X-Ray Radiography

Kokeb D. (MSc., Bio-Medical Imaging)

Jimma University
Jimma Institute of Technology
School of Biomedical Engineering
 Objectives

• Explain the principle behind x-ray.

• Identify Major parts of x-ray machine.
• Diagram the x-ray machine circuit.
• X-ray machine room layout.
• Troubleshooting x-ray machine.
EM waves for medical Imaging
 X-rays
– are invisible

– penetrate matter

– can be diffracted

– ionize gases

– Change a photo emulsion

– create light emission in different substance

– induce biological changes in living tissue

Circuit diagram of x-ray machine
Cont’d…
Cont’d…
 VOLTAGE RIPPLE

Ripple effect differences

9
 X-ray Production
• X-rays are produced when highly energetic electrons interact
with matter and convert their kinetic energy into
electromagnetic radiation.

• A device that accomplishes such a task consists of

– an electron source,
– an external energy source to accelerate the electrons
– an evacuated path for electron acceleration,
– a target electrode,
 X-ray Production
Requirements:
– a source of fast moving electrons
– must be a sudden stop of the electrons’ motion
– in stopping the electron motion, kinetic energy (KE) is
converted to EMS energies
• Infrared (heat),
• light
• x-ray energies
 X-ray Production
• Positive voltage (kVp) is applied to ANODE

• Negative electrons from CATHODE = attracted across the

tube to the positive ANODE.

• Electrons “slam into” anode – suddenly stopped.

• X-RAY PHOTONS ARE CREATED

 X-ray Production
• Electron beam is focused from the cathode to the anode target by
the focusing cup
• Electrons interact with the electrons on the tungsten atoms of
target material
• PHOTONS sent through the window PORT
 X-ray Production
• Principle Parts of the X-ray Imaging System
– Operating Console

– High-voltage generator

– X-ray tube

• The system is designed to provide a large number of e- with

high kinetic energy focused to a small target
 Tube Interactions
• possible tube interactions
• Heat
– Most kinetic energy of projectile e- is converted into heat
– Projectile e- interact with the outer-shell e- of the target atoms
but do not transfer enough energy to the outer-shell e- to
ionize.

• x-rays

• X-rays = Characteristic (20%) or Bremsstrahlung (80%)

 Heat is an excitation
rather than an ionization
 Characteristic Radiation
• The incident electron interacts with the K-shell electron via a
repulsive electrical force.

• The K-shell electron is removed leaving a vacancy in the K-shell.

• An electron from the adjacent L-shell (or possibly a different shell)

fills the vacancy.
• A characteristic x-ray photon is emitted with an energy equal to
the difference between the binding energies of the two shells.
 Characteristic Radiation
• It is called characteristic
because it is characteristic
of the target element in the
energy of the photon
Produced
• characteristic x-rays require
a tube potential of at least
70 kVp binding energy is the energy that
would be required to remove the
electron from the atom. It is actually
an energy deficit rather than an
amount of available energy.
 Characteristic Radiation

Only K-
characteristic
x-rays of
tungsten are
useful for
imaging
Cont’d …
 Cont’d …
• The type of interaction that produces characteristic radiation, involves a
collision between the high-speed electrons and the orbital electrons in the
atom. The interaction can occur only if the incoming electron has a kinetic
energy greater than the binding energy of the electron within the atom. When
this condition exists, and the collision occurs, the electron is dislodged from the
atom. When the orbital electron is removed, it leaves a vacancy that is filled by
an electron from a higher energy level. As the filling electron moves down to fill
the vacancy, it gives up energy emitted in the form of an x-ray photon. This is
known as characteristic radiation because the energy of the photon is
characteristic of the chemical element that serves as the anode material. In the
example shown, the electron dislodges a tungsten K-shell electron, which has a
binding energy of 69.5 keV. The vacancy is filled by an electron from the L
shell, which has a binding energy of 10.2 keV. The characteristic x-ray photon,
therefore, has an energy equal to the energy difference between these two levels,
or 59.3 keV.
 Bremsstrahlung Radiation
• Bremsstrahlung radiation arises from energetic
electron interactions with an atomic nucleus of the
target material.
• In a "close" approach, the positive nucleus attracts the
negative electron, causing deceleration and redirection,
resulting in a loss of kinetic energy that is converted
to an x- ray.
• The x-ray energy depends on the interaction
distance between the electron and the nucleus; it
decreases as the distance increases.
 Bremsstrahlung Radiation
• Brems can be
produced at any
projectile e- value
• Major factors that
affect x-ray
production
efficiency are
– the atomic number
of the target
material and
– the kinetic energy
of the incident
electrons
 Bremsstrahlung Radiation
• Brems x-rays have a range of energies and form a continuous
emission spectrum

All electrons do not produce photons of the same energy.

Cont’d
 Cont’d …
• The relative composition of an x-ray spectrum with respect to
Bremsstrahlung and characteristic radiation depends on the anode
material, KV, and filtration.
• In a tungsten anode tube, no characteristic radiation is produced when the
KV is less than 69.5.
• At some higher KV values generally used in diagnostic examinations, the
characteristic radiation might contribute as much as 25% of the total
radiation.
• In molybdenum target tubes operated under certain conditions of KV and
filtration, the characteristic radiation can be a major part of the total
output.

Characteristic radiation produces a line

spectrum with several discrete energies,
whereas Bremsstrahlung produces a
continuous spectrum of photon energies
over a specific range.
Cont’d…
 x-ray tube
• The x-ray tube provides an environment for x-ray production
via bremsstrahlung and characteristic radiation mechanisms.

• Major components are

– the cathode,
– anode,
– rotor/stator,
– glass (or metal) envelope,
– and tube housing
x-ray tube
 Cathode
• Cathode is a helical filament of
tungsten wire surrounded by a
focusing cup
• This structure is electrically
connected to the filament circuit.
• Electrical resistance heats the
filament and releases electrons
via a process called thermionic
emission.
Cathode
 Anode
• The anode is a metal target electrode that is maintained at a
positive potential difference relative to the cathode.
• Electrons striking the anode deposit the most of their energy
as heat, with a small fraction emitted as x-rays.

• Tungsten is the most widely used anode material because of its

high melting point and high atomic number.
• The high atomic number of tungsten provides better
bremsstrahlung production efficiency compared with low-Z
elements
Rotating Anode X-ray Tube
 Focal spot
• Anode rotation is to dissipate heat

• Not all of the anode is involved in x-ray production.

• The radiation is produced in a very small area on the surface of the
anode known as the focal spot.
• The dimensions of the focal spot are determined by the dimensions
of the electron beam arriving from the cathode.
• In most x-ray tubes, the focal spot is approximately rectangular.
• The dimensions of focal spots usually range from 0.1 mm to 2 mm.
• X-ray tubes are designed to have specific focal spot sizes; small
focal spots produce less blurring and better visibility of detail,
and large focal spots have a greater heat-dissipating capacity.
 Cont’d …

• Focal spot size is one factor that must be considered when

selecting an x-ray tube for a specific application.
• Tubes with small focal spots are used when high image visibility
of detail is essential and the amount of radiation needed is
relatively low because of small and thin body regions as in
mammography.
• Most x-ray tubes have two focal spot sizes (small and large), which
can be selected by the operator according to the imaging
procedure.
Anode angle and focal spot size
Summary of core points
 Thermionic Emission
Release of electrons from hot filament
when current flows after depressing
exposure switch

x-section
hot
of
filament
filament
Space charge
electrons

The hotter the filament,

the greater the quantity of electrons that are
released, hence the higher the mA
X-ray Production
3
 Autotransformer
Incoming 220 Volt line
Volts per
turn is the
current flow

same
across all
turns

65
80 V
 Step-Up Transformer
current flow
Primary Volts/turn in
220 volts
the primary

Will always
equal

Volts/turn in
current flow

the
secondary
Secondary
65,000 to
90,000 volts
 Step-Down Transformer
Primary
current flow

220 volts Volts/turn in

the primary

Will always
equal

Volts/turn in
current flow

3-5 volts the

secondary

Secondary
The Control Console
The control console is
device that allows the
technologist to set
technical factors (mAs &
kVp) and to make an
exposure.

47
48
 Complete Single-Phase Rectifier Circuit

high voltage,
low current

Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics of

Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 126. 49 49
© UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP
kVp selection

50
 Filaments
Operate at currents of 3 to 6 amperes (A)

Current comes from

Autotransformer
Controls the Ma selection
Focal Spot Selector Switch
located here

51
mA selection

52
 TRANSFORMER FORMULAS (STEP UP OR DOWN)

V = voltage Vp = N p
N = # turns Vs Ns
p = primary
s = secondary Vp = I s
I = current Vs Ip

Np = I s
Ns Ip

53
54
EXPOSURE
SWITCH

TIMER

55
X-ray Generator
Transformers
cathode
anode
HV (step-up)
Filament (step down)
F Rectification
Connection to tube

diodes

HV

56
 KVP and MAS
MAS
KVP  Milli Amprere-Second
Kilo-volt peak MAS= #of electron at
 Amount of voltage that is cathode filament
given across the x-ray tube  Current passed times the
 voltage directly exposure time
proportional to the energy of MAS is not effect on energy
beam so no effect of penetrating
More voltage the higher power
energy and the more
penetration
 Contrast
Contrast
Ability to see image in
 kVP = penetrating power
relation to the
and the image will be more white
background
and contrast decrease
Variation in shades of
 kvp = contrast
grays or difference in
 MAS = background
density b/n adjacent
blackness therefore image contrast
density
increase
To change the contrast
Increase MAS increase contrast
change the color of
the INK
change the
background
Contrast of image
 Quality
penetrating ability

Quantity
number of x-rays
How to determine mAs
milliamperes (mA) x seconds (s)
10 mA x .5 seconds = 5 mAs
20 mA x .25 seconds = 5 mAs
50 mA x .1 second = 5 mAs
Increasing mA or Exposure
Time results in:

• An increase in the quantity of

x-rays produced

• No change in the quality of the

x-ray beam
 Detector
Working principle

X-ray cesium iodide(phosphor iodide in image

intensifier) used to convert x-ray in to photons ---
photodiode (silicon) used to convert photon in to
electron ----Thin film transistor(TFT) array used
to recording the signal for the digital out put and
resolution .
 Flat Panel Detectors (FPD)

1.Indirect
X-rays convert in to light by
cesium Iodide (CsI)
Photodiode/silicon/ convert
photon in to digital signal out
put
 The digital signal is then
read out by thin film
transistors (TFTs) and the
image data file is sent to a
computer for display.
 2. Direct
Amorphous selenium (a-Se) FPDs are known as “direct”
detectors a-Se absorbs X-ray photon
X-ray photons are converted directly into charge.
X-ray photons create electron-hole
As the holes are replaced with electrons, the resultant
charge pattern in the selenium layer is read out by a TFT
array

X-Ray → A-Se → electronic signal → TFT → DATA(no

light transforming procedure)
 A charge-coupled device (CCD)
Indirect CCD detector

 X-Ray → CSI (a fluorescent substance) → visible

radiation → focusing lens → CCD Camera → DATA
 FLAT PANEL DETECTOR

Different type of x-ray

detector
 Different type of detectors

Flat panel detector

 DR(Digital Radiography)

Advantages
1. Immediate image preview and availability
2. Elimination of costly film processing steps
3. Ability to apply special image processing
techniques that enhance overall display of
the image.
 Type of Digital Radiograph

1. Computer Radiography :-(CR) by using IP cassette

and reader
2. Digital Radiograph :(DR) by using Image detector
and processed by CPU and review immediately
CR PROCESSOR ( IP -READER)

The manage is captured on

the Imaging Plate (IP)
cassette and being
processed by IP reader
which is connected to the
CPU with monitor in order
to review the image and
share with group of people
(PACS )
Condition having DICOM
protocol is required
Questions on imaging systems?

76
X-room
Medical imagining Installation Room
X-room
Area
Control window
Control room
Darkroom
Hatch box
Breaker place
Height
Ventilation windows
Thickness of wall
Door lead thickness
Window size
Changing and toilet class
Changing class for patient
Grounding system
Radiation Protective materials
 X-room design
Area
 Minimum 24m2
Control room
It enough space for table, chair , printer, computer, control
console and radiologist
Mostly 6m2 acceptable
Control window
 Height from the ground must be maximum 130cm for
analog
For digital the height is better in the same level of
table
Window Size of 30x30, 40x40, 70x80
Hatch box
Height from the ground maximum 130cm for short
radiologist easily take and place the cassette
Mostly the hatch box Size 58x60cm
 Ventilation windows
• To avoid secondary radiation the x-ray room must be ventilated
• If not ventilation windows the patient and the radiologist exposed for
secondary radiation that is collision with air inside the room
• The height of Ventilation windows from the ground outside of x-room 2m
above
• Ventilation window must be blocked with fence for easily circulated air
from the room to out and from out to inside
 Thickness of wall
• Concrete wall
 17cm for secondary side radiation
20cm for primary side radiation acceptable
• Brick wall
 2 layers for secondary side
 3 layer for primary side acceptable
 Door and Window lead thickness

• Door lead thickness

 It depends on the distance from the table and chest stand
1.5-2mm pb acceptable
• Control window lead thickness
 Minimum 1mm pb thickness acceptable
 Other Design
• Changing and toilet class
• Changing class for patient
• Grounding system
 Radiation Protective
Lead apron materials
Gonad shield
Lead goggle
Lead glove
TLD/Thermo luminescent Dosimeter/
 TLD/
The primary form of personal radiation monitoring dosimeter
Mostly contain Lif crystal/similar to skin
TLD is emission of light by radiation/heat
TLD analyzer measure ionizing radiation exposure by measuring the amount of
visible light emitted from crystal in the detector when the crystal is heated
 Main breaker
Main breaker
 Mostly installed near to the generator and control room for:-
 Easily on/off by the radiologist
To decrease cost
 for neatness installation