the scope operator, used in the same manner as accessing a member of a namespace. This is
because a static class member is considered to be in that class' scope, but isn't considered a member of instances
of that class. The use of normal . and -> is also allowed for static members, despite them not being instance
members, for historical reasons; this is of use for writing generic code in templates, as the caller doesn't need to be
concerned with whether a given member function is static or non-static.

Section 34.9: Member Types and Aliases

A class or struct can also define member type aliases, which are type aliases contained within, and treated as
members of, the class itself.

struct IHaveATypedef {
typedef int MyTypedef;
};

struct IHaveATemplateTypedef {
template<typename T>
using MyTemplateTypedef = std::vector<T>;
};

Like static members, these typedefs are accessed using the scope operator, ::.

IHaveATypedef::MyTypedef i = 5; // i is an int.

IHaveATemplateTypedef::MyTemplateTypedef<int> v; // v is a std::vector<int>.

As with normal type aliases, each member type alias is allowed to refer to any type defined or aliased before, but
not after, its definition. Likewise, a typedef outside the class definition can refer to any accessible typedefs within
the class definition, provided it comes after the class definition.

template<typename T>
struct Helper {

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 T get() const { return static_cast<T>(42); }
};

struct IHaveTypedefs {
// typedef MyTypedef NonLinearTypedef; // Error if uncommented.
typedef int MyTypedef;
typedef Helper<MyTypedef> MyTypedefHelper;
};

IHaveTypedefs::MyTypedef i; // x_i is an int.

IHaveTypedefs::MyTypedefHelper hi; // x_hi is a Helper<int>.

typedef IHaveTypedefs::MyTypedef TypedefBeFree;

TypedefBeFree ii; // ii is an int.

Member type aliases can be declared with any access level, and will respect the appropriate access modifier.

class TypedefAccessLevels {
typedef int PrvInt;

protected:
typedef int ProInt;

public:
typedef int PubInt;
};

TypedefAccessLevels::PrvInt prv_i; // Error: TypedefAccessLevels::PrvInt is private.

TypedefAccessLevels::ProInt pro_i; // Error: TypedefAccessLevels::ProInt is protected.
TypedefAccessLevels::PubInt pub_i; // Good.

class Derived : public TypedefAccessLevels {

PrvInt prv_i; // Error: TypedefAccessLevels::PrvInt is private.
ProInt pro_i; // Good.
PubInt pub_i; // Good.
};

This can be used to provide a level of abstraction, allowing a class' designer to change its internal workings without
breaking code that relies on it.

class Something {
friend class SomeComplexType;

short s;
// ...

public:
typedef SomeComplexType MyHelper;

MyHelper get_helper() const { return MyHelper(8, s, 19.5, "shoe", false); }

// ...
};

// ...

Something s;
Something::MyHelper hlp = s.get_helper();

In this situation, if the helper class is changed from SomeComplexType to some other type, only the typedef and the

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friend declaration would need to be modified; as long as the helper class provides the same functionality, any code
that uses it as Something::MyHelper instead of specifying it by name will usually still work without any
modifications. In this manner, we minimise the amount of code that needs to be modified when the underlying
implementation is changed, such that the type name only needs to be changed in one location.

This can also be combined with decltype, if one so desires.

class SomethingElse {
AnotherComplexType<bool, int, SomeThirdClass> helper;

public:
typedef decltype(helper) MyHelper;

private:
InternalVariable<MyHelper> ivh;

// ...

public:
MyHelper& get_helper() const { return helper; }

// ...
};

In this situation, changing the implementation of SomethingElse::helper will automatically change the typedef for
us, due to decltype. This minimises the number of modifications necessary when we want to change helper, which
minimises the risk of human error.

As with everything, however, this can be taken too far. If the typename is only used once or twice internally and
zero times externally, for example, there's no need to provide an alias for it. If it's used hundreds or thousands of
times throughout a project, or if it has a long enough name, then it can be useful to provide it as a typedef instead
of always using it in absolute terms. One must balance forwards compatibility and convenience with the amount of
unnecessary noise created.

This can also be used with template classes, to provide access to the template parameters from outside the class.

template<typename T>
class SomeClass {
// ...

public:
typedef T MyParam;
MyParam getParam() { return static_cast<T>(42); }
};

template<typename T>
typename T::MyParam some_func(T& t) {
return t.getParam();
}

SomeClass<int> si;
int i = some_func(si);

This is commonly used with containers, which will usually provide their element type, and other helper types, as
member type aliases. Most of the containers in the C++ standard library, for example, provide the following 12
helper types, along with any other special types they might need.

template<typename T>

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class SomeContainer {
// ...

public:
// Let's provide the same helper types as most standard containers.
typedef T value_type;
typedef std::allocator<value_type> allocator_type;
typedef value_type& reference;
typedef const value_type& const_reference;
typedef value_type* pointer;
typedef const value_type* const_pointer;
typedef MyIterator<value_type> iterator;
typedef MyConstIterator<value_type> const_iterator;
typedef std::reverse_iterator<iterator> reverse_iterator;
typedef std::reverse_iterator<const_iterator> const_reverse_iterator;
typedef size_t size_type;
typedef ptrdiff_t difference_type;
};

Prior to C++11, it was also commonly used to provide a "template typedef" of sorts, as the feature wasn't yet
available; these have become a bit less common with the introduction of alias templates, but are still useful in some
situations (and are combined with alias templates in other situations, which can be very useful for obtaining
individual components of a complex type such as a function pointer). They commonly use the name type for their
type alias.

template<typename T>
struct TemplateTypedef {
typedef T type;
}

TemplateTypedef<int>::type i; // i is an int.

This was often used with types with multiple template parameters, to provide an alias that defines one or more of
the parameters.

template<typename T, size_t SZ, size_t D>

class Array { /* ... */ };

template<typename T, size_t SZ>

struct OneDArray {
typedef Array<T, SZ, 1> type;
};

template<typename T, size_t SZ>

struct TwoDArray {
typedef Array<T, SZ, 2> type;
};

template<typename T>
struct MonoDisplayLine {
typedef Array<T, 80, 1> type;
};

OneDArray<int, 3>::type arr1i; // arr1i is an Array<int, 3, 1>.

TwoDArray<short, 5>::type arr2s; // arr2s is an Array<short, 5, 2>.
MonoDisplayLine<char>::type arr3c; // arr3c is an Array<char, 80, 1>.

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Section 34.10: Nested Classes/Structures
A class or struct can also contain another class/struct definition inside itself, which is called a "nested class"; in
this situation, the containing class is referred to as the "enclosing class". The nested class definition is considered to
be a member of the enclosing class, but is otherwise separate.

struct Outer {
struct Inner { };
};

From outside of the enclosing class, nested classes are accessed using the scope operator. From inside the
enclosing class, however, nested classes can be used without qualifiers:

struct Outer {
struct Inner { };

Inner in;
};

// ...

Outer o;
Outer::Inner i = o.in;

As with a non-nested class/struct, member functions and static variables can be defined either within a nested
class, or in the enclosing namespace. However, they cannot be defined within the enclosing class, due to it being
considered to be a different class than the nested class.

// Bad.
struct Outer {
struct Inner {
void do_something();
};

void Inner::do_something() {}
};

// Good.
struct Outer {
struct Inner {
void do_something();
};

};

void Outer::Inner::do_something() {}

As with non-nested classes, nested classes can be forward declared and defined later, provided they are defined
before being used directly.

class Outer {
class Inner1;
class Inner2;

class Inner1 {};

Inner1 in1;

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 182

 Inner2* in2p;

public:
Outer();
~Outer();
};

class Outer::Inner2 {};

Outer::Outer() : in1(Inner1()), in2p(new Inner2) {}

Outer::~Outer() {
if (in2p) { delete in2p; }
}

Version < C++11

Prior to C++11, nested classes only had access to type names, static members, and enumerators from the
enclosing class; all other members defined in the enclosing class were off-limits.

Version ≥ C++11

As of C++11, nested classes, and members thereof, are treated as if they were friends of the enclosing class, and
can access all of its members, according to the usual access rules; if members of the nested class require the ability
to evaluate one or more non-static members of the enclosing class, they must therefore be passed an instance:

class Outer {
struct Inner {
int get_sizeof_x() {
return sizeof(x); // Legal (C++11): x is unevaluated, so no instance is required.
}

int get_x() {
return x; // Illegal: Can't access non-static member without an instance.
}

int get_x(Outer& o) {
return o.x; // Legal (C++11): As a member of Outer, Inner can access private members.
}
};

int x;
};

Conversely, the enclosing class is not treated as a friend of the nested class, and thus cannot access its private
members without explicitly being granted permission.

class Outer {
class Inner {
// friend class Outer;

int x;
};

Inner in;

public:
int get_x() {
return in.x; // Error: int Outer::Inner::x is private.
// Uncomment "friend" line above to fix.
}

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 183

};

Friends of a nested class are not automatically considered friends of the enclosing class; if they need to be friends
of the enclosing class as well, this must be declared separately. Conversely, as the enclosing class is not
automatically considered a friend of the nested class, neither will friends of the enclosing class be considered
friends of the nested class.

class Outer {
friend void barge_out(Outer& out, Inner& in);

class Inner {
friend void barge_in(Outer& out, Inner& in);

int i;
};

int o;
};

void barge_in(Outer& out, Outer::Inner& in) {

int i = in.i; // Good.
int o = out.o; // Error: int Outer::o is private.
}

void barge_out(Outer& out, Outer::Inner& in) {

int i = in.i; // Error: int Outer::Inner::i is private.
int o = out.o; // Good.
}

As with all other class members, nested classes can only be named from outside the class if they have public
access. However, you are allowed to access them regardless of access modifier, as long as you don't explicitly name
them.

class Outer {
struct Inner {
void func() { std::cout << "I have no private taboo.\n"; }
};

public:
static Inner make_Inner() { return Inner(); }
};

// ...

Outer::Inner oi; // Error: Outer::Inner is private.

auto oi = Outer::make_Inner(); // Good.

oi.func(); // Good.
Outer::make_Inner().func(); // Good.

You can also create a type alias for a nested class. If a type alias is contained in the enclosing class, the nested type
and the type alias can have different access modifiers. If the type alias is outside the enclosing class, it requires that
either the nested class, or a typedef thereof, be public.

class Outer {
class Inner_ {};

public:
typedef Inner_ Inner;

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 184

};

typedef Outer::Inner ImOut; // Good.

typedef Outer::Inner_ ImBad; // Error.

// ...

Outer::Inner oi; // Good.

Outer::Inner_ oi; // Error.
ImOut oi; // Good.

As with other classes, nested classes can both derive from or be derived from by other classes.

struct Base {};

struct Outer {
struct Inner : Base {};
};

struct Derived : Outer::Inner {};

This can be useful in situations where the enclosing class is derived from by another class, by allowing the
programmer to update the nested class as necessary. This can be combined with a typedef to provide a consistent
name for each enclosing class' nested class:

class BaseOuter {
struct BaseInner_ {
virtual void do_something() {}
virtual void do_something_else();
} b_in;

public:
typedef BaseInner_ Inner;

virtual ~BaseOuter() = default;

virtual Inner& getInner() { return b_in; }

};

void BaseOuter::BaseInner_::do_something_else() {}

// ---

class DerivedOuter : public BaseOuter {

// Note the use of the qualified typedef; BaseOuter::BaseInner_ is private.
struct DerivedInner_ : BaseOuter::Inner {
void do_something() override {}
void do_something_else() override;
} d_in;

public:
typedef DerivedInner_ Inner;

BaseOuter::Inner& getInner() override { return d_in; }

};

void DerivedOuter::DerivedInner_::do_something_else() {}

// ...

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 185

// Calls BaseOuter::BaseInner_::do_something();
BaseOuter* b = new BaseOuter;
BaseOuter::Inner& bin = b->getInner();
bin.do_something();
b->getInner().do_something();

// Calls DerivedOuter::DerivedInner_::do_something();
BaseOuter* d = new DerivedOuter;
BaseOuter::Inner& din = d->getInner();
din.do_something();
d->getInner().do_something();

In the above case, both BaseOuter and DerivedOuter supply the member type Inner, as BaseInner_ and
DerivedInner_, respectively. This allows nested types to be derived without breaking the enclosing class' interface,
and allows the nested type to be used polymorphically.

Section 34.11: Unnamed struct/class

Unnamed struct is allowed (type has no name)

void foo()
{
struct /* No name */ {
float x;
float y;
} point;

point.x = 42;
}

or

struct Circle
{
struct /* No name */ {
float x;
float y;
} center; // but a member name
float radius;
};

and later

Circle circle;
circle.center.x = 42.f;

but NOT anonymous struct (unnamed type and unnamed object)

struct InvalidCircle
{
struct /* No name */ {
float centerX;
float centerY;
}; // No member either.
float radius;
};

Note: Some compilers allow anonymous struct as extension.

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 186

Version ≥ C++11

lamdba can be seen as a special unnamed struct.

decltype allows to retrieve the type of unnamed struct:

decltype(circle.point) otherPoint;

unnamed struct instance can be parameter of template method:

void print_square_coordinates()
{
const struct {float x; float y;} points[] = {
{-1, -1}, {-1, 1}, {1, -1}, {1, 1}
};

// for range relies on `template <class T, std::size_t N> std::begin(T (&)[N])`

for (const auto& point : points) {
std::cout << "{" << point.x << ", " << point.y << "}\n";
}

decltype(points[0]) topRightCorner{1, 1};

auto it = std::find(points, points + 4, topRightCorner);
std::cout << "top right corner is the "
<< 1 + std::distance(points, it) << "th\n";
}

Section 34.12: Static class members

A class is also allowed to have static members, which can be either variables or functions. These are considered to
be in the class' scope, but aren't treated as normal members; they have static storage duration (they exist from the
start of the program to the end), aren't tied to a particular instance of the class, and only one copy exists for the
entire class.

class Example {
static int num_instances; // Static data member (static member variable).
int i; // Non-static member variable.

public:
static std::string static_str; // Static data member (static member variable).
static int static_func(); // Static member function.

// Non-static member functions can modify static member variables.

Example() { ++num_instances; }
void set_str(const std::string& str);
};

int Example::num_instances;
std::string Example::static_str = "Hello.";

// ...

Example one, two, three;

// Each Example has its own "i", such that:
// (&one.i != &two.i)
// (&one.i != &three.i)
// (&two.i != &three.i).
// All three Examples share "num_instances", such that:

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// (&one.num_instances == &two.num_instances)
// (&one.num_instances == &three.num_instances)
// (&two.num_instances == &three.num_instances)

Static member variables are not considered to be defined inside the class, only declared, and thus have their
definition outside the class definition; the programmer is allowed, but not required, to initialise static variables in
their definition. When defining the member variables, the keyword static is omitted.

class Example {
static int num_instances; // Declaration.

public:
static std::string static_str; // Declaration.

// ...
};

int Example::num_instances; // Definition. Zero-initialised.

std::string Example::static_str = "Hello."; // Definition.

Due to this, static variables can be incomplete types (apart from void), as long as they're later defined as a
complete type.

struct ForwardDeclared;

class ExIncomplete {
static ForwardDeclared fd;
static ExIncomplete i_contain_myself;
static int an_array[];
};

struct ForwardDeclared {};

ForwardDeclared ExIncomplete::fd;
ExIncomplete ExIncomplete::i_contain_myself;
int ExIncomplete::an_array[5];

Static member functions can be defined inside or outside the class definition, as with normal member functions. As
with static member variables, the keyword static is omitted when defining static member functions outside the
class definition.

// For Example above, either...

class Example {
// ...

public:
static int static_func() { return num_instances; }

// ...

void set_str(const std::string& str) { static_str = str; }

};

// Or...

class Example { /* ... */ };

int Example::static_func() { return num_instances; }

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 188

void Example::set_str(const std::string& str) { static_str = str; }

If a static member variable is declared const but not volatile, and is of an integral or enumeration type, it can be
initialised at declaration, inside the class definition.

enum E { VAL = 5 };

struct ExConst {
const static int ci = 5; // Good.
static const E ce = VAL; // Good.
const static double cd = 5; // Error.
static const volatile int cvi = 5; // Error.

const static double good_cd;

static const volatile int good_cvi;
};

const double ExConst::good_cd = 5; // Good.

const volatile int ExConst::good_cvi = 5; // Good.
Version ≥ C++11

As of C++11, static member variables of LiteralType types (types that can be constructed at compile time,
according to constexpr rules) can also be declared as constexpr; if so, they must be initialised within the class
definition.

struct ExConstexpr {
constexpr static int ci = 5; // Good.
static constexpr double cd = 5; // Good.
constexpr static int carr[] = { 1, 1, 2 }; // Good.
static constexpr ConstexprConstructibleClass c{}; // Good.
constexpr static int bad_ci; // Error.
};

constexpr int ExConstexpr::bad_ci = 5; // Still an error.

If a const or constexpr static member variable is odr-used (informally, if it has its address taken or is assigned to a
reference), then it must still have a separate definition, outside the class definition. This definition is not allowed to
contain an initialiser.

struct ExODR {
static const int odr_used = 5;
};

// const int ExODR::odr_used;

const int* odr_user = & ExODR::odr_used; // Error; uncomment above line to resolve.

As static members aren't tied to a given instance, they can be accessed using the scope operator, ::.

std::string str = Example::static_str;

They can also be accessed as if they were normal, non-static members. This is of historical significance, but is used
less commonly than the scope operator to prevent confusion over whether a member is static or non-static.

Example ex;
std::string rts = ex.static_str;

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 189

Class members are able to access static members without qualifying their scope, as with non-static class members.

class ExTwo {
static int num_instances;
int my_num;

public:
ExTwo() : my_num(num_instances++) {}

static int get_total_instances() { return num_instances; }

int get_instance_number() const { return my_num; }
};

int ExTwo::num_instances;

They cannot be mutable, nor would they need to be; as they aren't tied to any given instance, whether an instance
is or isn't const doesn't affect static members.

struct ExDontNeedMutable {
int immuta;
mutable int muta;

static int i;

ExDontNeedMutable() : immuta(-5), muta(-5) {}

};
int ExDontNeedMutable::i;

// ...

const ExDontNeedMutable dnm;

dnm.immuta = 5; // Error: Can't modify read-only object.
dnm.muta = 5; // Good. Mutable fields of const objects can be written.
dnm.i = 5; // Good. Static members can be written regardless of an instance's const-ness.

Static members respect access modifiers, just like non-static members.

class ExAccess {
static int prv_int;

protected:
static int pro_int;

public:
static int pub_int;
};

int ExAccess::prv_int;
int ExAccess::pro_int;
int ExAccess::pub_int;

// ...

int x1 = ExAccess::prv_int; // Error: int ExAccess::prv_int is private.

int x2 = ExAccess::pro_int; // Error: int ExAccess::pro_int is protected.
int x3 = ExAccess::pub_int; // Good.

As they aren't tied to a given instance, static member functions have no this pointer; due to this, they can't access
non-static member variables unless passed an instance.

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 190

class ExInstanceRequired {
int i;

public:
ExInstanceRequired() : i(0) {}

static void bad_mutate() { ++i *= 5; } // Error.

static void good_mutate(ExInstanceRequired& e) { ++e.i *= 5; } // Good.
};

Due to not having a this pointer, their addresses can't be stored in pointers-to-member-functions, and are instead
stored in normal pointers-to-functions.

struct ExPointer {
void nsfunc() {}
static void sfunc() {}
};

typedef void (ExPointer::* mem_f_ptr)();

typedef void (*f_ptr)();

mem_f_ptr p_sf = &ExPointer::sfunc; // Error.

f_ptr p_sf = &ExPointer::sfunc; // Good.

Due to not having a this pointer, they also cannot be const or volatile, nor can they have ref-qualifiers. They also
cannot be virtual.

struct ExCVQualifiersAndVirtual {
static void func() {} // Good.
static void cfunc() const {} // Error.
static void vfunc() volatile {} // Error.
static void cvfunc() const volatile {} // Error.
static void rfunc() & {} // Error.
static void rvfunc() && {} // Error.

virtual static void vsfunc() {} // Error.

static virtual void svfunc() {} // Error.
};

As they aren't tied to a given instance, static member variables are effectively treated as special global variables;
they're created when the program starts, and destroyed when it exits, regardless of whether any instances of the
class actually exist. Only a single copy of each static member variable exists (unless the variable is declared
thread_local (C++11 or later), in which case there's one copy per thread).

Static member variables have the same linkage as the class, whether the class has external or internal linkage. Local
classes and unnamed classes aren't allowed to have static members.

Section 34.13: Multiple Inheritance

Aside from single inheritance:

class A {};
class B : public A {};

You can also have multiple inheritance:

class A {};

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 191

class B {};
class C : public A, public B {};

C will now have inherit from A and B at the same time.

Note: this can lead to ambiguity if the same names are used in multiple inherited classs or structs. Be careful!

Ambiguity in Multiple Inheritance

Multiple inheritance may be helpful in certain cases but, sometimes odd sort of problem encounters while using
multiple inheritance.

For example: Two base classes have functions with same name which is not overridden in derived class and if you
write code to access that function using object of derived class, compiler shows error because, it cannot determine
which function to call. Here is a code for this type of ambiguity in multiple inheritance.

class base1
{
public:
void funtion( )
{ //code for base1 function }
};
class base2
{
void function( )
{ // code for base2 function }
};

class derived : public base1, public base2

{

};

int main()
{
derived obj;

// Error because compiler can't figure out which function to call

//either function( ) of base1 or base2 .
obj.function( )
}

But, this problem can be solved using scope resolution function to specify which function to class either base1 or
base2:

int main()
{
obj.base1::function( ); // Function of class base1 is called.
obj.base2::function( ); // Function of class base2 is called.
}

Section 34.14: Non-static member functions

A class can have non-static member functions, which operate on individual instances of the class.

class CL {
public:
void member_function() {}

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 192

};

These functions are called on an instance of the class, like so:

CL instance;
instance.member_function();

They can be defined either inside or outside the class definition; if defined outside, they are specified as being in
the class' scope.

struct ST {
void defined_inside() {}
void defined_outside();
};
void ST::defined_outside() {}

They can be CV-qualified and/or ref-qualified, affecting how they see the instance they're called upon; the function
will see the instance as having the specified cv-qualifier(s), if any. Which version is called will be based on the
instance's cv-qualifiers. If there is no version with the same cv-qualifiers as the instance, then a more-cv-qualified
version will be called if available.

struct CVQualifiers {
void func() {} // 1: Instance is non-cv-qualified.
void func() const {} // 2: Instance is const.

void cv_only() const volatile {}

};

CVQualifiers non_cv_instance;
const CVQualifiers c_instance;

non_cv_instance.func(); // Calls #1.

c_instance.func(); // Calls #2.

non_cv_instance.cv_only(); // Calls const volatile version.

c_instance.cv_only(); // Calls const volatile version.
Version ≥ C++11

Member function ref-qualifiers indicate whether or not the function is intended to be called on rvalue instances,
and use the same syntax as function cv-qualifiers.

struct RefQualifiers {
void func() & {} // 1: Called on normal instances.
void func() && {} // 2: Called on rvalue (temporary) instances.
};

RefQualifiers rf;
rf.func(); // Calls #1.
RefQualifiers{}.func(); // Calls #2.

CV-qualifiers and ref-qualifiers can also be combined if necessary.

struct BothCVAndRef {
void func() const& {} // Called on normal instances. Sees instance as const.
void func() && {} // Called on temporary instances.
};

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 193

They can also be virtual; this is fundamental to polymorphism, and allows a child class(es) to provide the same
interface as the parent class, while supplying their own functionality.

struct Base {
virtual void func() {}
};
struct Derived {
virtual void func() {}
};

Base* bp = new Base;

Base* dp = new Derived;
bp.func(); // Calls Base::func().
dp.func(); // Calls Derived::func().

For more information, see here.

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 194

Chapter 35: Function Overloading
See also separate topic on Overload Resolution

Section 35.1: What is Function Overloading?

Function overloading is having multiple functions declared in the same scope with the exact same name exist in the
same place (known as scope) differing only in their signature, meaning the arguments they accept.

Suppose you are writing a series of functions for generalized printing capabilities, beginning with std::string:

void print(const std::string &str)

{
std::cout << "This is a string: " << str << std::endl;
}

This works fine, but suppose you want a function that also accepts an int and prints that too. You could write:

void print_int(int num)

{
std::cout << "This is an int: " << num << std::endl;
}

But because the two functions accept different parameters, you can simply write:

void print(int num)

{
std::cout << "This is an int: " << num << std::endl;
}

Now you have 2 functions, both named print, but with different signatures. One accepts std::string, the other
one an int. Now you can call them without worrying about different names:

print("Hello world!"); //prints "This is a string: Hello world!"

print(1337); //prints "This is an int: 1337"

Instead of:

print("Hello world!");
print_int(1337);

When you have overloaded functions, the compiler infers which of the functions to call from the parameters you
provide it. Care must be taken when writing function overloads. For example, with implicit type conversions:

void print(int num)

{
std::cout << "This is an int: " << num << std::endl;
}
void print(double num)
{
std::cout << "This is a double: " << num << std::endl;
}

Now it's not immediately clear which overload of print is called when you write:

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 195

print(5);

And you might need to give your compiler some clues, like:

print(static_cast<double>(5));
print(static_cast<int>(5));
print(5.0);

Some care also needs to be taken when writing overloads that accept optional parameters:

// WRONG CODE
void print(int num1, int num2 = 0) //num2 defaults to 0 if not included
{
std::cout << "These are ints: << num1 << " and " << num2 << std::endl;
}
void print(int num)
{
std::cout << "This is an int: " << num << std::endl;
}

Because there's no way for the compiler to tell if a call like print(17) is meant for the first or second function
because of the optional second parameter, this will fail to compile.

Section 35.2: Return Type in Function Overloading

Note that you cannot overload a function based on its return type. For example:

// WRONG CODE
std::string getValue()
{
return "hello";
}

int getValue()
{
return 0;
}

int x = getValue();

This will cause a compilation error as the compiler will not be able to work out which version of getValue to call,
even though the return type is assigned to an int.

Section 35.3: Member Function cv-qualifier Overloading

Functions within a class can be overloaded for when they are accessed through a cv-qualified reference to that
class; this is most commonly used to overload for const, but can be used to overload for volatile and const
volatile, too. This is because all non-static member functions take this as a hidden parameter, which the cv-
qualifiers are applied to. This is most commonly used to overload for const, but can also be used for volatile and
const volatile.

This is necessary because a member function can only be called if it is at least as cv-qualified as the instance it's
called on. While a non-const instance can call both const and non-const members, a const instance can only call
const members. This allows a function to have different behaviour depending on the calling instance's cv-qualifiers,
and allows the programmer to disallow functions for an undesired cv-qualifier(s) by not providing a version with
that qualifier(s).

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 196

A class with some basic print method could be const overloaded like so:

#include <iostream>

class Integer
{
public:
Integer(int i_): i{i_}{}

void print()
{
std::cout << "int: " << i << std::endl;
}

void print() const

{
std::cout << "const int: " << i << std::endl;
}

protected:
int i;
};

int main()
{
Integer i{5};
const Integer &ic = i;

i.print(); // prints "int: 5"

ic.print(); // prints "const int: 5"
}

This is a key tenet of const correctness: By marking member functions as const, they are allowed to be called on
const instances, which in turn allows functions to take instances as const pointers/references if they don't need to
modify them. This allows code to specify whether it modifies state by taking unmodified parameters as const and
modified parameters without cv-qualifiers, making code both safer and more readable.

class ConstCorrect
{
public:
void good_func() const
{
std::cout << "I care not whether the instance is const." << std::endl;
}

void bad_func()
{
std::cout << "I can only be called on non-const, non-volatile instances." << std::endl;
}
};

void i_change_no_state(const ConstCorrect& cc)

{
std::cout << "I can take either a const or a non-const ConstCorrect." << std::endl;
cc.good_func(); // Good. Can be called from const or non-const instance.
cc.bad_func(); // Error. Can only be called from non-const instance.
}

void const_incorrect_func(ConstCorrect& cc)

{

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 197

 cc.good_func(); // Good. Can be called from const or non-const instance.
cc.bad_func(); // Good. Can only be called from non-const instance.
}

A common usage of this is declaring accessors as const, and mutators as non-const.

No class members can be modified within a const member function. If there is some member that you really need
to modify, such as locking a std::mutex, you can declare it as mutable:

class Integer
{
public:
Integer(int i_): i{i_}{}

int get() const

{
std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lock{mut};
return i;
}

void set(int i_)

{
std::lock_guard<std::mutex> lock{mut};
i = i_;
}

protected:
int i;
mutable std::mutex mut;
};

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 198

Chapter 36: Operator Overloading
In C++, it is possible to define operators such as + and -> for user-defined types. For example, the <string> header
defines a + operator to concatenate strings. This is done by defining an operator function using the operator
keyword.

Section 36.1: Arithmetic operators

You can overload all basic arithmetic operators:

+ and +=
- and -=
* and *=
/ and /=
& and &=
| and |=
^ and ^=
>> and >>=
<< and <<=

Overloading for all operators is the same. Scroll down for explanation

Overloading outside of class/struct:

//operator+ should be implemented in terms of operator+=

T operator+(T lhs, const T& rhs)
{
lhs += rhs;
return lhs;
}

T& operator+=(T& lhs, const T& rhs)

{
//Perform addition
return lhs;
}

Overloading inside of class/struct:

//operator+ should be implemented in terms of operator+=

T operator+(const T& rhs)
{
*this += rhs;
return *this;
}

T& operator+=(const T& rhs)

{
//Perform addition
return *this;
}

Note: operator+ should return by non-const value, as returning a reference wouldn't make sense (it returns a new
object) nor would returning a const value (you should generally not return by const). The first argument is passed

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by value, why? Because

1. You can't modify the original object (Object foobar = foo + bar; shouldn't modify foo after all, it wouldn't
make sense)
2. You can't make it const, because you will have to be able to modify the object (because operator+ is
implemented in terms of operator+=, which modifies the object)

Passing by const& would be an option, but then you will have to make a temporary copy of the passed object. By
passing by value, the compiler does it for you.

operator+= returns a reference to the itself, because it is then possible to chain them (don't use the same variable
though, that would be undefined behavior due to sequence points).

The first argument is a reference (we want to modify it), but not const, because then you wouldn't be able to
modify it. The second argument should not be modified, and so for performance reason is passed by const&
(passing by const reference is faster than by value).

Section 36.2: Array subscript operator

You can even overload the array subscript operator [].

You should always (99.98% of the time) implement 2 versions, a const and a not-const version, because if the
object is const, it should not be able to modify the object returned by [].

The arguments are passed by const& instead of by value because passing by reference is faster than by value, and
const so that the operator doesn't change the index accidentally.

The operators return by reference, because by design you can modify the object [] return, i.e:

std::vector<int> v{ 1 };
v[0] = 2; //Changes value of 1 to 2
//wouldn't be possible if not returned by reference

You can only overload inside a class/struct:

//I is the index type, normally an int

T& operator[](const I& index)
{
//Do something
//return something
}

//I is the index type, normally an int

const T& operator[](const I& index) const
{
//Do something
//return something
}

Multiple subscript operators, [][]..., can be achieved via proxy objects. The following example of a simple row-
major matrix class demonstrates this:

template<class T>

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class matrix {
// class enabling [][] overload to access matrix elements
template <class C>
class proxy_row_vector {
using reference = decltype(std::declval<C>()[0]);
using const_reference = decltype(std::declval<C const>()[0]);
public:
proxy_row_vector(C& _vec, std::size_t _r_ind, std::size_t _cols)
: vec(_vec), row_index(_r_ind), cols(_cols) {}
const_reference operator[](std::size_t _col_index) const {
return vec[row_index*cols + _col_index];
}
reference operator[](std::size_t _col_index) {
return vec[row_index*cols + _col_index];
}
private:
C& vec;
std::size_t row_index; // row index to access
std::size_t cols; // number of columns in matrix
};

using const_proxy = proxy_row_vector<const std::vector<T>>;

using proxy = proxy_row_vector<std::vector<T>>;
public:
matrix() : mtx(), rows(0), cols(0) {}
matrix(std::size_t _rows, std::size_t _cols)
: mtx(_rows*_cols), rows(_rows), cols(_cols) {}

// call operator[] followed by another [] call to access matrix elements

const_proxy operator[](std::size_t _row_index) const {
return const_proxy(mtx, _row_index, cols);
}

proxy operator[](std::size_t _row_index) {

return proxy(mtx, _row_index, cols);
}
private:
std::vector<T> mtx;
std::size_t rows;
std::size_t cols;
};

Section 36.3: Conversion operators

You can overload type operators, so that your type can be implicitly converted into the specified type.

The conversion operator must be defined in a class/struct:

operator T() const { /* return something */ }

Note: the operator is const to allow const objects to be converted.

Example:

struct Text
{
std::string text;

// Now Text can be implicitly converted into a const char*

/*explicit*/ operator const char*() const { return text.data(); }

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 // ^^^^^^^
// to disable implicit conversion
};

Text t;
t.text = "Hello world!";

//Ok
const char* copyoftext = t;

Section 36.4: Complex Numbers Revisited

The code below implements a very simple complex number type for which the underlying field is automatically
promoted, following the language's type promotion rules, under application of the four basic operators (+, -, *, and
/) with a member of a different field (be it another complex<T> or some scalar type).

This is intended to be a holistic example covering operator overloading alongside basic use of templates.

#include <type_traits>

namespace not_std{

using std::decay_t;

//----------------------------------------------------------------
// complex< value_t >
//----------------------------------------------------------------

template<typename value_t>
struct complex
{
value_t x;
value_t y;

complex &operator += (const value_t &x)

{
this->x += x;
return *this;
}
complex &operator += (const complex &other)
{
this->x += other.x;
this->y += other.y;
return *this;
}

complex &operator -= (const value_t &x)

{
this->x -= x;
return *this;
}
complex &operator -= (const complex &other)
{
this->x -= other.x;
this->y -= other.y;
return *this;
}

complex &operator *= (const value_t &s)

{

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 this->x *= s;
this->y *= s;
return *this;
}
complex &operator *= (const complex &other)
{
(*this) = (*this) * other;
return *this;
}

complex &operator /= (const value_t &s)

{
this->x /= s;
this->y /= s;
return *this;
}
complex &operator /= (const complex &other)
{
(*this) = (*this) / other;
return *this;
}

complex(const value_t &x, const value_t &y)

: x{x}
, y{y}
{}

template<typename other_value_t>
explicit complex(const complex<other_value_t> &other)
: x{static_cast<const value_t &>(other.x)}
, y{static_cast<const value_t &>(other.y)}
{}

complex &operator = (const complex &) = default;

complex &operator = (complex &&) = default;
complex(const complex &) = default;
complex(complex &&) = default;
complex() = default;
};

// Absolute value squared

template<typename value_t>
value_t absqr(const complex<value_t> &z)
{ return z.x*z.x + z.y*z.y; }

//----------------------------------------------------------------
// operator - (negation)
//----------------------------------------------------------------

template<typename value_t>
complex<value_t> operator - (const complex<value_t> &z)
{ return {-z.x, -z.y}; }

//----------------------------------------------------------------
// operator +
//----------------------------------------------------------------

template<typename left_t,typename right_t>

auto operator + (const complex<left_t> &a, const complex<right_t> &b)
-> complex<decay_t<decltype(a.x + b.x)>>
{ return{a.x + b.x, a.y + b.y}; }

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template<typename left_t,typename right_t>
auto operator + (const left_t &a, const complex<right_t> &b)
-> complex<decay_t<decltype(a + b.x)>>
{ return{a + b.x, b.y}; }

template<typename left_t,typename right_t>

auto operator + (const complex<left_t> &a, const right_t &b)
-> complex<decay_t<decltype(a.x + b)>>
{ return{a.x + b, a.y}; }

//----------------------------------------------------------------
// operator -
//----------------------------------------------------------------

template<typename left_t,typename right_t>

auto operator - (const complex<left_t> &a, const complex<right_t> &b)
-> complex<decay_t<decltype(a.x - b.x)>>
{ return{a.x - b.x, a.y - b.y}; }

template<typename left_t,typename right_t>

auto operator - (const left_t &a, const complex<right_t> &b)
-> complex<decay_t<decltype(a - b.x)>>
{ return{a - b.x, - b.y}; }

template<typename left_t,typename right_t>

auto operator - (const complex<left_t> &a, const right_t &b)
-> complex<decay_t<decltype(a.x - b)>>
{ return{a.x - b, a.y}; }

//----------------------------------------------------------------
// operator *
//----------------------------------------------------------------

template<typename left_t, typename right_t>

auto operator * (const complex<left_t> &a, const complex<right_t> &b)
-> complex<decay_t<decltype(a.x * b.x)>>
{
return {
a.x*b.x - a.y*b.y,
a.x*b.y + a.y*b.x
};
}

template<typename left_t, typename right_t>

auto operator * (const left_t &a, const complex<right_t> &b)
-> complex<decay_t<decltype(a * b.x)>>
{ return {a * b.x, a * b.y}; }

template<typename left_t, typename right_t>

auto operator * (const complex<left_t> &a, const right_t &b)
-> complex<decay_t<decltype(a.x * b)>>
{ return {a.x * b, a.y * b}; }

//----------------------------------------------------------------
// operator /
//----------------------------------------------------------------

template<typename left_t, typename right_t>

auto operator / (const complex<left_t> &a, const complex<right_t> &b)
-> complex<decay_t<decltype(a.x / b.x)>>
{
const auto r = absqr(b);

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 return {
( a.x*b.x + a.y*b.y) / r,
(-a.x*b.y + a.y*b.x) / r
};
}

template<typename left_t, typename right_t>

auto operator / (const left_t &a, const complex<right_t> &b)
-> complex<decay_t<decltype(a / b.x)>>
{
const auto s = a/absqr(b);
return {
b.x * s,
-b.y * s
};
}

template<typename left_t, typename right_t>

auto operator / (const complex<left_t> &a, const right_t &b)
-> complex<decay_t<decltype(a.x / b)>>
{ return {a.x / b, a.y / b}; }

}// namespace not_std

int main(int argc, char **argv)

{
using namespace not_std;

complex<float> fz{4.0f, 1.0f};

// makes a complex<double>
auto dz = fz * 1.0;

// still a complex<double>
auto idz = 1.0f/dz;

// also a complex<double>
auto one = dz * idz;

// a complex<double> again
auto one_again = fz * idz;

// Operator tests, just to make sure everything compiles.

complex<float> a{1.0f, -2.0f};

complex<double> b{3.0, -4.0};

// All of these are complex<double>

auto c0 = a + b;
auto c1 = a - b;
auto c2 = a * b;
auto c3 = a / b;

// All of these are complex<float>

auto d0 = a + 1;
auto d1 = 1 + a;
auto d2 = a - 1;
auto d3 = 1 - a;
auto d4 = a * 1;
auto d5 = 1 * a;
auto d6 = a / 1;

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 auto d7 = 1 / a;

// All of these are complex<double>

auto e0 = b + 1;
auto e1 = 1 + b;
auto e2 = b - 1;
auto e3 = 1 - b;
auto e4 = b * 1;
auto e5 = 1 * b;
auto e6 = b / 1;
auto e7 = 1 / b;

return 0;
}

Section 36.5: Named operators

You can extend C++ with named operators that are "quoted" by standard C++ operators.

First we start with a dozen-line library:

namespace named_operator {
template<class D>struct make_operator{constexpr make_operator(){}};

template<class T, char, class O> struct half_apply { T&& lhs; };

template<class Lhs, class Op>

half_apply<Lhs, '*', Op> operator*( Lhs&& lhs, make_operator<Op> ) {
return {std::forward<Lhs>(lhs)};
}

template<class Lhs, class Op, class Rhs>

auto operator*( half_apply<Lhs, '*', Op>&& lhs, Rhs&& rhs )
-> decltype( named_invoke( std::forward<Lhs>(lhs.lhs), Op{}, std::forward<Rhs>(rhs) ) )
{
return named_invoke( std::forward<Lhs>(lhs.lhs), Op{}, std::forward<Rhs>(rhs) );
}
}

this doesn't do anything yet.

First, appending vectors

namespace my_ns {
struct append_t : named_operator::make_operator<append_t> {};
constexpr append_t append{};

template<class T, class A0, class A1>

std::vector<T, A0> named_invoke( std::vector<T, A0> lhs, append_t, std::vector<T, A1> const& rhs
) {
lhs.insert( lhs.end(), rhs.begin(), rhs.end() );
return std::move(lhs);
}
}
using my_ns::append;

std::vector<int> a {1,2,3};
std::vector<int> b {4,5,6};

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auto c = a *append* b;

The core here is that we define an append object of type append_t:named_operator::make_operator<append_t>.

We then overload named_invoke( lhs, append_t, rhs ) for the types we want on the right and left.

The library overloads lhs*append_t, returning a temporary half_apply object. It also overloads half_apply*rhs to
call named_invoke( lhs, append_t, rhs ).

We simply have to create the proper append_t token and do an ADL-friendly named_invoke of the proper signature,
and everything hooks up and works.

For a more complex example, suppose you want to have element-wise multiplication of elements of a std::array:

template<class=void, std::size_t...Is>
auto indexer( std::index_sequence<Is...> ) {
return [](auto&& f) {
return f( std::integral_constant<std::size_t, Is>{}... );
};
}
template<std::size_t N>
auto indexer() { return indexer( std::make_index_sequence<N>{} ); }

namespace my_ns {
struct e_times_t : named_operator::make_operator<e_times_t> {};
constexpr e_times_t e_times{};

template<class L, class R, std::size_t N,

class Out=std::decay_t<decltype( std::declval<L const&>()*std::declval<R const&>() )>
>
std::array<Out, N> named_invoke( std::array<L, N> const& lhs, e_times_t, std::array<R, N> const&
rhs ) {
using result_type = std::array<Out, N>;
auto index_over_N = indexer<N>();
return index_over_N([&](auto...is)->result_type {
return {{
(lhs[is] * rhs[is])...
}};
});
}
}

live example.

This element-wise array code can be extended to work on tuples or pairs or C-style arrays, or even variable length
containers if you decide what to do if the lengths don't match.

You could also an element-wise operator type and get lhs *element_wise<'+'>* rhs.

Writing a *dot* and *cross* product operators are also obvious uses.

The use of * can be extended to support other delimiters, like +. The delimeter precidence determines the
precidence of the named operator, which may be important when translating physics equations over to C++ with
minimal use of extra ()s.

With a slight change in the library above, we can support ->*then* operators and extend std::function prior to
the standard being updated, or write monadic ->*bind*. It could also have a stateful named operator, where we
carefully pass the Op down to the final invoke function, permitting:

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 207

named_operator<'*'> append = [](auto lhs, auto&& rhs) {
using std::begin; using std::end;
lhs.insert( end(lhs), begin(rhs), end(rhs) );
return std::move(lhs);
};

generating a named container-appending operator in C++17.

Section 36.6: Unary operators

You can overload the 2 unary operators:

++foo and foo++

--foo and foo--

Overloading is the same for both types (++ and --). Scroll down for explanation

Overloading outside of class/struct:

//Prefix operator ++foo

T& operator++(T& lhs)
{
//Perform addition
return lhs;
}

//Postfix operator foo++ (int argument is used to separate pre- and postfix)
//Should be implemented in terms of ++foo (prefix operator)
T operator++(T& lhs, int)
{
T t(lhs);
++lhs;
return t;
}

Overloading inside of class/struct:

//Prefix operator ++foo

T& operator++()
{
//Perform addition
return *this;
}

//Postfix operator foo++ (int argument is used to separate pre- and postfix)
//Should be implemented in terms of ++foo (prefix operator)
T operator++(int)
{
T t(*this);
++(*this);
return t;
}

Note: The prefix operator returns a reference to itself, so that you can continue operations on it. The first argument
is a reference, as the prefix operator changes the object, that's also the reason why it isn't const (you wouldn't be
able to modify it otherwise).

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 208

The postfix operator returns by value a temporary (the previous value), and so it cannot be a reference, as it would
be a reference to a temporary, which would be garbage value at the end of the function, because the temporary
variable goes out of scope). It also cannot be const, because you should be able to modify it directly.

The first argument is a non-const reference to the "calling" object, because if it were const, you wouldn't be able to
modify it, and if it weren't a reference, you wouldn't change the original value.

It is because of the copying needed in postfix operator overloads that it's better to make it a habit to use prefix ++
instead of postfix ++ in for loops. From the for loop perspective, they're usually functionally equivalent, but there
might be a slight performance advantage to using prefix ++, especially with "fat" classes with a lot of members to
copy. Example of using prefix ++ in a for loop:

for (list<string>::const_iterator it = tokens.begin();

it != tokens.end();
++it) { // Don't use it++
...
}

Section 36.7: Comparison operators

You can overload all comparison operators:

== and !=
> and <
>= and <=

The recommended way to overload all those operators is by implementing only 2 operators (== and <) and then
using those to define the rest. Scroll down for explanation

Overloading outside of class/struct:

//Only implement those 2

bool operator==(const T& lhs, const T& rhs) { /* Compare */ }
bool operator<(const T& lhs, const T& rhs) { /* Compare */ }

//Now you can define the rest

bool operator!=(const T& lhs, const T& rhs) { return !(lhs == rhs); }
bool operator>(const T& lhs, const T& rhs) { return rhs < lhs; }
bool operator<=(const T& lhs, const T& rhs) { return !(lhs > rhs); }
bool operator>=(const T& lhs, const T& rhs) { return !(lhs < rhs); }

Overloading inside of class/struct:

//Note that the functions are const, because if they are not const, you wouldn't be able
//to call them if the object is const

//Only implement those 2

bool operator==(const T& rhs) const { /* Compare */ }
bool operator<(const T& rhs) const { /* Compare */ }

//Now you can define the rest

bool operator!=(const T& rhs) const { return !(*this == rhs); }
bool operator>(const T& rhs) const { return rhs < *this; }
bool operator<=(const T& rhs) const { return !(*this > rhs); }
bool operator>=(const T& rhs) const { return !(*this < rhs); }

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The operators obviously return a bool, indicating true or false for the corresponding operation.

All of the operators take their arguments by const&, because the only thing that does operators do is compare, so
they shouldn't modify the objects. Passing by & (reference) is faster than by value, and to make sure that the
operators don't modify it, it is a const-reference.

Note that the operators inside the class/struct are defined as const, the reason for this is that without the
functions being const, comparing const objects would not be possible, as the compiler doesn't know that the
operators don't modify anything.

Section 36.8: Assignment operator

The assignment operator is one of the most important operators because it allows you to change the status of a
variable.

If you do not overload the assignment operator for your class/struct, it is automatically generated by the
compiler: the automatically-generated assignment operator performs a "memberwise assignment", ie by invoking
assignment operators on all members, so that one object is copied to the other, a member at time. The assignment
operator should be overloaded when the simple memberwise assignment is not suitable for your class/struct, for
example if you need to perform a deep copy of an object.

Overloading the assignment operator = is easy, but you should follow some simple steps.

1. Test for self-assignment. This check is important for two reasons:

a self-assignment is a needless copy, so it does not make sense to perform it;
the next step will not work in the case of a self-assignment.
2. Clean the old data. The old data must be replaced with new ones. Now, you can understand the second
reason of the previous step: if the content of the object was destroyed, a self-assignment will fail to perform
the copy.
3. Copy all members. If you overload the assignment operator for your class or your struct, it is not
automatically generated by the compiler, so you will need to take charge of copying all members from the
other object.
4. Return *this. The operator returns by itself by reference, because it allows chaining (i.e. int b = (a = 6) +
4; //b == 10).

//T is some type

T& operator=(const T& other)
{
//Do something (like copying values)
return *this;
}

Note: other is passed by const&, because the object being assigned should not be changed, and passing by
reference is faster than by value, and to make sure than operator= doesn't modify it accidentally, it is const.

The assignment operator can only to be overloaded in the class/struct, because the left value of = is always the
class/struct itself. Defining it as a free function doesn't have this guarantee, and is disallowed because of that.

When you declare it in the class/struct, the left value is implicitly the class/struct itself, so there is no problem
with that.

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Section 36.9: Function call operator
You can overload the function call operator ():

Overloading must be done inside of a class/struct:

//R -> Return type

//Types -> any different type
R operator()(Type name, Type2 name2, ...)
{
//Do something
//return something
}

//Use it like this (R is return type, a and b are variables)

R foo = object(a, b, ...);

For example:

struct Sum
{
int operator()(int a, int b)
{
return a + b;
}
};

//Create instance of struct

Sum sum;
int result = sum(1, 1); //result == 2

Section 36.10: Bitwise NOT operator

Overloading the bitwise NOT (~) is fairly simple. Scroll down for explanation

Overloading outside of class/struct:

T operator~(T lhs)
{
//Do operation
return lhs;
}

Overloading inside of class/struct:

T operator~()
{
T t(*this);
//Do operation
return t;
}

Note: operator~ returns by value, because it has to return a new value (the modified value), and not a reference to
the value (it would be a reference to the temporary object, which would have garbage value in it as soon as the
operator is done). Not const either because the calling code should be able to modify it afterwards (i.e. int a = ~a
+ 1; should be possible).

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Inside the class/struct you have to make a temporary object, because you can't modify this, as it would modify
the original object, which shouldn't be the case.

Section 36.11: Bit shift operators for I/O

The operators << and >> are commonly used as "write" and "read" operators:

std::ostream overloads << to write variables to the underlying stream (example: std::cout)
std::istream overloads >> to read from the underlying stream to a variable (example: std::cin)

The way they do this is similar if you wanted to overload them "normally" outside of the class/struct, except that
specifying the arguments are not of the same type:

Return type is the stream you want to overload from (for example, std::ostream) passed by reference, to
allow chaining (Chaining: std::cout << a << b;). Example: std::ostream&
lhs would be the same as the return type
rhs is the type you want to allow overloading from (i.e. T), passed by const& instead of value for performance
reason (rhs shouldn't be changed anyway). Example: const Vector&.

Example:

//Overload std::ostream operator<< to allow output from Vector's

std::ostream& operator<<(std::ostream& lhs, const Vector& rhs)
{
lhs << "x: " << rhs.x << " y: " << rhs.y << " z: " << rhs.z << '\n';
return lhs;
}

Vector v = { 1, 2, 3};

//Now you can do

std::cout << v;

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Chapter 37: Function Template
Overloading
Section 37.1: What is a valid function template overloading?
A function template can be overloaded under the rules for non-template function overloading (same name, but
different parameter types) and in addition to that, the overloading is valid if

The return type is different, or

The template parameter list is different, except for the naming of parameters and the presence of default
arguments (they are not part of the signature)

For a normal function, comparing two parameter types is is easy for the compiler, since it has all informat. But a
type within a template may not be determined yet. Therefore, the rule for when two parameter types are equal is
approximative here and says that the non-depependend types and values need to match and the spelling of
dependent types and expressions needs to be the same (more precisely, they need to conform to the so-called
ODR-rules), except that template parameters may be renamed. However, if under such different spellings, two
values within the types are deemed different, but will always instantiate to the same values, the overloading is
invalid, but no diagnostic is required from the compiler.

template<typename T>
void f(T*) { }

template<typename T>
void f(T) { }

This is a valid overload, as "T" and "T*" are different spellings. But the following is invalid, with no diagnostic
required

template<typename T>
void f(T (*x)[sizeof(T) + sizeof(T)]) { }

template<typename T>
void f(T (*x)[2 * sizeof(T)]) { }

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 213

Chapter 38: Virtual Member Functions
Section 38.1: Final virtual functions
C++11 introduced final specifier which forbids method overriding if appeared in method signature:

class Base {
public:
virtual void foo() {
std::cout << "Base::Foo\n";
}
};

class Derived1 : public Base {

public:
// Overriding Base::foo
void foo() final {
std::cout << "Derived1::Foo\n";
}
};

class Derived2 : public Derived1 {

public:
// Compilation error: cannot override final method
virtual void foo() {
std::cout << "Derived2::Foo\n";
}
};

The specifier final can only be used with `virtual' member function and can't be applied to non-virtual member
functions

Like final, there is also an specifier caller 'override' which prevent overriding of virtual functions in the derived
class.

The specifiers override and final may be combined together to have desired effect:

class Derived1 : public Base {

public:
void foo() final override {
std::cout << "Derived1::Foo\n";
}
};

Section 38.2: Using override with virtual in C++11 and later

The specifier override has a special meaning in C++11 onwards, if appended at the end of function signature. This
signifies that a function is

Overriding the function present in base class &

The Base class function is virtual

There is no run time significance of this specifier as is mainly meant as an indication for compilers

The example below will demonstrate the change in behaviour with our without using override.

Without override:

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#include <iostream>

struct X {
virtual void f() { std::cout << "X::f()\n"; }
};

struct Y : X {
// Y::f() will not override X::f() because it has a different signature,
// but the compiler will accept the code (and silently ignore Y::f()).
virtual void f(int a) { std::cout << a << "\n"; }
};

With override:

#include <iostream>

struct X {
virtual void f() { std::cout << "X::f()\n"; }
};

struct Y : X {
// The compiler will alert you to the fact that Y::f() does not
// actually override anything.
virtual void f(int a) override { std::cout << a << "\n"; }
};

Note that override is not a keyword, but a special identifier which only may appear in function signatures. In all
other contexts override still may be used as an identifier:

void foo() {
int override = 1; // OK.
int virtual = 2; // Compilation error: keywords can't be used as identifiers.
}

Section 38.3: Virtual vs non-virtual member functions

With virtual member functions:

#include <iostream>

struct X {
virtual void f() { std::cout << "X::f()\n"; }
};

struct Y : X {
// Specifying virtual again here is optional
// because it can be inferred from X::f().
virtual void f() { std::cout << "Y::f()\n"; }
};

void call(X& a) {
a.f();
}

int main() {
X x;
Y y;
call(x); // outputs "X::f()"
call(y); // outputs "Y::f()"

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}

Without virtual member functions:

#include <iostream>

struct X {
void f() { std::cout << "X::f()\n"; }
};

struct Y : X {
void f() { std::cout << "Y::f()\n"; }
};

void call(X& a) {
a.f();
}

int main() {
X x;
Y y;
call(x); // outputs "X::f()"
call(y); // outputs "X::f()"
}

Section 38.4: Behaviour of virtual functions in constructors

and destructors
The behaviour of virtual functions in constructors and destructors is often confusing when first encountered.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class base {
public:
base() { f("base constructor"); }
~base() { f("base destructor"); }

virtual const char* v() { return "base::v()"; }

void f(const char* caller) {

cout << "When called from " << caller << ", " << v() << " gets called.\n";
}
};

class derived : public base {

public:
derived() { f("derived constructor"); }
~derived() { f("derived destructor"); }

const char* v() override { return "derived::v()"; }

};

int main() {
derived d;
}

Output:

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 When called from base constructor, base::v() gets called.
When called from derived constructor, derived::v() gets called.
When called from derived destructor, derived::v() gets called.
When called from base destructor, base::v() gets called.

The reasoning behind this is that the derived class may define additional members which are not yet initialized (in
the constructor case) or already destroyed (in the destructor case), and calling its member functions would be
unsafe. Therefore during construction and destruction of C++ objects, the dynamic type of *this is considered to be
the constructor's or destructor's class and not a more-derived class.

Example:

#include <iostream>
#include <memory>

using namespace std;

class base {
public:
base()
{
std::cout << "foo is " << foo() << std::endl;
}
virtual int foo() { return 42; }
};

class derived : public base {

unique_ptr<int> ptr_;
public:
derived(int i) : ptr_(new int(i*i)) { }
// The following cannot be called before derived::derived due to how C++ behaves,
// if it was possible... Kaboom!
int foo() override { return *ptr_; }
};

int main() {
derived d(4);
}

Section 38.5: Pure virtual functions

We can also specify that a virtual function is pure virtual (abstract), by appending = 0 to the declaration. Classes
with one or more pure virtual functions are considered to be abstract, and cannot be instantiated; only derived
classes which define, or inherit definitions for, all pure virtual functions can be instantiated.

struct Abstract {
virtual void f() = 0;
};

struct Concrete {
void f() override {}
};

Abstract a; // Error.
Concrete c; // Good.

Even if a function is specified as pure virtual, it can be given a default implementation. Despite this, the function will
still be considered abstract, and derived classes will have to define it before they can be instantiated. In this case,

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the derived class' version of the function is even allowed to call the base class' version.

struct DefaultAbstract {
virtual void f() = 0;
};
void DefaultAbstract::f() {}

struct WhyWouldWeDoThis : DefaultAbstract {

void f() override { DefaultAbstract::f(); }
};

There are a couple of reasons why we might want to do this:

If we want to create a class that can't itself be instantiated, but doesn't prevent its derived classes from being
instantiated, we can declare the destructor as pure virtual. Being the destructor, it must be defined anyways,
if we want to be able to deallocate the instance. And as the destructor is most likely already virtual to prevent
memory leaks during polymorphic use, we won't incur an unnecessary performance hit from declaring
another function virtual. This can be useful when making interfaces.

struct Interface {
virtual ~Interface() = 0;
};
Interface::~Interface() = default;

struct Implementation : Interface {};

// ~Implementation() is automatically defined by the compiler if not explicitly
// specified, meeting the "must be defined before instantiation" requirement.

If most or all implementations of the pure virtual function will contain duplicate code, that code can instead
be moved to the base class version, making the code easier to maintain.

class SharedBase {
State my_state;
std::unique_ptr<Helper> my_helper;
// ...

public:
virtual void config(const Context& cont) = 0;
// ...
};
/* virtual */ void SharedBase::config(const Context& cont) {
my_helper = new Helper(my_state, cont.relevant_field);
do_this();
and_that();
}

class OneImplementation : public SharedBase {

int i;
// ...

public:
void config(const Context& cont) override;
// ...
};
void OneImplementation::config(const Context& cont) /* override */ {
my_state = { cont.some_field, cont.another_field, i };
SharedBase::config(cont);
my_unique_setup();
};

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 // And so on, for other classes derived from SharedBase.

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Chapter 39: Inline functions
A function defined with the inline specifier is an inline function. An inline function can be multiply defined without
violating the One Definition Rule, and can therefore be defined in a header with external linkage. Declaring a
function inline hints to the compiler that the function should be inlined during code generation, but does not
provide a guarantee.

Section 39.1: Non-member inline function definition

inline int add(int x, int y)
{
return x + y;
}

Section 39.2: Member inline functions

// header (.hpp)
struct A
{
void i_am_inlined()
{
}
};

struct B
{
void i_am_NOT_inlined();
};

// source (.cpp)
void B::i_am_NOT_inlined()
{
}

Section 39.3: What is function inlining?

inline int add(int x, int y)
{
return x + y;
}

int main()
{
int a = 1, b = 2;
int c = add(a, b);
}

In the above code, when add is inlined, the resulting code would become something like this

int main()
{
int a = 1, b = 2;
int c = a + b;
}

The inline function is nowhere to be seen, its body gets inlined into the caller's body. Had add not been inlined, a

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function would be called. The overhead of calling a function -- such as creating a new stack frame, copying
arguments, making local variables, jump (losing locality of reference and there by cache misses), etc. -- has to be
incurred.

Section 39.4: Non-member inline function declaration

inline int add(int x, int y);

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Chapter 40: Special Member Functions
Section 40.1: Default Constructor
A default constructor is a type of constructor that requires no parameters when called. It is named after the type it
constructs and is a member function of it (as all constructors are).

class C{
int i;
public:
// the default constructor definition
C()
: i(0){ // member initializer list -- initialize i to 0
// constructor function body -- can do more complex things here
}
};

C c1; // calls default constructor of C to create object c1

C c2 = C(); // calls default constructor explicitly
C c3(); // ERROR: this intuitive version is not possible due to "most vexing parse"
C c4{}; // but in C++11 {} CAN be used in a similar way

C c5[2]; // calls default constructor for both array elements

C* c6 = new C[2]; // calls default constructor for both array elements

Another way to satisfy the "no parameters" requirement is for the developer to provide default values for all
parameters:

class D{
int i;
int j;
public:
// also a default constructor (can be called with no parameters)
D( int i = 0, int j = 42 )
: i(i), j(j){
}
};

D d; // calls constructor of D with the provided default values for the parameters

Under some circumstances (i.e., the developer provides no constructors and there are no other disqualifying
conditions), the compiler implicitly provides an empty default constructor:

class C{
std::string s; // note: members need to be default constructible themselves
};

C c1; // will succeed -- C has an implicitly defined default constructor

Having some other type of constructor is one of the disqualifying conditions mentioned earlier:

class C{
int i;
public:
C( int i ) : i(i){}
};

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C c1; // Compile ERROR: C has no (implicitly defined) default constructor
Version < c++11

To prevent implicit default constructor creation, a common technique is to declare it as private (with no definition).
The intention is to cause a compile error when someone tries to use the constructor (this either results in an Access
to private error or a linker error, depending on the compiler).

To be sure a default constructor (functionally similar to the implicit one) is defined, a developer could write an
empty one explicitly.

Version ≥ c++11

In C++11, a developer can also use the delete keyword to prevent the compiler from providing a default
constructor.

class C{
int i;
public:
// default constructor is explicitly deleted
C() = delete;
};

C c1; // Compile ERROR: C has its default constructor deleted

Furthermore, a developer may also be explicit about wanting the compiler to provide a default constructor.

class C{
int i;
public:
// does have automatically generated default constructor (same as implicit one)
C() = default;

C( int i ) : i(i){}
};

C c1; // default constructed

C c2( 1 ); // constructed with the int taking constructor
Version ≥ c++14

You can determine whether a type has a default constructor (or is a primitive type) using
std::is_default_constructible from <type_traits>:

class C1{ };
class C2{ public: C2(){} };
class C3{ public: C3(int){} };

using std::cout; using std::boolalpha; using std::endl;

using std::is_default_constructible;
cout << boolalpha << is_default_constructible<int>() << endl; // prints true
cout << boolalpha << is_default_constructible<C1>() << endl; // prints true
cout << boolalpha << is_default_constructible<C2>() << endl; // prints true
cout << boolalpha << is_default_constructible<C3>() << endl; // prints false
Version = c++11

In C++11, it is still possible to use the non-functor version of std::is_default_constructible:

cout << boolalpha << is_default_constructible<C1>::value << endl; // prints true

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Section 40.2: Destructor
A destructor is a function without arguments that is called when a user-defined object is about to be destroyed. It is
named after the type it destructs with a ~ prefix.

class C{
int* is;
string s;
public:
C()
: is( new int[10] ){
}

~C(){ // destructor definition

delete[] is;
}
};

class C_child : public C{

string s_ch;
public:
C_child(){}
~C_child(){} // child destructor
};

void f(){
C c1; // calls default constructor
C c2[2]; // calls default constructor for both elements
C* c3 = new C[2]; // calls default constructor for both array elements

C_child c_ch; // when destructed calls destructor of s_ch and of C base (and in turn s)

delete[] c3; // calls destructors on c3[0] and c3[1]

} // automatic variables are destroyed here -- i.e. c1, c2 and c_ch

Under most circumstances (i.e., a user provides no destructor, and there are no other disqualifying conditions), the
compiler provides a default destructor implicitly:

class C{
int i;
string s;
};

void f(){
C* c1 = new C;
delete c1; // C has a destructor
}

class C{
int m;
private:
~C(){} // not public destructor!
};

class C_container{
C c;
};

void f(){

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 C_container* c_cont = new C_container;
delete c_cont; // Compile ERROR: C has no accessible destructor
}
Version > c++11

In C++11, a developer can override this behavior by preventing the compiler from providing a default destructor.

class C{
int m;
public:
~C() = delete; // does NOT have implicit destructor
};

void f{
C c1;
} // Compile ERROR: C has no destructor

Furthermore, a developer may also be explicit about wanting the compiler to provide a default destructor.

class C{
int m;
public:
~C() = default; // saying explicitly it does have implicit/empty destructor
};

void f(){
C c1;
} // C has a destructor -- c1 properly destroyed
Version > c++11

You can determine whether a type has a destructor (or is a primitive type) using std::is_destructible from
<type_traits>:

class C1{ };
class C2{ public: ~C2() = delete };
class C3 : public C2{ };

using std::cout; using std::boolalpha; using std::endl;

using std::is_destructible;
cout << boolalpha << is_destructible<int>() << endl; // prints true
cout << boolalpha << is_destructible<C1>() << endl; // prints true
cout << boolalpha << is_destructible<C2>() << endl; // prints false
cout << boolalpha << is_destructible<C3>() << endl; // prints false

Section 40.3: Copy and swap

If you're writing a class that manages resources, you need to implement all the special member functions (see Rule
of Three/Five/Zero). The most direct approach to writing the copy constructor and assignment operator would be:

person(const person &other)

: name(new char[std::strlen(other.name) + 1])
, age(other.age)
{
std::strcpy(name, other.name);
}

person& operator=(person const& rhs) {

if (this != &other) {
delete [] name;

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 name = new char[std::strlen(other.name) + 1];
std::strcpy(name, other.name);
age = other.age;
}

return *this;
}

But this approach has some problems. It fails the strong exception guarantee - if new[] throws, we've already
cleared the resources owned by this and cannot recover. We're duplicating a lot of the logic of copy construction in
copy assignment. And we have to remember the self-assignment check, which usually just adds overhead to the
copy operation, but is still critical.

To satisfy the strong exception guarantee and avoid code duplication (double so with the subsequent move
assignment operator), we can use the copy-and-swap idiom:

class person {
char* name;
int age;
public:
/* all the other functions ... */

friend void swap(person& lhs, person& rhs) {

using std::swap; // enable ADL

swap(lhs.name, rhs.name);
swap(lhs.age, rhs.age);
}

person& operator=(person rhs) {

swap(*this, rhs);
return *this;
}
};

Why does this work? Consider what happens when we have

person p1 = ...;
person p2 = ...;
p1 = p2;

First, we copy-construct rhs from p2 (which we didn't have to duplicate here). If that operation throws, we don't do
anything in operator= and p1 remains untouched. Next, we swap the members between *this and rhs, and then
rhs goes out of scope. When operator=, that implicitly cleans the original resources of this (via the destructor,
which we didn't have to duplicate). Self-assignment works too - it's less efficient with copy-and-swap (involves an
extra allocation and deallocation), but if that's the unlikely scenario, we don't slow down the typical use case to
account for it.

Version ≥ C++11

The above formulation works as-is already for move assignment.

p1 = std::move(p2);

Here, we move-construct rhs from p2, and all the rest is just as valid. If a class is movable but not copyable, there is
no need to delete the copy-assignment, since this assignment operator will simply be ill-formed due to the deleted
copy constructor.

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Section 40.4: Implicit Move and Copy
Bear in mind that declaring a destructor inhibits the compiler from generating implicit move constructors and move
assignment operators. If you declare a destructor, remember to also add appropriate definitions for the move
operations.

Furthermore, declaring move operations will suppress the generation of copy operations, so these should also be
added (if the objects of this class are required to have copy semantics).

class Movable {
public:
virtual ~Movable() noexcept = default;

// compiler won't generate these unless we tell it to

// because we declared a destructor
Movable(Movable&&) noexcept = default;
Movable& operator=(Movable&&) noexcept = default;

// declaring move operations will suppress generation

// of copy operations unless we explicitly re-enable them
Movable(const Movable&) = default;
Movable& operator=(const Movable&) = default;
};

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Chapter 41: Non-Static Member Functions
Section 41.1: Non-static Member Functions
A class or struct can have member functions as well as member variables. These functions have syntax mostly
similar to standalone functions, and can be defined either inside or outside the class definition; if defined outside
the class definition, the function's name is prefixed with the class' name and the scope (::) operator.

class CL {
public:
void definedInside() {}
void definedOutside();
};
void CL::definedOutside() {}

These functions are called on an instance (or reference to an instance) of the class with the dot (.) operator, or a
pointer to an instance with the arrow (->) operator, and each call is tied to the instance the function was called on;
when a member function is called on an instance, it has access to all of that instance's fields (through the this
pointer), but can only access other instances' fields if those instances are supplied as parameters.

struct ST {
ST(const std::string& ss = "Wolf", int ii = 359) : s(ss), i(ii) { }

int get_i() const { return i; }

bool compare_i(const ST& other) const { return (i == other.i); }

private:
std::string s;
int i;
};
ST st1;
ST st2("Species", 8472);

int i = st1.get_i(); // Can access st1.i, but not st2.i.

bool b = st1.compare_i(st2); // Can access st1 & st2.

These functions are allowed to access member variables and/or other member functions, regardless of either the
variable or function's access modifiers. They can also be written out-of-order, accessing member variables and/or
calling member functions declared before them, as the entire class definition must be parsed before the compiler
can begin to compile a class.

class Access {
public:
Access(int i_ = 8088, int j_ = 8086, int k_ = 6502) : i(i_), j(j_), k(k_) {}

int i;
int get_k() const { return k; }
bool private_no_more() const { return i_be_private(); }
protected:
int j;
int get_i() const { return i; }
private:
int k;
int get_j() const { return j; }
bool i_be_private() const { return ((i > j) && (k < j)); }
};

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Section 41.2: Encapsulation
A common use of member functions is for encapsulation, using an accessor (commonly known as a getter) and a
mutator (commonly known as a setter) instead of accessing fields directly.

class Encapsulator {
int encapsulated;

public:
int get_encapsulated() const { return encapsulated; }
void set_encapsulated(int e) { encapsulated = e; }

void some_func() {
do_something_with(encapsulated);
}
};

Inside the class, encapsulated can be freely accessed by any non-static member function; outside the class, access
to it is regulated by member functions, using get_encapsulated() to read it and set_encapsulated() to modify it.
This prevents unintentional modifications to the variable, as separate functions are used to read and write it. [There
are many discussions on whether getters and setters provide or break encapsulation, with good arguments for
both claims; such heated debate is outside the scope of this example.]

Section 41.3: Name Hiding & Importing

When a base class provides a set of overloaded functions, and a derived class adds another overload to the set, this
hides all of the overloads provided by the base class.

struct HiddenBase {
void f(int) { std::cout << "int" << std::endl; }
void f(bool) { std::cout << "bool" << std::endl; }
void f(std::string) { std::cout << "std::string" << std::endl; }
};

struct HidingDerived : HiddenBase {

void f(float) { std::cout << "float" << std::endl; }
};

// ...

HiddenBase hb;
HidingDerived hd;
std::string s;

hb.f(1); // Output: int

hb.f(true); // Output: bool
hb.f(s); // Output: std::string;

hd.f(1.f); // Output: float

hd.f(3); // Output: float
hd.f(true); // Output: float
hd.f(s); // Error: Can't convert from std::string to float.

This is due to name resolution rules: During name lookup, once the correct name is found, we stop looking, even if
we clearly haven't found the correct version of the entity with that name (such as with hd.f(s)); due to this,
overloading the function in the derived class prevents name lookup from discovering the overloads in the base
class. To avoid this, a using-declaration can be used to "import" names from the base class into the derived class, so

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that they will be available during name lookup.

struct HidingDerived : HiddenBase {

// All members named HiddenBase::f shall be considered members of HidingDerived for lookup.
using HiddenBase::f;

void f(float) { std::cout << "float" << std::endl; }

};

// ...

HidingDerived hd;

hd.f(1.f); // Output: float

hd.f(3); // Output: int
hd.f(true); // Output: bool
hd.f(s); // Output: std::string

If a derived class imports names with a using-declaration, but also declares functions with the same signature as
functions in the base class, the base class functions will silently be overridden or hidden.

struct NamesHidden {
virtual void hide_me() {}
virtual void hide_me(float) {}
void hide_me(int) {}
void hide_me(bool) {}
};

struct NameHider : NamesHidden {

using NamesHidden::hide_me;

void hide_me() {} // Overrides NamesHidden::hide_me().

void hide_me(int) {} // Hides NamesHidden::hide_me(int).
};

A using-declaration can also be used to change access modifiers, provided the imported entity was public or
protected in the base class.

struct ProMem {
protected:
void func() {}
};

struct BecomesPub : ProMem {

using ProMem::func;
};

// ...

ProMem pm;
BecomesPub bp;

pm.func(); // Error: protected.

bp.func(); // Good.

Similarly, if we explicitly want to call a member function from a specific class in the inheritance hierarchy, we can
qualify the function name when calling the function, specifying that class by name.

struct One {

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 virtual void f() { std::cout << "One." << std::endl; }
};

struct Two : One {

void f() override {
One::f(); // this->One::f();
std::cout << "Two." << std::endl;
}
};

struct Three : Two {

void f() override {
Two::f(); // this->Two::f();
std::cout << "Three." << std::endl;
}
};

// ...

Three t;

t.f(); // Normal syntax.

t.Two::f(); // Calls version of f() defined in Two.
t.One::f(); // Calls version of f() defined in One.

Section 41.4: Virtual Member Functions

Member functions can also be declared virtual. In this case, if called on a pointer or reference to an instance, they
will not be accessed directly; rather, they will look up the function in the virtual function table (a list of pointers-to-
member-functions for virtual functions, more commonly known as the vtable or vftable), and use that to call the
version appropriate for the instance's dynamic (actual) type. If the function is called directly, from a variable of a
class, no lookup is performed.

struct Base {
virtual void func() { std::cout << "In Base." << std::endl; }
};

struct Derived : Base {

void func() override { std::cout << "In Derived." << std::endl; }
};

void slicer(Base x) { x.func(); }

// ...

Base b;
Derived d;

Base *pb = &b, *pd = &d; // Pointers.

Base &rb = b, &rd = d; // References.

b.func(); // Output: In Base.

d.func(); // Output: In Derived.

pb->func(); // Output: In Base.

pd->func(); // Output: In Derived.

rb.func(); // Output: In Base.

rd.func(); // Output: In Derived.

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slicer(b); // Output: In Base.
slicer(d); // Output: In Base.

Note that while pd is Base*, and rd is a Base&, calling func() on either of the two calls Derived::func() instead of
Base::func(); this is because the vtable for Derived updates the Base::func() entry to instead point to
Derived::func(). Conversely, note how passing an instance to slicer() always results in Base::func() being
called, even when the passed instance is a Derived; this is because of something known as data slicing, where
passing a Derived instance into a Base parameter by value renders the portion of the Derived instance that isn't a
Base instance inaccessible.

When a member function is defined as virtual, all derived class member functions with the same signature override
it, regardless of whether the overriding function is specified as virtual or not. This can make derived classes
harder for programmers to parse, however, as there's no indication as to which function(s) is/are virtual.

struct B {
virtual void f() {}
};

struct D : B {
void f() {} // Implicitly virtual, overrides B::f.
// You'd have to check B to know that, though.
};

Note, however, that a derived function only overrides a base function if their signatures match; even if a derived
function is explicitly declared virtual, it will instead create a new virtual function if the signatures are mismatched.

struct BadB {
virtual void f() {}
};

struct BadD : BadB {

virtual void f(int i) {} // Does NOT override BadB::f.
};
Version ≥ C++11

As of C++11, intent to override can be made explicit with the context-sensitive keyword override. This tells the
compiler that the programmer expects it to override a base class function, which causes the compiler to omit an
error if it doesn't override anything.

struct CPP11B {
virtual void f() {}
};

struct CPP11D : CPP11B {

void f() override {}
void f(int i) override {} // Error: Doesn't actually override anything.
};

This also has the benefit of telling programmers that the function is both virtual, and also declared in at least one
base class, which can make complex classes easier to parse.

When a function is declared virtual, and defined outside the class definition, the virtual specifier must be
included in the function declaration, and not repeated in the definition.

Version ≥ C++11

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This also holds true for override.

struct VB {
virtual void f(); // "virtual" goes here.
void g();
};
/* virtual */ void VB::f() {} // Not here.
virtual void VB::g() {} // Error.

If a base class overloads a virtual function, only overloads that are explicitly specified as virtual will be virtual.

struct BOverload {
virtual void func() {}
void func(int) {}
};

struct DOverload : BOverload {

void func() override {}
void func(int) {}
};

// ...

BOverload* bo = new DOverload;

bo->func(); // Calls DOverload::func().
bo->func(1); // Calls BOverload::func(int).

For more information, see the relevant topic.

Section 41.5: Const Correctness

One of the primary uses for this cv-qualifiers is const correctness. This is the practice of guaranteeing that only
accesses that need to modify an object are able to modify the object, and that any (member or non-member)
function that doesn't need to modify an object doesn't have write access to that object (whether directly or
indirectly). This prevents unintentional modifications, making code less errorprone. It also allows any function that
doesn't need to modify state to be able to take either a const or non-const object, without needing to rewrite or
overload the function.

const correctness, due to its nature, starts at the bottom up: Any class member function that doesn't need to
change state is declared as const, so that it can be called on const instances. This, in turn, allows passed-by-
reference parameters to be declared const when they don't need to be modified, which allows functions to take
either const or non-const objects without complaining, and const-ness can propagate outwards in this manner.
Due to this, getters are frequently const, as are any other functions that don't need to modify logical state.

class ConstIncorrect {
Field fld;

public:
ConstIncorrect(const Field& f) : fld(f) {} // Modifies.

const Field& get_field() { return fld; } // Doesn't modify; should be const.

void set_field(const Field& f) { fld = f; } // Modifies.

void do_something(int i) { // Modifies.

fld.insert_value(i);
}
void do_nothing() { } // Doesn't modify; should be const.
};

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class ConstCorrect {
Field fld;

public:
ConstCorrect(const Field& f) : fld(f) {} // Not const: Modifies.

const Field& get_field() const { return fld; } // const: Doesn't modify.

void set_field(const Field& f) { fld = f; } // Not const: Modifies.

void do_something(int i) { // Not const: Modifies.

fld.insert_value(i);
}
void do_nothing() const { } // const: Doesn't modify.
};

// ...

const ConstIncorrect i_cant_do_anything(make_me_a_field());

// Now, let's read it...
Field f = i_cant_do_anything.get_field();
// Error: Loses cv-qualifiers, get_field() isn't const.
i_cant_do_anything.do_nothing();
// Error: Same as above.
// Oops.

const ConstCorrect but_i_can(make_me_a_field());

// Now, let's read it...
Field f = but_i_can.get_field(); // Good.
but_i_can.do_nothing(); // Good.

As illustrated by the comments on ConstIncorrect and ConstCorrect, properly cv-qualifying functions also serves
as documentation. If a class is const correct, any function that isn't const can safely be assumed to change state,
and any function that is const can safely be assumed not to change state.

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Chapter 42: Constant class member
functions
Section 42.1: constant member function
#include <iostream>
#include <map>
#include <string>

using namespace std;

class A {
public:
map<string, string> * mapOfStrings;
public:
A() {
mapOfStrings = new map<string, string>();
}

void insertEntry(string const & key, string const & value) const {
(*mapOfStrings)[key] = value; // This works? Yes it does.
delete mapOfStrings; // This also works
mapOfStrings = new map<string, string>(); // This * does * not work
}

void refresh() {
delete mapOfStrings;
mapOfStrings = new map<string, string>(); // Works as refresh is non const function
}

void getEntry(string const & key) const {

cout << mapOfStrings->at(key);
}
};

int main(int argc, char* argv[]) {

A var;
var.insertEntry("abc", "abcValue");
var.getEntry("abc");
getchar();
return 0;
}

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 235

Chapter 43: C++ Containers
C++ containers store a collection of elements. Containers include vectors, lists, maps, etc. Using Templates, C++
containers contain collections of primitives (e.g. ints) or custom classes (e.g. MyClass).

Section 43.1: C++ Containers Flowchart

Choosing which C++ Container to use can be tricky, so here's a simple flowchart to help decide which Container is
right for the job.

This flowchart was based on Mikael Persson's post. This little graphic in the flowchart is from Megan Hopkins

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 236

Chapter 44: Namespaces
Used to prevent name collisions when using multiple libraries, a namespace is a declarative prefix for functions,
classes, types, etc.

Section 44.1: What are namespaces?

A C++ namespace is a collection of C++ entities (functions, classes, variables), whose names are prefixed by the
name of the namespace. When writing code within a namespace, named entities belonging to that namespace
need not be prefixed with the namespace name, but entities outside of it must use the fully qualified name. The
fully qualified name has the format <namespace>::<entity>. Example:

namespace Example
{
const int test = 5;

const int test2 = test + 12; //Works within `Example` namespace

}

const int test3 = test + 3; //Fails; `test` not found outside of namespace.

const int test3 = Example::test + 3; //Works; fully qualified name used.

Namespaces are useful for grouping related definitions together. Take the analogy of a shopping mall. Generally a
shopping mall is split up into several stores, each store selling items from a specific category. One store might sell
electronics, while another store might sell shoes. These logical separations in store types help the shoppers find the
items they're looking for. Namespaces help c++ programmers, like shoppers, find the functions, classes, and
variables they're looking for by organizing them in a logical manner. Example:

namespace Electronics
{
int TotalStock;
class Headphones
{
// Description of a Headphone (color, brand, model number, etc.)
};
class Television
{
// Description of a Television (color, brand, model number, etc.)
};
}

namespace Shoes
{
int TotalStock;
class Sandal
{
// Description of a Sandal (color, brand, model number, etc.)
};
class Slipper
{
// Description of a Slipper (color, brand, model number, etc.)
};
}

There is a single namespace predefined, which is the global namespace that has no name, but can be denoted by
::. Example:

GoalKicker.com – C++ Notes for Professionals 237

void bar() {
// defined in global namespace
}
namespace foo {
void bar() {
// defined in namespace foo
}
void barbar() {
bar(); // calls foo::bar()
::bar(); // calls bar() defined in global namespace
}
}

Section 44.2: Argument Dependent Lookup

When calling a function without an explicit namespace qualifier, the compiler can choose to call a function within a
namespace if one of the parameter types to that function is also in that namespace. This is called "Argument
Dependent Lookup", or ADL:

namespace Test
{
int call(int i);

class SomeClass {...};

int call_too(const SomeClass &data);

}

call(5); //Fails. Not a qualified function name.

Test::SomeClass data;

call_too(data); //Succeeds

call fails because none of its parameter types come from the Test namespace. call_too works because
SomeClass is a member of Test and therefore it qualifies for ADL rules.

When does ADL not occur

ADL does not occur if normal unqualified lookup finds a class member, a function that has been declared at block
scope, or something that is not of function type. For example:

void foo();
namespace N {
struct X {};
void foo(X ) { std::cout << '1'; }
void qux(X ) { std::cout << '2'; }
}

struct C {
void foo() {}
void bar() {
foo(N::X{}); // error: ADL is disabled and C::foo() takes no arguments
}
};

void bar() {
extern void foo(); // redeclares ::foo
foo(N::X{}); // error: ADL is disabled and ::foo() doesn't take any arguments

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}

int qux;

void baz() {
qux(N::X{}); // error: variable declaration disables ADL for "qux"
}

Section 44.3: Extending namespaces

A useful feature of namespaces is that you can expand them (add members to it).

namespace Foo
{
void bar() {}
}

//some other stuff

namespace Foo
{
void bar2() {}
}

Section 44.4: Using directive

The keyword 'using' has three flavors. Combined with keyword 'namespace' you write a 'using directive':

If you don't want to write Foo:: in front of every stuff in the namespace Foo, you can use using namespace Foo; to
import every single thing out of Foo.

namespace Foo
{
void bar() {}
void baz() {}
}

//Have to use Foo::bar()

Foo::bar();

//Import Foo
using namespace Foo;
bar(); //OK
baz(); //OK

It is also possible to import selected entities in a namespace rather than the whole namespace:

using Foo::bar;
bar(); //OK, was specifically imported
baz(); // Not OK, was not imported

A word of caution: using namespaces in header files is seen as bad style in most cases. If this is done, the
namespace is imported in every file that includes the header. Since there is no way of "un-using" a namespace, this
can lead to namespace pollution (more or unexpected symbols in the global namespace) or, worse, conflicts. See
this example for an illustration of the problem:

/***** foo.h *****/

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namespace Foo
{
class C;
}

/***** bar.h *****/

namespace Bar
{
class C;
}

/***** baz.h *****/

#include "foo.h"
using namespace Foo;

/***** main.cpp *****/

#include "bar.h"
#include "baz.h"

using namespace Bar;

C c; // error: Ambiguity between Bar::C and Foo::C

A using-directive cannot occur at class scope.

Section 44.5: Making namespaces

Creating a namespace is really easy:

//Creates namespace foo

namespace Foo
{
//Declares function bar in namespace foo
void bar() {}
}

To call bar, you have to specify the namespace first, followed by the scope resolution operator :::

Foo::bar();

It is allowed to create one namespace in another, for example:

namespace A
{
namespace B
{
namespace C
{
void bar() {}
}
}
}
Version ≥ C++17

The above code could be simplified to the following:

namespace A::B::C
{
void bar() {}

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}

Section 44.6: Unnamed/anonymous namespaces

An unnamed namespace can be used to ensure names have internal linkage (can only be referred to by the current
translation unit). Such a namespace is defined in the same way as any other namespace, but without the name:

namespace {
int foo = 42;
}

foo is only visible in the translation unit in which it appears.

It is recommended to never use unnamed namespaces in header files as this gives a version of the content for
every translation unit it is included in. This is especially important if you define non-const globals.

// foo.h
namespace {
std::string globalString;
}

// 1.cpp
#include "foo.h" //< Generates unnamed_namespace{1.cpp}::globalString ...

globalString = "Initialize";

// 2.cpp
#include "foo.h" //< Generates unnamed_namespace{2.cpp}::globalString ...

std::cout << globalString; //< Will always print the empty string

Section 44.7: Compact nested namespaces

Version ≥ C++17
namespace a {
namespace b {
template<class T>
struct qualifies : std::false_type {};
}
}

namespace other {
struct bob {};
}

namespace a::b {
template<>
struct qualifies<::other::bob> : std::true_type {};
}

You can enter both the a and b namespaces in one step with namespace a::b starting in C++17.

Section 44.8: Namespace alias

A namespace can be given an alias (i.e., another name for the same namespace) using the namespace identifier =
syntax. Members of the aliased namespace can be accessed by qualifying them with the name of the alias. In the

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following example, the nested namespace AReallyLongName::AnotherReallyLongName is inconvenient to type, so
the function qux locally declares an alias N. Members of that namespace can then be accessed simply using N::.

namespace AReallyLongName {
namespace AnotherReallyLongName {
int foo();
int bar();
void baz(int x, int y);
}
}
void qux() {
namespace N = AReallyLongName::AnotherReallyLongName;
N::baz(N::foo(), N::bar());
}

Section 44.9: Inline namespace

Version ≥ C++11

inline namespace includes the content of the inlined namespace in the enclosing namespace, so

namespace Outer
{
inline namespace Inner
{
void foo();
}
}

is mostly equivalent to

namespace Outer
{

namespace Inner
{
void foo();
}

using Inner::foo;
}

but element from Outer::Inner:: and those associated into Outer:: are identical.

So following is equivalent

Outer::foo();
Outer::Inner::foo();

The alternative using namespace Inner; would not be equivalent for some tricky parts as template specialization:

For

#include <outer.h> // See below

class MyCustomType;
namespace Outer
{

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 template <>
void foo<MyCustomType>() { std::cout << "Specialization"; }
}

The inline namespace allows the specialization of Outer::foo

// outer.h
// include guard omitted for simplification

namespace Outer
{
inline namespace Inner
{
template <typename T>
void foo() { std::cout << "Generic"; }
}
}

Whereas the using namespace doesn't allow the specialization of Outer::foo

// outer.h
// include guard omitted for simplification

namespace Outer
{
namespace Inner
{
template <typename T>
void foo() { std::cout << "Generic"; }
}
using namespace Inner;
// Specialization of `Outer::foo` is not possible
// it should be `Outer::Inner::foo`.
}

Inline namespace is a way to allow several version to cohabit and defaulting to the inline one

namespace MyNamespace
{
// Inline the last version
inline namespace Version2
{
void foo(); // New version
void bar();
}

namespace Version1 // The old one

{
void foo();
}

And with usage

MyNamespace::Version1::foo(); // old version

MyNamespace::Version2::foo(); // new version
MyNamespace::foo(); // default version : MyNamespace::Version1::foo();

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Section 44.10: Aliasing a long namespace
This is usually used for renaming or shortening long namespace references such referring to components of a
library.

namespace boost
{
namespace multiprecision
{
class Number ...
}
}

namespace Name1 = boost::multiprecision;

// Both Type declarations are equivalent

boost::multiprecision::Number X // Writing the full namespace path, longer
Name1::Number Y // using the name alias, shorter

Section 44.11: Alias Declaration scope

Alias Declaration are affected by preceding using statements

namespace boost
{
namespace multiprecision
{
class Number ...
}
}

using namespace boost;

// Both Namespace are equivalent

namespace Name1 = boost::multiprecision;
namespace Name2 = multiprecision;

However, it is easier to get confused over which namespace you are aliasing when you have something like this:

namespace boost
{
namespace multiprecision
{
class Number ...
}
}

namespace numeric
{
namespace multiprecision
{
class Number ...
}
}

using namespace numeric;

using namespace boost;

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// Not recommended as
// its not explicitly clear whether Name1 refers to
// numeric::multiprecision or boost::multiprecision
namespace Name1 = multiprecision;

// For clarity, its recommended to use absolute paths

// instead
namespace Name2 = numeric::multiprecision;
namespace Name3 = boost::multiprecision;

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Chapter 45: Header Files
Section 45.1: Basic Example
The following example will contain a block of code that is meant to be split into several source files, as denoted by
// filename comments.

Source Files
// my_function.h

/* Note how this header contains only a declaration of a function.

* Header functions usually do not define implementations for declarations
* unless code must be further processed at compile time, as in templates.
*/

/* Also, usually header files include preprocessor guards so that every header
* is never included twice.
*
* The guard is implemented by checking if a header-file unique preprocessor
* token is defined, and only including the header if it hasn't been included
* once before.
*/
#ifndef MY_FUNCTION_H
#define MY_FUNCTION_H

// global_value and my_function() will be

// recognized as the same constructs if this header is included by different files.
const int global_value = 42;
int my_function();

#endif // MY_FUNCTION_H

// my_function.cpp

/* Note how the corresponding source file for the header includes the interface
* defined in the header so that the compiler is aware of what the source file is
* implementing.
*
* In this case, the source file requires knowledge of the global constant
* global_value only defined in my_function.h. Without inclusion of the header
* file, this source file would not compile.
*/
#include "my_function.h" // or #include "my_function.hpp"
int my_function() {
return global_value; // return 42;
}

Header files are then included by other source files that want to use the functionality defined by the header
interface, but don't require knowledge of its implementation (thus, reducing code coupling). The following program
makes use of the header my_function.h as defined above:

// main.cpp

#include <iostream> // A C++ Standard Library header.

#include "my_function.h" // A personal header

int main(int argc, char** argv) {

std::cout << my_function() << std::endl;

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 return 0;
}

The Compilation Process

Since header files are often part of a compilation process workflow, a typical compilation process making use of the
header/source file convention will usually do the following.

Assuming that the header file and source code file is already in the same directory, a programmer would execute
the following commands:

g++ -c my_function.cpp # Compiles the source file my_function.cpp

# --> object file my_function.o

g++ main.cpp my_function.o # Links the object file containing the

# implementation of int my_function()
# to the compiled, object version of main.cpp
# and then produces the final executable a.out

Alternatively, if one wishes to compile main.cpp to an object file first, and then link only object files together as the
final step:

g++ -c my_function.cpp
g++ -c main.cpp

g++ main.o my_function.o

Section 45.2: Templates in Header Files

Templates require compile-time generation of code: a templated function, for example, will be effectively turned
into multiple distinct functions once a templated function is parameterized by use in source code.

This means that template function, member function, and class definitions cannot be delegated to a separate
source code file, as any code that will use any templated construct requires knowledge of its definition to generally
generate any derivative code.

Thus, templated code, if put in headers, must also contain its definition. An example of this is below:

// templated_function.h

template <typename T>

T* null_T_pointer() {
T* type_point = NULL; // or, alternatively, nullptr instead of NULL
// for C++11 or later
return type_point;
}

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Chapter 46: Using declaration
A using declaration introduces a single name into the current scope that was previously declared elsewhere.

Section 46.1: Importing names individually from a namespace

Once using is used to introduce the name cout from the namespace std into the scope of the main function, the
std::cout object can be referred to as cout alone.

#include <iostream>
int main() {
using std::cout;
cout << "Hello, world!\n";
}

Section 46.2: Redeclaring members from a base class to

avoid name hiding
If a using-declaration occurs at class scope, it is only allowed to redeclare a member of a base class. For example,
using std::cout is not allowed at class scope.

Often, the name redeclared is one that would otherwise be hidden. For example, in the below code, d1.foo only
refers to Derived1::foo(const char*) and a compilation error will occur. The function Base::foo(int) is hidden
not considered at all. However, d2.foo(42) is fine because the using-declaration brings Base::foo(int) into the set
of entities named foo in Derived2. Name lookup then finds both foos and overload resolution selects Base::foo.

struct Base {
void foo(int);
};
struct Derived1 : Base {
void foo(const char*);
};
struct Derived2 : Base {
using Base::foo;
void foo(const char*);
};
int main() {
Derived1 d1;
d1.foo(42); // error
Derived2 d2;
d2.foo(42); // OK
}

Section 46.3: Inheriting constructors

Version ≥ C++11

As a special case, a using-declaration at class scope can refer to the constructors of a direct base class. Those
constructors are then inherited by the derived class and can be used to initialize the derived class.

struct Base {
Base(int x, const char* s);
};
struct Derived1 : Base {
Derived1(int x, const char* s) : Base(x, s) {}
};

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struct Derived2 : Base {
using Base::Base;
};
int main() {
Derived1 d1(42, "Hello, world");
Derived2 d2(42, "Hello, world");
}

In the above code, both Derived1 and Derived2 have constructors that forward the arguments directly to the
corresponding constructor of Base. Derived1 performs the forwarding explicitly, while Derived2, using the C++11
feature of inheriting constructors, does so implicitly.

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Chapter 47: std::string
Strings are objects that represent sequences of characters. The standard string class provides a simple, safe and
versatile alternative to using explicit arrays of chars when dealing with text and other sequences of characters. The
C++ string class is part of the std namespace and was standardized in 1998.

Section 47.1: Tokenize

Listed from least expensive to most expensive at run-time:

1. std::strtok is the cheapest standard provided tokenization method, it also allows the delimiter to be
modified between tokens, but it incurs 3 difficulties with modern C++:

std::strtok cannot be used on multiple strings at the same time (though some implementations do
extend to support this, such as: strtok_s)
For the same reason std::strtok cannot be used on multiple threads simultaneously (this may
however be implementation defined, for example: Visual Studio's implementation is thread safe)
Calling std::strtok modifies the std::string it is operating on, so it cannot be used on const
strings, const char*s, or literal strings, to tokenize any of these with std::strtok or to operate on a
std::string who's contents need to be preserved, the input would have to be copied, then the copy
could be operated on

Generally any of these options cost will be hidden in the allocation cost of the tokens, but if the cheapest
algorithm is required and std::strtok's difficulties are not overcomable consider a hand-spun solution.

// String to tokenize
std::string str{ "The quick brown fox" };
// Vector to store tokens
vector<std::string> tokens;

for (auto i = strtok(&str[0], " "); i != NULL; i = strtok(NULL, " "))

tokens.push_back(i);

Live Example

2. The std::istream_iterator uses the stream's extraction operator iteratively. If the input std::string is
white-space delimited this is able to expand on the std::strtok option by eliminating its difficulties, allowing
inline tokenization thereby supporting the generation of a const vector<string>, and by adding support for
multiple delimiting white-space character:

// String to tokenize
const std::string str("The quick \tbrown \nfox");
std::istringstream is(str);
// Vector to store tokens
const std::vector<std::string> tokens = std::vector<std::string>(
std::istream_iterator<std::string>(is),
std::istream_iterator<std::string>());

Live Example

3. The std::regex_token_iterator uses a std::regex to iteratively tokenize. It provides for a more flexible
delimiter definition. For example, non-delimited commas and white-space:

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Version ≥ C++11
// String to tokenize
const std::string str{ "The ,qu\\,ick ,\tbrown, fox" };
const std::regex re{ "\\s*((?:[^\\\\,]|\\\\.)*?)\\s*(?:,|$)" };
// Vector to store tokens
const std::vector<std::string> tokens{
std::sregex_token_iterator(str.begin(), str.end(), re, 1),
std::sregex_token_iterator()
};

Live Example

See the regex_token_iterator Example for more details.

Section 47.2: Conversion to (const) char*

In order to get const char* access to the data of a std::string you can use the string's c_str() member function.
Keep in mind that the pointer is only valid as long as the std::string object is within scope and remains
unchanged, that means that only const methods may be called on the object.

Version ≥ C++17

The data() member function can be used to obtain a modifiable char*, which can be used to manipulate the
std::string object's data.

Version ≥ C++11

A modifiable char* can also be obtained by taking the address of the first character: &s[0]. Within C++11, this is
guaranteed to yield a well-formed, null-terminated string. Note that &s[0] is well-formed even if s is empty,
whereas &s.front() is undefined if s is empty.

Version ≥ C++11
std::string str("This is a string.");
const char* cstr = str.c_str(); // cstr points to: "This is a string.\0"
const char* data = str.data(); // data points to: "This is a string.\0"

std::string str("This is a string.");

// Copy the contents of str to untie lifetime from the std::string object
std::unique_ptr<char []> cstr = std::make_unique<char[]>(str.size() + 1);

// Alternative to the line above (no exception safety):

// char* cstr_unsafe = new char[str.size() + 1];

std::copy(str.data(), str.data() + str.size(), cstr);

cstr[str.size()] = '\0'; // A null-terminator needs to be added

// delete[] cstr_unsafe;
std::cout << cstr.get();

Section 47.3: Using the std::string_view class

Version ≥ C++17

C++17 introduces std::string_view, which is simply a non-owning range of const chars, implementable as either
a pair of pointers or a pointer and a length. It is a superior parameter type for functions that requires non-
modifiable string data. Before C++17, there were three options for this:

void foo(std::string const& s); // pre-C++17, single argument, could incur

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 // allocation if caller's data was not in a string
// (e.g. string literal or vector<char> )

void foo(const char* s, size_t len); // pre-C++17, two arguments, have to pass them
// both everywhere

void foo(const char* s); // pre-C++17, single argument, but need to call
// strlen()

template <class StringT>

void foo(StringT const& s); // pre-C++17, caller can pass arbitrary char data
// provider, but now foo() has to live in a header

All of these can be replaced with:

void foo(std::string_view s); // post-C++17, single argument, tighter coupling

// zero copies regardless of how caller is storing
// the data

Note that std::string_view cannot modify its underlying data.

string_view is useful when you want to avoid unnecessary copies.

It offers a useful subset of the functionality that std::string does, although some of the functions behave
differently:

std::string str = "lllloooonnnngggg sssstttrrriiinnnggg"; //A really long string

//Bad way - 'string::substr' returns a new string (expensive if the string is long)
std::cout << str.substr(15, 10) << '\n';

//Good way - No copies are created!

std::string_view view = str;

// string_view::substr returns a new string_view

std::cout << view.substr(15, 10) << '\n';

Section 47.4: Conversion to std::wstring

In C++, sequences of characters are represented by specializing the std::basic_string class with a native
character type. The two major collections defined by the standard library are std::string and std::wstring:

std::string is built with elements of type char

std::wstring is built with elements of type wchar_t

To convert between the two types, use wstring_convert:

#include <string>
#include <codecvt>
#include <locale>

std::string input_str = "this is a -string-, which is a sequence based on the -char- type.";
std::wstring input_wstr = L"this is a -wide- string, which is based on the -wchar_t- type.";

// conversion
std::wstring str_turned_to_wstr =
std::wstring_convert<std::codecvt_utf8<wchar_t>>().from_bytes(input_str);

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std::string wstr_turned_to_str =
std::wstring_convert<std::codecvt_utf8<wchar_t>>().to_bytes(input_wstr);

In order to improve usability and/or readability, you can define functions to perform the conversion:

#include <string>
#include <codecvt>
#include <locale>

using convert_t = std::codecvt_utf8<wchar_t>;

std::wstring_convert<convert_t, wchar_t> strconverter;

std::string to_string(std::wstring wstr)

{
return strconverter.to_bytes(wstr);
}

std::wstring to_wstring(std::string str)

{
return strconverter.from_bytes(str);
}

Sample usage:

std::wstring a_wide_string = to_wstring("Hello World!");

That's certainly more readable than std::wstring_convert<std::codecvt_utf8<wchar_t>>().from_bytes("Hello

World!").

Please note that char and wchar_t do not imply encoding, and gives no indication of size in bytes. For instance,
wchar_t is commonly implemented as a 2-bytes data type and typically contains UTF-16 encoded data under
Windows (or UCS-2 in versions prior to Windows 2000) and as a 4-bytes data type encoded using UTF-32 under
Linux. This is in contrast with the newer types char16_t and char32_t, which were introduced in C++11 and are
guaranteed to be large enough to hold any UTF16 or UTF32 "character" (or more precisely, code point) respectively.

Section 47.5: Lexicographical comparison

Two std::strings can be compared lexicographically using the operators ==, !=, <, <=, >, and >=:

std::string str1 = "Foo";

std::string str2 = "Bar";

assert(!(str1 < str2));

assert(str > str2);
assert(!(str1 <= str2));
assert(str1 >= str2);
assert(!(str1 == str2));
assert(str1 != str2);

All these functions use the underlying std::string::compare() method to perform the comparison, and return for
convenience boolean values. The operation of these functions may be interpreted as follows, regardless of the
actual implementation:

operator==:

If str1.length() == str2.length() and each character pair matches, then returns true, otherwise returns

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 false.

operator!=:

If str1.length() != str2.length() or one character pair doesn't match, returns true, otherwise it returns
false.

operator< or operator>:

Finds the first different character pair, compares them then returns the boolean result.

operator<= or operator>=:

Finds the first different character pair, compares them then returns the boolean result.

Note: The term character pair means the corresponding characters in both strings of the same positions. For
better understanding, if two example strings are str1 and str2, and their lengths are n and m respectively, then
character pairs of both strings means each str1[i] and str2[i] pairs where i = 0, 1, 2, ..., max(n,m). If for any i
where the corresponding character does not exist, that is, when i is greater than or equal to n or m, it would be
considered as the lowest value.

Here is an example of using <:

std::string str1 = "Barr";

std::string str2 = "Bar";

assert(str2 < str1);

The steps are as follows:

1. Compare the first characters, 'B' == 'B' - move on.

2. Compare the second characters, 'a' == 'a' - move on.
3. Compare the third characters, 'r' == 'r' - move on.
4. The str2 range is now exhausted, while the str1 range still has characters. Thus, str2 < str1.

Section 47.6: Trimming characters at start/end

This example requires the headers <algorithm>, <locale>, and <utility>.

Version ≥ C++11

To trim a sequence or string means to remove all leading and trailing elements (or characters) matching a certain
predicate. We first trim the trailing elements, because it doesn't involve moving any elements, and then trim the
leading elements. Note that the generalizations below work for all types of std::basic_string (e.g. std::string
and std::wstring), and accidentally also for sequence containers (e.g. std::vector and std::list).

template <typename Sequence, // any basic_string, vector, list etc.

typename Pred> // a predicate on the element (character) type
Sequence& trim(Sequence& seq, Pred pred) {
return trim_start(trim_end(seq, pred), pred);
}

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Trimming the trailing elements involves finding the last element not matching the predicate, and erasing from there
on:

template <typename Sequence, typename Pred>

Sequence& trim_end(Sequence& seq, Pred pred) {
auto last = std::find_if_not(seq.rbegin(),
seq.rend(),
pred);
seq.erase(last.base(), seq.end());
return seq;
}

Trimming the leading elements involves finding the first element not matching the predicate and erasing up to
there:

template <typename Sequence, typename Pred>

Sequence& trim_start(Sequence& seq, Pred pred) {
auto first = std::find_if_not(seq.begin(),
seq.end(),
pred);
seq.erase(seq.begin(), first);
return seq;
}

To specialize the above for trimming whitespace in a std::string we can use the std::isspace() function as a
predicate:

std::string& trim(std::string& str, const std::locale& loc = std::locale()) {

return trim(str, [&loc](const char c){ return std::isspace(c, loc); });
}

std::string& trim_start(std::string& str, const std::locale& loc = std::locale()) {

return trim_start(str, [&loc](const char c){ return std::isspace(c, loc); });
}

std::string& trim_end(std::string& str, const std::locale& loc = std::locale()) {

return trim_end(str, [&loc](const char c){ return std::isspace(c, loc); });
}

Similarly, we can use the std::iswspace() function for std::wstring etc.

If you wish to create a new sequence that is a trimmed copy, then you can use a separate function:

template <typename Sequence, typename Pred>

Sequence trim_copy(Sequence seq, Pred pred) { // NOTE: passing seq by value
trim(seq, pred);
return seq;
}

Section 47.7: String replacement

Replace by position

To replace a portion of a std::string you can use the method replace from std::string.

replace has a lot of useful overloads:

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//Define string
std::string str = "Hello foo, bar and world!";
std::string alternate = "Hello foobar";

//1)
str.replace(6, 3, "bar"); //"Hello bar, bar and world!"

//2)
str.replace(str.begin() + 6, str.end(), "nobody!"); //"Hello nobody!"

//3)
str.replace(19, 5, alternate, 6, 6); //"Hello foo, bar and foobar!"
Version ≥ C++14
//4)
str.replace(19, 5, alternate, 6); //"Hello foo, bar and foobar!"

//5)
str.replace(str.begin(), str.begin() + 5, str.begin() + 6, str.begin() + 9);
//"foo foo, bar and world!"

//6)
str.replace(0, 5, 3, 'z'); //"zzz foo, bar and world!"

//7)
str.replace(str.begin() + 6, str.begin() + 9, 3, 'x'); //"Hello xxx, bar and world!"
Version ≥ C++11
//8)
str.replace(str.begin(), str.begin() + 5, { 'x', 'y', 'z' }); //"xyz foo, bar and world!"

Replace occurrences of a string with another string

Replace only the first occurrence of replace with with in str:

std::string replaceString(std::string str,

const std::string& replace,
const std::string& with){
std::size_t pos = str.find(replace);
if (pos != std::string::npos)
str.replace(pos, replace.length(), with);
return str;
}

Replace all occurrence of replace with with in str:

std::string replaceStringAll(std::string str,

const std::string& replace,
const std::string& with) {
if(!replace.empty()) {
std::size_t pos = 0;
while ((pos = str.find(replace, pos)) != std::string::npos) {
str.replace(pos, replace.length(), with);
pos += with.length();
}
}
return str;
}

Section 47.8: Converting to std::string

std::ostringstream can be used to convert any streamable type to a string representation, by inserting the object

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into a std::ostringstream object (with the stream insertion operator <<) and then converting the whole
std::ostringstream to a std::string.

For int for instance:

#include <sstream>

int main()
{
int val = 4;
std::ostringstream str;
str << val;
std::string converted = str.str();
return 0;
}

Writing your own conversion function, the simple:

template<class T>
std::string toString(const T& x)
{
std::ostringstream ss;
ss << x;
return ss.str();
}

works but isn't suitable for performance critical code.

User-defined classes may implement the stream insertion operator if desired:

std::ostream operator<<( std::ostream& out, const A& a )

{
// write a string representation of a to out
return out;
}
Version ≥ C++11

Aside from streams, since C++11 you can also use the std::to_string (and std::to_wstring) function which is
overloaded for all fundamental types and returns the string representation of its parameter.

std::string s = to_string(0x12f3); // after this the string s contains "4851"

Section 47.9: Splitting

Use std::string::substr to split a string. There are two variants of this member function.

The first takes a starting position from which the returned substring should begin. The starting position must be
valid in the range (0, str.length()]:

std::string str = "Hello foo, bar and world!";

std::string newstr = str.substr(11); // "bar and world!"

The second takes a starting position and a total length of the new substring. Regardless of the length, the substring
will never go past the end of the source string:

std::string str = "Hello foo, bar and world!";

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std::string newstr = str.substr(15, 3); // "and"

Note that you can also call substr with no arguments, in this case an exact copy of the string is returned

std::string str = "Hello foo, bar and world!";

std::string newstr = str.substr(); // "Hello foo, bar and world!"

Section 47.10: Accessing a character

There are several ways to extract characters from a std::string and each is subtly different.

std::string str("Hello world!");

operator[](n)

Returns a reference to the character at index n.

std::string::operator[] is not bounds-checked and does not throw an exception. The caller is responsible for
asserting that the index is within the range of the string:

char c = str[6]; // 'w'

at(n)

Returns a reference to the character at index n.

std::string::at is bounds checked, and will throw std::out_of_range if the index is not within the range of the
string:

char c = str.at(7); // 'o'

Version ≥ C++11

Note: Both of these examples will result in undefined behavior if the string is empty.

front()

Returns a reference to the first character:

char c = str.front(); // 'H'

back()

Returns a reference to the last character:

char c = str.back(); // '!'

Section 47.11: Checking if a string is a prefix of another

Version ≥ C++14

In C++14, this is easily done by std::mismatch which returns the first mismatching pair from two ranges:

std::string prefix = "foo";

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std::string string = "foobar";

bool isPrefix = std::mismatch(prefix.begin(), prefix.end(),

string.begin(), string.end()).first == prefix.end();

Note that a range-and-a-half version of mismatch() existed prior to C++14, but this is unsafe in the case that the
second string is the shorter of the two.

Version < C++14

We can still use the range-and-a-half version of std::mismatch(), but we need to first check that the first string is at
most as big as the second:

bool isPrefix = prefix.size() <= string.size() &&

std::mismatch(prefix.begin(), prefix.end(),
string.begin(), string.end()).first == prefix.end();
Version ≥ C++17

With std::string_view, we can write the direct comparison we want without having to worry about allocation
overhead or making copies:

bool isPrefix(std::string_view prefix, std::string_view full)

{
return prefix == full.substr(0, prefix.size());
}

Section 47.12: Looping through each character

Version ≥ C++11

std::string supports iterators, and so you can use a ranged based loop to iterate through each character:

std::string str = "Hello World!";

for (auto c : str)
std::cout << c;

You can use a "traditional" for loop to loop through every character:

std::string str = "Hello World!";

for (std::size_t i = 0; i < str.length(); ++i)
std::cout << str[i];

Section 47.13: Conversion to integers/floating point types

A std::string containing a number can be converted into an integer type, or a floating point type, using
conversion functions.

Note that all of these functions stop parsing the input string as soon as they encounter a non-numeric character, so
"123abc" will be converted into 123.

The std::ato* family of functions converts C-style strings (character arrays) to integer or floating-point types:

std::string ten = "10";

double num1 = std::atof(ten.c_str());

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int num2 = std::atoi(ten.c_str());
long num3 = std::atol(ten.c_str());
Version ≥ C++11
long long num4 = std::atoll(ten.c_str());

However, use of these functions is discouraged because they return 0 if they fail to parse the string. This is bad
because 0 could also be a valid result, if for example the input string was "0", so it is impossible to determine if the
conversion actually failed.

The newer std::sto* family of functions convert std::strings to integer or floating-point types, and throw
exceptions if they could not parse their input. You should use these functions if possible:

Version ≥ C++11
std::string ten = "10";

int num1 = std::stoi(ten);

long num2 = std::stol(ten);
long long num3 = std::stoll(ten);

float num4 = std::stof(ten);

double num5 = std::stod(ten);
long double num6 = std::stold(ten);

Furthermore, these functions also handle octal and hex strings unlike the std::ato* family. The second parameter
is a pointer to the first unconverted character in the input string (not illustrated here), and the third parameter is
the base to use. 0 is automatic detection of octal (starting with 0) and hex (starting with 0x or 0X), and any other
value is the base to use

std::string ten = "10";

std::string ten_octal = "12";
std::string ten_hex = "0xA";

int num1 = std::stoi(ten, 0, 2); // Returns 2

int num2 = std::stoi(ten_octal, 0, 8); // Returns 10
long num3 = std::stol(ten_hex, 0, 16); // Returns 10
long num4 = std::stol(ten_hex); // Returns 0
long num5 = std::stol(ten_hex, 0, 0); // Returns 10 as it detects the leading 0x

Section 47.14: Concatenation

You can concatenate std::strings using the overloaded + and += operators. Using the + operator:

std::string hello = "Hello";

std::string world = "world";
std::string helloworld = hello + world; // "Helloworld"

Using the += operator:

std::string hello = "Hello";

std::string world = "world";
hello += world; // "Helloworld"

You can also append C strings, including string literals:

std::string hello = "Hello";

std::string world = "world";

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const char *comma = ", ";
std::string newhelloworld = hello + comma + world + "!"; // "Hello, world!"

You can also use push_back() to push back individual chars:

std::string s = "a, b, ";

s.push_back('c'); // "a, b, c"

There is also append(), which is pretty much like +=:

std::string app = "test and ";

app.append("test"); // "test and test"

Section 47.15: Converting between character encodings

Converting between encodings is easy with C++11 and most compilers are able to deal with it in a cross-platform
manner through <codecvt> and <locale> headers.

#include <iostream>
#include <codecvt>
#include <locale>
#include <string>
using namespace std;

int main() {
// converts between wstring and utf8 string
wstring_convert<codecvt_utf8_utf16<wchar_t>> wchar_to_utf8;
// converts between u16string and utf8 string
wstring_convert<codecvt_utf8_utf16<char16_t>, char16_t> utf16_to_utf8;

wstring wstr = L"foobar";

string utf8str = wchar_to_utf8.to_bytes(wstr);
wstring wstr2 = wchar_to_utf8.from_bytes(utf8str);

wcout << wstr << endl;

cout << utf8str << endl;
wcout << wstr2 << endl;

u16string u16str = u"foobar";

string utf8str2 = utf16_to_utf8.to_bytes(u16str);
u16string u16str2 = utf16_to_utf8.from_bytes(utf8str2);

return 0;
}

Mind that Visual Studio 2015 provides supports for these conversion but a bug in their library implementation
requires to use a different template for wstring_convert when dealing with char16_t:

using utf16_char = unsigned short;

wstring_convert<codecvt_utf8_utf16<utf16_char>, utf16_char> conv_utf8_utf16;

void strings::utf16_to_utf8(const std::u16string& utf16, std::string& utf8)

{
std::basic_string<utf16_char> tmp;
tmp.resize(utf16.length());
std::copy(utf16.begin(), utf16.end(), tmp.begin());
utf8 = conv_utf8_utf16.to_bytes(tmp);
}

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void strings::utf8_to_utf16(const std::string& utf8, std::u16string& utf16)
{
std::basic_string<utf16_char> tmp = conv_utf8_utf16.from_bytes(utf8);
utf16.clear();
utf16.resize(tmp.length());
std::copy(tmp.begin(), tmp.end(), utf16.begin());
}

Section 47.16: Finding character(s) in a string

To find a character or another string, you can use std::string::find. It returns the position of the first character
of the first match. If no matches were found, the function returns std::string::npos

std::string str = "Curiosity killed the cat";

auto it = str.find("cat");

if (it != std::string::npos)
std::cout << "Found at position: " << it << '\n';
else
std::cout << "Not found!\n";

Found at position: 21

The search opportunities are further expanded by the following functions:

find_first_of // Find first occurrence of characters

find_first_not_of // Find first absence of characters
find_last_of // Find last occurrence of characters
find_last_not_of // Find last absence of characters

These functions can allow you to search for characters from the end of the string, as well as find the negative case
(ie. characters that are not in the string). Here is an example:

std::string str = "dog dog cat cat";

std::cout << "Found at position: " << str.find_last_of("gzx") << '\n';

Found at position: 6

Note: Be aware that the above functions do not search for substrings, but rather for characters contained in the
search string. In this case, the last occurrence of 'g' was found at position 6 (the other characters weren't found).

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Chapter 48: std::array
Parameter Definition
class T Specifies the data type of array members
std::size_t N Specifies the number of members in the array

Section 48.1: Initializing an std::array

Initializing std::array<T, N>, where T is a scalar type and N is the number of elements of type T

If T is a scalar type, std::array can be initialized in the following ways:

// 1) Using aggregate-initialization
std::array<int, 3> a{ 0, 1, 2 };
// or equivalently
std::array<int, 3> a = { 0, 1, 2 };

// 2) Using the copy constructor

std::array<int, 3> a{ 0, 1, 2 };
std::array<int, 3> a2(a);
// or equivalently
std::array<int, 3> a2 = a;

// 3) Using the move constructor

std::array<int, 3> a = std::array<int, 3>{ 0, 1, 2 };

Initializing std::array<T, N>, where T is a non-scalar type and N is the number of elements of type T

If T is a non-scalar type std::array can be initialized in the following ways:

struct A { int values[3]; }; // An aggregate type

// 1) Using aggregate initialization with brace elision

// It works only if T is an aggregate type!
std::array<A, 2> a{ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };
// or equivalently
std::array<A, 2> a = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };

// 2) Using aggregate initialization with brace initialization of sub-elements

std::array<A, 2> a{ A{ 0, 1, 2 }, A{ 3, 4, 5 } };
// or equivalently
std::array<A, 2> a = { A{ 0, 1, 2 }, A{ 3, 4, 5 } };

// 3)
std::array<A, 2> a{{ { 0, 1, 2 }, { 3, 4, 5 } }};
// or equivalently
std::array<A, 2> a = {{ { 0, 1, 2 }, { 3, 4, 5 } }};

// 4) Using the copy constructor

std::array<A, 2> a{ 1, 2, 3 };
std::array<A, 2> a2(a);
// or equivalently
std::array<A, 2> a2 = a;

// 5) Using the move constructor

std::array<A, 2> a = std::array<A, 2>{ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };

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Section 48.2: Element access
1. at(pos)

Returns a reference to the element at position pos with bounds checking. If pos is not within the range of the
container, an exception of type std::out_of_range is thrown.

The complexity is constant O(1).

#include <array>

int main()
{
std::array<int, 3> arr;

// write values
arr.at(0) = 2;
arr.at(1) = 4;
arr.at(2) = 6;

// read values
int a = arr.at(0); // a is now 2
int b = arr.at(1); // b is now 4
int c = arr.at(2); // c is now 6

return 0;
}

2) operator[pos]

Returns a reference to the element at position pos without bounds checking. If pos is not within the range of the
container, a runtime segmentation violation error can occur. This method provides element access equivalent to
classic arrays and thereof more efficient than at(pos).

The complexity is constant O(1).

#include <array>

int main()
{
std::array<int, 3> arr;

// write values
arr[0] = 2;
arr[1] = 4;
arr[2] = 6;

// read values
int a = arr[0]; // a is now 2
int b = arr[1]; // b is now 4
int c = arr[2]; // c is now 6

return 0;
}

3) std::get<pos>

This non-member function returns a reference to the element at compile-time constant position pos without

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bounds checking. If pos is not within the range of the container, a runtime segmentation violation error can occur.

The complexity is constant O(1).

#include <array>

int main()
{
std::array<int, 3> arr;

// write values
std::get<0>(arr) = 2;
std::get<1>(arr) = 4;
std::get<2>(arr) = 6;

// read values
int a = std::get<0>(arr); // a is now 2
int b = std::get<1>(arr); // b is now 4
int c = std::get<2>(arr); // c is now 6

return 0;
}

4) front()

Returns a reference to the first element in container. Calling front() on an empty container is undefined.

The complexity is constant O(1).

Note: For a container c, the expression c.front() is equivalent to *c.begin().

#include <array>

int main()
{
std::array<int, 3> arr{ 2, 4, 6 };

int a = arr.front(); // a is now 2

return 0;
}

5) back()

Returns reference to the last element in the container. Calling back() on an empty container is undefined.

The complexity is constant O(1).

#include <array>

int main()
{
std::array<int, 3> arr{ 2, 4, 6 };

int a = arr.back(); // a is now 6

return 0;
}

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6) data()

Returns pointer to the underlying array serving as element storage. The pointer is such that range [data();
data() + size()) is always a valid range, even if the container is empty (data() is not dereferenceable in that
case).

The complexity is constant O(1).

#include <iostream>
#include <cstring>
#include <array>

int main ()
{
const char* cstr = "Test string";
std::array<char, 12> arr;

std::memcpy(arr.data(), cstr, 12); // copy cstr to arr

std::cout << arr.data(); // outputs: Test string

return 0;
}

Section 48.3: Iterating through the Array

std::array being a STL container, can use range-based for loop similar to other containers like vector

int main() {
std::array<int, 3> arr = { 1, 2, 3 };
for (auto i : arr)
cout << i << '\n';
}

Section 48.4: Checking size of the Array

One of the main advantage of std::array as compared to C style array is that we can check the size of the array
using size() member function

int main() {
std::array<int, 3> arr = { 1, 2, 3 };
cout << arr.size() << endl;
}

Section 48.5: Changing all array elements at once

The member function fill() can be used on std::array for changing the values at once post initialization

int main() {

std::array<int, 3> arr = { 1, 2, 3 };

// change all elements of the array to 100
arr.fill(100);

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Chapter 49: std::vector
A vector is a dynamic array with automatically handled storage. The elements in a vector can be accessed just as
efficiently as those in an array with the advantage being that vectors can dynamically change in size.

In terms of storage the vector data is (usually) placed in dynamically allocated memory thus requiring some minor
overhead; conversely C-arrays and std::array use automatic storage relative to the declared location and thus do
not have any overhead.

Section 49.1: Accessing Elements

There are two primary ways of accessing elements in a std::vector

index-based access
iterators

Index-based access:

This can be done either with the subscript operator [], or the member function at().

Both return a reference to the element at the respective position in the std::vector (unless it's a vector<bool>), so
that it can be read as well as modified (if the vector is not const).

[] and at() differ in that [] is not guaranteed to perform any bounds checking, while at() does. Accessing
elements where index < 0 or index >= size is undefined behavior for [], while at() throws a std::out_of_range
exception.

Note: The examples below use C++11-style initialization for clarity, but the operators can be used with all versions
(unless marked C++11).

Version ≥ C++11
std::vector<int> v{ 1, 2, 3 };

// using []
int a = v[1]; // a is 2
v[1] = 4; // v now contains { 1, 4, 3 }

// using at()
int b = v.at(2); // b is 3
v.at(2) = 5; // v now contains { 1, 4, 5 }
int c = v.at(3); // throws std::out_of_range exception

Because the at() method performs bounds checking and can throw exceptions, it is slower than []. This makes []
preferred code where the semantics of the operation guarantee that the index is in bounds. In any case, accesses
to elements of vectors are done in constant time. That means accessing to the first element of the vector has the
same cost (in time) of accessing the second element, the third element and so on.

For example, consider this loop

for (std::size_t i = 0; i < v.size(); ++i) {

v[i] = 1;
}

Here we know that the index variable i is always in bounds, so it would be a waste of CPU cycles to check that i is
in bounds for every call to operator[].

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The front() and back() member functions allow easy reference access to the first and last element of the vector,
respectively. These positions are frequently used, and the special accessors can be more readable than their
alternatives using []:

std::vector<int> v{ 4, 5, 6 }; // In pre-C++11 this is more verbose

int a = v.front(); // a is 4, v.front() is equivalent to v[0]

v.front() = 3; // v now contains {3, 5, 6}
int b = v.back(); // b is 6, v.back() is equivalent to v[v.size() - 1]
v.back() = 7; // v now contains {3, 5, 7}

Note: It is undefined behavior to invoke front() or back() on an empty vector. You need to check that the
container is not empty using the empty() member function (which checks if the container is empty) before calling
front() or back(). A simple example of the use of 'empty()' to test for an empty vector follows:

int main ()
{
std::vector<int> v;
int sum (0);

for (int i=1;i<=10;i++) v.push_back(i);//create and initialize the vector

while (!v.empty())//loop through until the vector tests to be empty

{
sum += v.back();//keep a running total
v.pop_back();//pop out the element which removes it from the vector
}

std::cout << "total: " << sum << '\n';//output the total to the user

return 0;
}

The example above creates a vector with a sequence of numbers from 1 to 10. Then it pops the elements of the
vector out until the vector is empty (using 'empty()') to prevent undefined behavior. Then the sum of the numbers
in the vector is calculated and displayed to the user.

Version ≥ C++11

The data() method returns a pointer to the raw memory used by the std::vector to internally store its elements.
This is most often used when passing the vector data to legacy code that expects a C-style array.

std::vector<int> v{ 1, 2, 3, 4 }; // v contains {1, 2, 3, 4}

int* p = v.data(); // p points to 1
*p = 4; // v now contains {4, 2, 3, 4}
++p; // p points to 2
*p = 3; // v now contains {4, 3, 3, 4}
p[1] = 2; // v now contains {4, 3, 2, 4}
*(p + 2) = 1; // v now contains {4, 3, 2, 1}
Version < C++11

Before C++11, the data() method can be simulated by calling front() and taking the address of the returned
value:

std::vector<int> v(4);
int* ptr = &(v.front()); // or &v[0]

This works because vectors are always guaranteed to store their elements in contiguous memory locations,

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assuming the contents of the vector doesn't override unary operator&. If it does, you'll have to re-implement
std::addressof in pre-C++11. It also assumes that the vector isn't empty.

Iterators:

Iterators are explained in more detail in the example "Iterating over std::vector" and the article Iterators. In short,
they act similarly to pointers to the elements of the vector:

Version ≥ C++11
std::vector<int> v{ 4, 5, 6 };

auto it = v.begin();
int i = *it; // i is 4
++it;
i = *it; // i is 5
*it = 6; // v contains { 4, 6, 6 }
auto e = v.end(); // e points to the element after the end of v. It can be
// used to check whether an iterator reached the end of the vector:
++it;
it == v.end(); // false, it points to the element at position 2 (with value 6)
++it;
it == v.end(); // true

It is consistent with the standard that a std::vector<T>'s iterators actually be T*s, but most standard libraries do
not do this. Not doing this both improves error messages, catches non-portable code, and can be used to
instrument the iterators with debugging checks in non-release builds. Then, in release builds, the class wrapping
around the underlying pointer is optimized away.

You can persist a reference or a pointer to an element of a vector for indirect access. These references or pointers
to elements in the vector remain stable and access remains defined unless you add/remove elements at or before
the element in the vector, or you cause the vector capacity to change. This is the same as the rule for invalidating
iterators.

Version ≥ C++11
std::vector<int> v{ 1, 2, 3 };
int* p = v.data() + 1; // p points to 2
v.insert(v.begin(), 0); // p is now invalid, accessing *p is a undefined behavior.
p = v.data() + 1; // p points to 1
v.reserve(10); // p is now invalid, accessing *p is a undefined behavior.
p = v.data() + 1; // p points to 1
v.erase(v.begin()); // p is now invalid, accessing *p is a undefined behavior.

Section 49.2: Initializing a std::vector

A std::vector can be initialized in several ways while declaring it:

Version ≥ C++11
std::vector<int> v{ 1, 2, 3 }; // v becomes {1, 2, 3}

// Different from std::vector<int> v(3, 6)

std::vector<int> v{ 3, 6 }; // v becomes {3, 6}

// Different from std::vector<int> v{3, 6} in C++11

std::vector<int> v(3, 6); // v becomes {6, 6, 6}

std::vector<int> v(4); // v becomes {0, 0, 0, 0}

A vector can be initialized from another container in several ways:

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Copy construction (from another vector only), which copies data from v2:

std::vector<int> v(v2);
std::vector<int> v = v2;
Version ≥ C++11

Move construction (from another vector only), which moves data from v2:

std::vector<int> v(std::move(v2));
std::vector<int> v = std::move(v2);

Iterator (range) copy-construction, which copies elements into v:

// from another vector

std::vector<int> v(v2.begin(), v2.begin() + 3); // v becomes {v2[0], v2[1], v2[2]}

// from an array
int z[] = { 1, 2, 3, 4 };
std::vector<int> v(z, z + 3); // v becomes {1, 2, 3}

// from a list
std::list<int> list1{ 1, 2, 3 };
std::vector<int> v(list1.begin(), list1.end()); // v becomes {1, 2, 3}
Version ≥ C++11

Iterator move-construction, using std::make_move_iterator, which moves elements into v:

// from another vector

std::vector<int> v(std::make_move_iterator(v2.begin()),
std::make_move_iterator(v2.end());

// from a list
std::list<int> list1{ 1, 2, 3 };
std::vector<int> v(std::make_move_iterator(list1.begin()),
std::make_move_iterator(list1.end()));

With the help of the assign() member function, a std::vector can be reinitialized after its construction:

v.assign(4, 100); // v becomes {100, 100, 100, 100}

v.assign(v2.begin(), v2.begin() + 3); // v becomes {v2[0], v2[1], v2[2]}

int z[] = { 1, 2, 3, 4 };
v.assign(z + 1, z + 4); // v becomes {2, 3, 4}

Section 49.3: Deleting Elements

Deleting the last element:
std::vector<int> v{ 1, 2, 3 };
v.pop_back(); // v becomes {1, 2}

Deleting all elements:

std::vector<int> v{ 1, 2, 3 };
v.clear(); // v becomes an empty vector

Deleting element by index:

std::vector<int> v{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 };
v.erase(v.begin() + 3); // v becomes {1, 2, 3, 5, 6}

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Note: For a vector deleting an element which is not the last element, all elements beyond the deleted element have
to be copied or moved to fill the gap, see the note below and std::list.

Deleting all elements in a range:

std::vector<int> v{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 };
v.erase(v.begin() + 1, v.begin() + 5); // v becomes {1, 6}

Note: The above methods do not change the capacity of the vector, only the size. See Vector Size and Capacity.

The erase method, which removes a range of elements, is often used as a part of the erase-remove idiom. That is,
first std::remove moves some elements to the end of the vector, and then erase chops them off. This is a relatively
inefficient operation for any indices less than the last index of the vector because all elements after the erased
segments must be relocated to new positions. For speed critical applications that require efficient removal of
arbitrary elements in a container, see std::list.

Deleting elements by value:

std::vector<int> v{ 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3 };
int value_to_remove = 2;
v.erase(std::remove(v.begin(), v.end(), value_to_remove), v.end()); // v becomes {1, 1, 3, 3}

Deleting elements by condition:

// std::remove_if needs a function, that takes a vector element as argument and returns true,
// if the element shall be removed
bool _predicate(const int& element) {
return (element > 3); // This will cause all elements to be deleted that are larger than 3
}
...
std::vector<int> v{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 };
v.erase(std::remove_if(v.begin(), v.end(), _predicate), v.end()); // v becomes {1, 2, 3}

Deleting elements by lambda, without creating additional predicate function

Version ≥ C++11
std::vector<int> v{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 };
v.erase(std::remove_if(v.begin(), v.end(),
[](auto& element){return element > 3;} ), v.end()
);

Deleting elements by condition from a loop:

std::vector<int> v{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 };
std::vector<int>::iterator it = v.begin();
while (it != v.end()) {
if (condition)
it = v.erase(it); // after erasing, 'it' will be set to the next element in v
else
++it; // manually set 'it' to the next element in v
}

While it is important not to increment it in case of a deletion, you should consider using a different method when
then erasing repeatedly in a loop. Consider remove_if for a more efficient way.

Deleting elements by condition from a reverse loop:

std::vector<int> v{ -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 };
typedef std::vector<int>::reverse_iterator rev_itr;
rev_itr it = v.rbegin();

while (it != v.rend()) { // after the loop only '0' will be in v

int value = *it;
if (value) {
++it;

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 // See explanation below for the following line.
it = rev_itr(v.erase(it.base()));
} else
++it;
}

Note some points for the preceding loop:

Given a reverse iterator it pointing to some element, the method base gives the regular (non-reverse)
iterator pointing to the same element.

vector::erase(iterator) erases the element pointed to by an iterator, and returns an iterator to the
element that followed the given element.

reverse_iterator::reverse_iterator(iterator) constructs a reverse iterator from an iterator.

Put altogether, the line it = rev_itr(v.erase(it.base())) says: take the reverse iterator it, have v erase the
element pointed by its regular iterator; take the resulting iterator, construct a reverse iterator from it, and assign it
to the reverse iterator it.

Deleting all elements using v.clear() does not free up memory (capacity() of the vector remains unchanged). To
reclaim space, use:

std::vector<int>().swap(v);
Version ≥ C++11

shrink_to_fit() frees up unused vector capacity:

v.shrink_to_fit();

The shrink_to_fit does not guarantee to really reclaim space, but most current implementations do.

Section 49.4: Iterating Over std::vector

You can iterate over a std::vector in several ways. For each of the following sections, v is defined as follows:

std::vector<int> v;

Iterating in the Forward Direction

Version ≥ C++11
// Range based for
for(const auto& value: v) {
std::cout << value << "\n";
}

// Using a for loop with iterator

for(auto it = std::begin(v); it != std::end(v); ++it) {
std::cout << *it << "\n";
}

// Using for_each algorithm, using a function or functor:

void fun(int const& value) {
std::cout << value << "\n";
}

std::for_each(std::begin(v), std::end(v), fun);

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// Using for_each algorithm. Using a lambda:
std::for_each(std::begin(v), std::end(v), [](int const& value) {
std::cout << value << "\n";
});
Version < C++11
// Using a for loop with iterator
for(std::vector<int>::iterator it = std::begin(v); it != std::end(v); ++it) {
std::cout << *it << "\n";
}

// Using a for loop with index

for(std::size_t i = 0; i < v.size(); ++i) {
std::cout << v[i] << "\n";
}

Iterating in the Reverse Direction

Version ≥ C++14
// There is no standard way to use range based for for this.
// See below for alternatives.

// Using for_each algorithm

// Note: Using a lambda for clarity. But a function or functor will work
std::for_each(std::rbegin(v), std::rend(v), [](auto const& value) {
std::cout << value << "\n";
});

// Using a for loop with iterator

for(auto rit = std::rbegin(v); rit != std::rend(v); ++rit) {
std::cout << *rit << "\n";
}

// Using a for loop with index

for(std::size_t i = 0; i < v.size(); ++i) {
std::cout << v[v.size() - 1 - i] << "\n";
}

Though there is no built-in way to use the range based for to reverse iterate; it is relatively simple to fix this. The
range based for uses begin() and end() to get iterators and thus simulating this with a wrapper object can achieve
the results we require.

Version ≥ C++14
template<class C>
struct ReverseRange {
C c; // could be a reference or a copy, if the original was a temporary
ReverseRange(C&& cin): c(std::forward<C>(cin)) {}
ReverseRange(ReverseRange&&)=default;
ReverseRange& operator=(ReverseRange&&)=delete;
auto begin() const {return std::rbegin(c);}
auto end() const {return std::rend(c);}
};
// C is meant to be deduced, and perfect forwarded into
template<class C>
ReverseRange<C> make_ReverseRange(C&& c) {return {std::forward<C>(c)};}

int main() {
std::vector<int> v { 1,2,3,4};
for(auto const& value: make_ReverseRange(v)) {
std::cout << value << "\n";
}
}

Enforcing const elements

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Since C++11 the cbegin() and cend() methods allow you to obtain a constant iterator for a vector, even if the vector
is non-const. A constant iterator allows you to read but not modify the contents of the vector which is useful to
enforce const correctness:

Version ≥ C++11
// forward iteration
for (auto pos = v.cbegin(); pos != v.cend(); ++pos) {
// type of pos is vector<T>::const_iterator
// *pos = 5; // Compile error - can't write via const iterator
}

// reverse iteration
for (auto pos = v.crbegin(); pos != v.crend(); ++pos) {
// type of pos is vector<T>::const_iterator
// *pos = 5; // Compile error - can't write via const iterator
}

// expects Functor::operand()(T&)
for_each(v.begin(), v.end(), Functor());

// expects Functor::operand()(const T&)

for_each(v.cbegin(), v.cend(), Functor())
Version ≥ C++17

as_const extends this to range iteration:

for (auto const& e : std::as_const(v)) {

std::cout << e << '\n';
}

This is easy to implement in earlier versions of C++:

Version ≥ C++14
template <class T>
constexpr std::add_const_t<T>& as_const(T& t) noexcept {
return t;
}

A Note on Efficiency

Since the class std::vector is basically a class that manages a dynamically allocated contiguous array, the same
principle explained here applies to C++ vectors. Accessing the vector's content by index is much more efficient
when following the row-major order principle. Of course, each access to the vector also puts its management
content into the cache as well, but as has been debated many times (notably here and here), the difference in
performance for iterating over a std::vector compared to a raw array is negligible. So the same principle of
efficiency for raw arrays in C also applies for C++'s std::vector.

Section 49.5: vector<bool>: The Exception To So Many, So

Many Rules
The standard (section 23.3.7) specifies that a specialization of vector<bool> is provided, which optimizes space by
packing the bool values, so that each takes up only one bit. Since bits aren't addressable in C++, this means that
several requirements on vector are not placed on vector<bool>:

The data stored is not required to be contiguous, so a vector<bool> can't be passed to a C API which expects
a bool array.
at(), operator [], and dereferencing of iterators do not return a reference to bool. Rather they return a

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 proxy object that (imperfectly) simulates a reference to a bool by overloading its assignment operators. As an
example, the following code may not be valid for std::vector<bool>, because dereferencing an iterator
does not return a reference:

Version ≥ C++11
std::vector<bool> v = {true, false};
for (auto &b: v) { } // error

Similarly, functions expecting a bool& argument cannot be used with the result of operator [] or at() applied to
vector<bool>, or with the result of dereferencing its iterator:

void f(bool& b);

f(v[0]); // error
f(*v.begin()); // error

The implementation of std::vector<bool> is dependent on both the compiler and architecture. The specialisation
is implemented by packing n Booleans into the lowest addressable section of memory. Here, n is the size in bits of
the lowest addressable memory. In most modern systems this is 1 byte or 8 bits. This means that one byte can
store 8 Boolean values. This is an improvement over the traditional implementation where 1 Boolean value is
stored in 1 byte of memory.

Note: The below example shows possible bitwise values of individual bytes in a traditional vs. optimized
vector<bool>. This will not always hold true in all architectures. It is, however, a good way of visualising the
optimization. In the below examples a byte is represented as [x, x, x, x, x, x, x, x].

Traditional std::vector<char> storing 8 Boolean values:

Version ≥ C++11
std::vector<char> trad_vect = {true, false, false, false, true, false, true, true};

Bitwise representation:

[0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1], [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0], [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0], [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0],

[0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1], [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0], [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1], [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1]

Specialized std::vector<bool> storing 8 Boolean values:

Version ≥ C++11
std::vector<bool> optimized_vect = {true, false, false, false, true, false, true, true};

Bitwise representation:

[1,0,0,0,1,0,1,1]

Notice in the above example, that in the traditional version of std::vector<bool>, 8 Boolean values take up 8 bytes
of memory, whereas in the optimized version of std::vector<bool>, they only use 1 byte of memory. This is a
significant improvement on memory usage. If you need to pass a vector<bool> to an C-style API, you may need to
copy the values to an array, or find a better way to use the API, if memory and performance are at risk.

Section 49.6: Inserting Elements

Appending an element at the end of a vector (by copying/moving):

struct Point {
double x, y;

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 Point(double x, double y) : x(x), y(y) {}
};
std::vector<Point> v;
Point p(10.0, 2.0);
v.push_back(p); // p is copied into the vector.
Version ≥ C++11

Appending an element at the end of a vector by constructing the element in place:

std::vector<Point> v;
v.emplace_back(10.0, 2.0); // The arguments are passed to the constructor of the
// given type (here Point). The object is constructed
// in the vector, avoiding a copy.

Note that std::vector does not have a push_front() member function due to performance reasons. Adding an
element at the beginning causes all existing elements in the vector to be moved. If you want to frequently insert
elements at the beginning of your container, then you might want to use std::list or std::deque instead.

Inserting an element at any position of a vector:

std::vector<int> v{ 1, 2, 3 };
v.insert(v.begin(), 9); // v now contains {9, 1, 2, 3}
Version ≥ C++11

Inserting an element at any position of a vector by constructing the element in place:

std::vector<int> v{ 1, 2, 3 };
v.emplace(v.begin()+1, 9); // v now contains {1, 9, 2, 3}

Inserting another vector at any position of the vector:

std::vector<int> v(4); // contains: 0, 0, 0, 0

std::vector<int> v2(2, 10); // contains: 10, 10
v.insert(v.begin()+2, v2.begin(), v2.end()); // contains: 0, 0, 10, 10, 0, 0

Inserting an array at any position of a vector:

std::vector<int> v(4); // contains: 0, 0, 0, 0

int a [] = {1, 2, 3}; // contains: 1, 2, 3
v.insert(v.begin()+1, a, a+sizeof(a)/sizeof(a[0])); // contains: 0, 1, 2, 3, 0, 0, 0

Use reserve() before inserting multiple elements if resulting vector size is known beforehand to avoid multiple
reallocations (see vector size and capacity):

std::vector<int> v;
v.reserve(100);
for(int i = 0; i < 100; ++i)
v.emplace_back(i);

Be sure to not make the mistake of calling resize() in this case, or you will inadvertently create a vector with 200
elements where only the latter one hundred will have the value you intended.

Section 49.7: Using std::vector as a C array

There are several ways to use a std::vector as a C array (for example, for compatibility with C libraries). This is
possible because the elements in a vector are stored contiguously.

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Version ≥ C++11
std::vector<int> v{ 1, 2, 3 };
int* p = v.data();

In contrast to solutions based on previous C++ standards (see below), the member function .data() may also be
applied to empty vectors, because it doesn't cause undefined behavior in this case.

Before C++11, you would take the address of the vector's first element to get an equivalent pointer, if the vector
isn't empty, these both methods are interchangeable:

int* p = &v[0]; // combine subscript operator and 0 literal

int* p = &v.front(); // explicitly reference the first element

Note: If the vector is empty, v[0] and v.front() are undefined and cannot be used.

When storing the base address of the vector's data, note that many operations (such as push_back, resize, etc.) can
change the data memory location of the vector, thus invalidating previous data pointers. For example:

std::vector<int> v;
int* p = v.data();
v.resize(42); // internal memory location changed; value of p is now invalid

Section 49.8: Finding an Element in std::vector

The function std::find, defined in the <algorithm> header, can be used to find an element in a std::vector.

std::find uses the operator== to compare elements for equality. It returns an iterator to the first element in the
range that compares equal to the value.

If the element in question is not found, std::find returns std::vector::end (or std::vector::cend if the vector is
const).

Version < C++11

static const int arr[] = {5, 4, 3, 2, 1};
std::vector<int> v (arr, arr + sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]) );

std::vector<int>::iterator it = std::find(v.begin(), v.end(), 4);

std::vector<int>::difference_type index = std::distance(v.begin(), it);
// `it` points to the second element of the vector, `index` is 1

std::vector<int>::iterator missing = std::find(v.begin(), v.end(), 10);

std::vector<int>::difference_type index_missing = std::distance(v.begin(), missing);
// `missing` is v.end(), `index_missing` is 5 (ie. size of the vector)
Version ≥ C++11
std::vector<int> v { 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 };

auto it = std::find(v.begin(), v.end(), 4);

auto index = std::distance(v.begin(), it);
// `it` points to the second element of the vector, `index` is 1

auto missing = std::find(v.begin(), v.end(), 10);

auto index_missing = std::distance(v.begin(), missing);
// `missing` is v.end(), `index_missing` is 5 (ie. size of the vector)

If you need to perform many searches in a large vector, then you may want to consider sorting the vector first,

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before using the binary_search algorithm.

To find the first element in a vector that satisfies a condition, std::find_if can be used. In addition to the two
parameters given to std::find, std::find_if accepts a third argument which is a function object or function
pointer to a predicate function. The predicate should accept an element from the container as an argument and
return a value convertible to bool, without modifying the container:

Version < C++11

bool isEven(int val) {
return (val % 2 == 0);
}

struct moreThan {
moreThan(int limit) : _limit(limit) {}

bool operator()(int val) {

return val > _limit;
}

int _limit;
};

static const int arr[] = {1, 3, 7, 8};

std::vector<int> v (arr, arr + sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]) );

std::vector<int>::iterator it = std::find_if(v.begin(), v.end(), isEven);

// `it` points to 8, the first even element

std::vector<int>::iterator missing = std::find_if(v.begin(), v.end(), moreThan(10));

// `missing` is v.end(), as no element is greater than 10
Version ≥ C++11
// find the first value that is even
std::vector<int> v = {1, 3, 7, 8};
auto it = std::find_if(v.begin(), v.end(), [](int val){return val % 2 == 0;});
// `it` points to 8, the first even element

auto missing = std::find_if(v.begin(), v.end(), [](int val){return val > 10;});

// `missing` is v.end(), as no element is greater than 10

Section 49.9: Concatenating Vectors

One std::vector can be append to another by using the member function insert():

std::vector<int> a = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4};

std::vector<int> b = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9};

a.insert(a.end(), b.begin(), b.end());

However, this solution fails if you try to append a vector to itself, because the standard specifies that iterators given
to insert() must not be from the same range as the receiver object's elements.

Version ≥ c++11

Instead of using the vector's member functions, the functions std::begin() and std::end() can be used:

a.insert(std::end(a), std::begin(b), std::end(b));

This is a more general solution, for example, because b can also be an array. However, also this solution doesn't

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allow you to append a vector to itself.

If the order of the elements in the receiving vector doesn't matter, considering the number of elements in each
vector can avoid unnecessary copy operations:

if (b.size() < a.size())

a.insert(a.end(), b.begin(), b.end());
else
b.insert(b.end(), a.begin(), a.end());

Section 49.10: Matrices Using Vectors

Vectors can be used as a 2D matrix by defining them as a vector of vectors.

A matrix with 3 rows and 4 columns with each cell initialised as 0 can be defined as:

std::vector<std::vector<int> > matrix(3, std::vector<int>(4));

Version ≥ C++11

The syntax for initializing them using initialiser lists or otherwise are similar to that of a normal vector.

std::vector<std::vector<int>> matrix = { {0,1,2,3},

{4,5,6,7},
{8,9,10,11}
};

Values in such a vector can be accessed similar to a 2D array

int var = matrix[0][2];

Iterating over the entire matrix is similar to that of a normal vector but with an extra dimension.

for(int i = 0; i < 3; ++i)

{
for(int j = 0; j < 4; ++j)
{
std::cout << matrix[i][j] << std::endl;
}
}
Version ≥ C++11
for(auto& row: matrix)
{
for(auto& col : row)
{
std::cout << col << std::endl;
}
}

A vector of vectors is a convenient way to represent a matrix but it's not the most efficient: individual vectors are
scattered around memory and the data structure isn't cache friendly.

Also, in a proper matrix, the length of every row must be the same (this isn't the case for a vector of vectors). The
additional flexibility can be a source of errors.

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Section 49.11: Using a Sorted Vector for Fast Element Lookup
The <algorithm> header provides a number of useful functions for working with sorted vectors.

An important prerequisite for working with sorted vectors is that the stored values are comparable with <.

An unsorted vector can be sorted by using the function std::sort():

std::vector<int> v;
// add some code here to fill v with some elements
std::sort(v.begin(), v.end());

Sorted vectors allow efficient element lookup using the function std::lower_bound(). Unlike std::find(), this
performs an efficient binary search on the vector. The downside is that it only gives valid results for sorted input
ranges:

// search the vector for the first element with value 42

std::vector<int>::iterator it = std::lower_bound(v.begin(), v.end(), 42);
if (it != v.end() && *it == 42) {
// we found the element!
}

Note: If the requested value is not part of the vector, std::lower_bound() will return an iterator to the first element
that is greater than the requested value. This behavior allows us to insert a new element at its right place in an
already sorted vector:

int const new_element = 33;

v.insert(std::lower_bound(v.begin(), v.end(), new_element), new_element);

If you need to insert a lot of elements at once, it might be more efficient to call push_back() for all them first and
then call std::sort() once all elements have been inserted. In this case, the increased cost of the sorting can pay
off against the reduced cost of inserting new elements at the end of the vector and not in the middle.

If your vector contains multiple elements of the same value, std::lower_bound() will try to return an iterator to the
first element of the searched value. However, if you need to insert a new element after the last element of the
searched value, you should use the function std::upper_bound() as this will cause less shifting around of
elements:

v.insert(std::upper_bound(v.begin(), v.end(), new_element), new_element);

If you need both the upper bound and the lower bound iterators, you can use the function std::equal_range() to
retrieve both of them efficiently with one call:

std::pair<std::vector<int>::iterator,
std::vector<int>::iterator> rg = std::equal_range(v.begin(), v.end(), 42);
std::vector<int>::iterator lower_bound = rg.first;
std::vector<int>::iterator upper_bound = rg.second;

In order to test whether an element exists in a sorted vector (although not specific to vectors), you can use the
function std::binary_search():

bool exists = std::binary_search(v.begin(), v.end(), value_to_find);

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Section 49.12: Reducing the Capacity of a Vector
A std::vector automatically increases its capacity upon insertion as needed, but it never reduces its capacity after
element removal.

// Initialize a vector with 100 elements

std::vector<int> v(100);

// The vector's capacity is always at least as large as its size

auto const old_capacity = v.capacity();
// old_capacity >= 100

// Remove half of the elements

v.erase(v.begin() + 50, v.end()); // Reduces the size from 100 to 50 (v.size() == 50),
// but not the capacity (v.capacity() == old_capacity)

To reduce its capacity, we can copy the contents of a vector to a new temporary vector. The new vector will have the
minimum capacity that is needed to store all elements of the original vector. If the size reduction of the original
vector was significant, then the capacity reduction for the new vector is likely to be significant. We can then swap
the original vector with the temporary one to retain its minimized capacity:

std::vector<int>(v).swap(v);
Version ≥ C++11

In C++11 we can use the shrink_to_fit() member function for a similar effect:

v.shrink_to_fit();

Note: The shrink_to_fit() member function is a request and doesn't guarantee to reduce capacity.

Section 49.13: Vector size and capacity

Vector size is simply the number of elements in the vector:

1. Current vector size is queried by size() member function. Convenience empty() function returns true if size
is 0:

vector<int> v = { 1, 2, 3 }; // size is 3
const vector<int>::size_type size = v.size();
cout << size << endl; // prints 3
cout << boolalpha << v.empty() << endl; // prints false

2. Default constructed vector starts with a size of 0:

vector<int> v; // size is 0
cout << v.size() << endl; // prints 0

3. Adding N elements to vector increases size by N (e.g. by push_back(), insert() or resize() functions).

4. Removing N elements from vector decreases size by N (e.g. by pop_back(), erase() or clear() functions).

5. Vector has an implementation-specific upper limit on its size, but you are likely to run out of RAM before
reaching it:

vector<int> v;

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 const vector<int>::size_type max_size = v.max_size();
cout << max_size << endl; // prints some large number
v.resize( max_size ); // probably won't work
v.push_back( 1 ); // definitely won't work

Common mistake: size is not necessarily (or even usually) int:

// !!!bad!!!evil!!!
vector<int> v_bad( N, 1 ); // constructs large N size vector
for( int i = 0; i < v_bad.size(); ++i ) { // size is not supposed to be int!
do_something( v_bad[i] );
}

Vector capacity differs from size. While size is simply how many elements the vector currently has, capacity is for
how many elements it allocated/reserved memory for. That is useful, because too frequent (re)allocations of too
large sizes can be expensive.

1. Current vector capacity is queried by capacity() member function. Capacity is always greater or equal to
size:

vector<int> v = { 1, 2, 3 }; // size is 3, capacity is >= 3

const vector<int>::size_type capacity = v.capacity();
cout << capacity << endl; // prints number >= 3

2. You can manually reserve capacity by reserve( N ) function (it changes vector capacity to N):

// !!!bad!!!evil!!!
vector<int> v_bad;
for( int i = 0; i < 10000; ++i ) {
v_bad.push_back( i ); // possibly lot of reallocations
}

// good
vector<int> v_good;
v_good.reserve( 10000 ); // good! only one allocation
for( int i = 0; i < 10000; ++i ) {
v_good.push_back( i ); // no allocations needed anymore
}

3. You can request for the excess capacity to be released by shrink_to_fit() (but the implementation doesn't
have to obey you). This is useful to conserve used memory:

vector<int> v = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }; // size is 5, assume capacity is 6

v.shrink_to_fit(); // capacity is 5 (or possibly still 6)
cout << boolalpha << v.capacity() == v.size() << endl; // prints likely true (but possibly
false)

Vector partly manages capacity automatically, when you add elements it may decide to grow. Implementers like to
use 2 or 1.5 for the grow factor (golden ratio would be the ideal value - but is impractical due to being rational
number). On the other hand vector usually do not automatically shrink. For example:

vector<int> v; // capacity is possibly (but not guaranteed) to be 0

v.push_back( 1 ); // capacity is some starter value, likely 1
v.clear(); // size is 0 but capacity is still same as before!

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