Journal of Instructional Pedagogies Volume 22

Self-determination theory as a framework for an

intermediate/senior mathematics preservice course
Jeff Irvine
Brock University

ABSTRACT

One of the primary goals of teacher education is to aid preservice candidates in

formulating a personal philosophy of teaching that is research-based. Teacher candidates should
recognize that their philosophy of teaching and learning must be grounded in research-affirmed
theory, certain dimensions of which (e.g., motivation) are critical to student success. Such a
theory into practice stance must be transparent in teacher candidates’ preservice courses and
modeled by instructors. This study used content analysis (Krippendorff, 2013) to investigate one
such instance of modeling theory into practice through the use of self-determination theory as the
framework for a preservice mathematics course for preservice teachers of grades 7 to 12.

Keywords: teacher education, theory into practice, motivation, self-determination theory, content
analysis

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INTRODUCTION

As instructors of preservice teacher courses, it is incumbent upon us to prepare our

teacher candidates not only to survive but also to thrive in the classroom and to deliver effective,
high-quality instruction, as measured by student achievement. Teaching is a complex activity
(Lampert et al., 2013) whose fluid and dynamic nature imposes a very high cognitive load on
teachers (Feldon, 2007) and requires a high degree of energy and the ability to respond quickly
to a myriad of student responses, both expected and unexpected. Schön (1983) points out that
such professional situations require both reflection-on-action (learning after practice) and
reflection-in-action (concurrent learning and modifying during practice). Such an onerous
demand may overwhelm novice teachers and consequently they may revert to teach the way they
were taught (Feldon, 2007; Hiebert, Morris, Berk, & Jansen, 2007), with a reliance on
transmission-style teaching and lecturing, both of which have been found to be suboptimal to
student learning (Kunter, Klusmann, et al., 2013).
Dimensions of quality instruction have been identified as: providing tasks with high
cognitive challenge; providing learning supports for students; and teachers having adequate
classroom management, thus minimizing distractions from student learning (Kunter, Klusmann,
et al., 2013). In the case of mathematics teaching, additional factors include expectations that
teachers have greater pedagogical content knowledge, enthusiasm for teaching mathematics, and
constructivist beliefs (Kunter, Klusmann, et al., 2013). In addition, Hill, Blazar, and Lynch
(2015) found that mathematics teachers need to address student affective characteristics and
encourage student motivation for learning mathematics. Kunter, Tsai, et al. (2008) found that
mathematics teachers’ enthusiasm for their subject transferred to their students, particularly when
teachers created a supportive social environment in the classroom, and structured activities
within the students’ zone of proximal development; such findings were echoed in studies by
Blazar (2015) and by Frenzel, Goetz, Ludke, Pekrun, and Sutton (2009).
Several mathematics education studies have identified the term ambitious teaching to
describe effective teaching in mathematics. Anthony and Hunter (2013) summarize ambitious
mathematics teaching as teaching “in which conceptual understanding, procedural fluency,
strategic competence, adaptive reasoning, and productive disposition are intertwined in
mathematical practice and learning” (p. 699). It is worth noting here that “productive
disposition” is identified as an outcome variable for students. Inculcating ambitious teaching in
new teachers also has been found to be difficult due to the impact of their prior experiences as
students, typically in transmission-oriented classrooms (Hiebert et al., 2007).
In sum, Lampert et al. (2013) claim that “we are faced with two challenges: preparing
beginning teachers to actually be able to do teaching when they get into classrooms and preparing
them to do teaching that is more socially and intellectually ambitious than the current norm” (p.
226). The Intermediate/Senior Mathematics preservice teacher course described in this paper
employed backward design to identify the exit criteria for graduating teacher candidates, and then
construct an atmosphere, a classroom culture, and specific activities to achieve those goals.

METHODOLOGY AND METHOD

This qualitative study used content analysis (Krippendorff, 2013) to examine tests
generated by the preservice course described subsequently. Krippendorff (2013) describes
content analysis as follows: “Content analysis is a research technique for making replicable and

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valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful matter) to the contexts of their use.” (p.24)
Krippendorff offers a conceptual framework for content analysis that consists of
• A body of text, the data that a content analyst has available to begin an analytical effort
• A research question that the analyst seeks to answer by examining the body of text
• A context of the analyst’s choice within which to make sense of the body of text
• An analytical construct that operationalizes what the analyst knows about the context of
the body of text
• Inferences that are intended to answer the research question, which constitute the basic
accomplishment of the content analysis
• Validating evidence, which is the ultimate justification of the content analysis (p.35)

Research Questions

This current study seeks to answer the following research questions through content
analysis:
1. How well does the course described in this paper inculcate a theory into practice stance
among preservice teachers?
2. Is self-determination theory (SDT) an appropriate theoretical framework for such a
course and what is the evidence?
3. How well do the components of this course inculcate the need to address student
motivation explicitly in every mathematics course taught?
4. How will students demonstrate that these theory-into-practice principles have been
internalized as they transition into their professional practice?
Content analysis (Krippendorff, 2013) was used to analyze four sets of texts: student journal
entries, student responses to guided questions related to required readings, student assignment
products, and student comments and behaviours as observed by the instructor and recorded in
field notes.

Settings, Context, and Constraints

The context of this content analysis was a one-year course for preservice teachers of
Intermediate/Senior Mathematics (grades 7 to 12). The preservice teacher education course was
offered at a faculty of education in Ontario, Canada. Ontario currently has a surfeit of teachers—
one estimate places the surplus at more than 30,000 teachers (Ontario College of Teachers,
2017)—the majority of whom are recent graduates of faculties of education, along with a
minority of new teachers trained outside of Canada. In addition, the Ontario Ministry of
Education (2012) has implemented a hiring system based on seniority, which mitigates against
new graduate teachers successfully finding full-time teaching positions in Ontario for, in some
cases, 5 to 7 years. There are two paths to teacher certification in Ontario: Concurrent students’
undergraduate (major) studies are in education, followed by a 1-year intensive teacher training
program; consecutive students complete an undergraduate degree in another discipline, followed
by a 2-year education training program. Each faculty of education structures courses with
different program goals, which may include an emphasis on social justice issues, Indigenous
education, environmentally conscious education, or other region-specific emphases.
The course described in this paper was offered in a multi-campus, blended format, with
classes consisting of a mix of concurrent and consecutive teacher candidates. This course was the

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first year of two for the consecutive students and was the first and only year for the concurrent
students. Consecutive and concurrent students had different school-year start and end dates, as
well as different teaching practicum and class schedules during the year. Because of these
constraints, the course involved a blending of face-to-face and online components. The following
description is for one section of the course; the other section, taught by a different instructor, had
some but not all of the components in common with this section. The study described in this
paper involved only the single section of the course taught at one specific campus.

COURSE GOALS

Teacher education programs’ overarching goal is teacher success, measured by their (i.e.,
teachers’) students’ achievement. As such, education programs must impart to teacher candidates
a student-centred philosophy that puts students first and encourage teacher ownership of student
achievement. Towards that end, Maynes and Hatt (2013) have proposed a professional shift
theory that seeks to identify characteristics of new graduate teachers that encourage future
success in teaching. Professional shift theory postulates that while new teachers are initially
classroom-survival focused when they begin their careers, those who are truly successful (again,
measured by their students’ success) shift their focus from teacher- to student-centred approaches
to education. New teacher preparation programs therefore need to feature content and activities
that support the potential for their graduates to have a high probability of shifting their focus on
student-centred learning early in their careers. One method of addressing this priority is to
provide preservice teachers with a theoretical framework upon which to base their personal
teaching philosophy, such that the teaching philosophy is founded on a research-affirmed
student-centred focus.
This overarching goal of teacher education programs encompasses a number of subgoals,
including:
• Recognizing the key role that motivation plays in mathematics achievement and learning
how to foster student engagement. A significant body of evidence indicates that
motivation in mathematics has a major role in mathematics achievement (Hannula, 2006;
Koller, Baumert, & Schnabel, 2001; Malmivuori, 2006; Middleton, 1995; Middleton &
Spanias, 1999).
• Enacting a student-centred philosophy in planning and executing the learning–teaching
continuum (Fosnot & Dolk, 1995 ).
• Learning the mechanics of teaching, including lesson and unit planning, classroom
management, instructional strategies, and differentiated instruction.
• Learning and enacting authentic student-centred assessment practices, including
assessment for, as, and of learning, based on the tenets of Growing Success (Ontario
Ministry of Education, 2010).
• Becoming a reflective practitioner, assessing and responding to the results of the
teacher’s own actions. Reflective practice is the hallmark of a professional educator and
includes both reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action (Schön, 1983).
• Understanding the concepts of theory into practice and putting these principles into action
in lesson planning and pedagogy (Nuthall, 2004).
• Increasing mathematical content knowledge and teacher self-efficacy. The latter has been
linked to student achievement and is the focus of much job-embedded professional
learning in Ontario (Irvine & Telford, 2015).

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• Increasing content knowledge for teaching mathematics (CKTM), which Ball and Bass
(2003) identify as critical for teacher success, and therefore student success. CKTM is
qualitatively different from subject content knowledge and involves: knowing alternative
solution methods that are valid and the circumstances that make them so; identifying
appropriate scaffolding opportunities; and being able to encourage students to investigate
and go beyond their current level of knowledge (Ball & Bass, 2003).

THE NEED FOR A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

One of the major learnings in any preservice course is the bridging of theory into
practice. Preservice teachers must recognize that teaching is grounded in research-affirmed
practices, and that the “teach the way you were taught” approach to pedagogy is insufficient.
Thus, preservice courses must model theory-into-practice linkages and immerse preservice
teachers in an environment that fosters deep learning vis-à-vis the ways in which the theory-into-
practice paradigm can be translated into classroom actions (Nuthall, 2004). Combined with the
very large impact of motivation in mathematics achievement, there was a clearly identified need
to establish a theoretical framework for this course that recognizes motivation as a key
component of course planning, together with a foundation in motivational theory. One way to
model this paradigm is through the use of self-determination theory (SDT) as a transparent
framework for the preservice course development.

SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY AS A FRAMEWORK FOR THIS COURSE

SDT encompasses three human needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci &
Ryan, 2008; Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1994). Autonomy refers to the need for some
level of control over one’s activities (in this case, learning); this can often be achieved by
providing students with choices in their content, activities, or output/demonstrations of learning.
Competence is the need to demonstrate a level of mastery in an area and to be recognized for
such expertise. Relatedness is the social need—the need to have caring relationships with others;
this is a foundational concept in the social constructivist classroom, and almost all activities in
this preservice course utilized flexible groups.
SDT is closely related to Choice Theory (GCT, Glasser, 1998), which identifies five
basic needs: freedom, power, belonging, fun, and survival. The autonomy need of SDT parallels
the freedom need of GCT; competence in SDT is reflected in power in GCT; and relatedness is
similar to the belonging need. Both of these theories are related to motivation, particularly
intrinsic motivation, which is key to self-regulation, interest, engagement, and lifelong learning
(Deci et al., 1994).
Deci et al. (1994) propose that students act intentionally to address needs within these
three dimensions, which has implications for student motivation. Ryan and Deci (2000a, 2000b,
2006) point out that there is a direct link between autonomy and intrinsic motivation: Intrinsic
motivation requires autonomy in the form of free choice to participate in an activity, without
requiring or desiring an external reward.
Hannula (2006) provides an example of the operationalization of SDT in the mathematics
classroom, by differentiating needs and goals based on their levels of specificity:
In the context of mathematics education, a student might realize a need for competency as a
goal to solve tasks fluently or, alternatively, as a goal to understand the topic taught. A

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social need might be realized as a goal to contribute significantly to collaborative project

work and a need for autonomy as a goal to challenge the teacher's authority. (p. 167)
The goal linked to autonomy in the above example is simplistic and quite negative. A preferred
choice for such a goal could be choice in activities undertaken, thus increasing intrinsic
motivation as well as addressing the autonomy need.
Irvine (2018) has proposed a framework for comparing theories related to motivation.
The framework consists of two perpendicular axes. The first axis places the theory on an
Intrinsic-extrinsic motivation continuum. Ryan and Deci (2000b, 2006) have demonstrated that
extrinsic motivation is a continuous variable, measured by the degree of internalization that the
learner attaches to the extrinsic motivator. For example, if the student is not driven by a desire to
achieve high marks, extrinsic rewards are a very low motivational factor, and can even be
demotivating. Alternatively, if the desire for high marks is congruent with a student’s personal
goals, such as demonstrating competence, or gaining entrance to a specialized program, the
external motivator is said to be highly internalized into the student’s motivational system and is
relatively close to acting as an intrinsic motivating factor. In the same way if the student is
seeking certification or credentialing in a skill area, this extrinsic factor can be very motivating.
However, once the certification is obtained, there is little motivation to continue learning in that
area, and the extrinsic motivation does not contribute to lifelong learning. On this axis, SDT is
almost entirely on the intrinsic side of the axis, although some aspects of relatedness may be
influenced by extrinsic factors. The second axis is expectancy-value. Expectancy-value theory
posits that students’ choice of tasks, persistence, and achievement depends on two factors:
students’ beliefs about their probability of success and the value they place on the task (Eccles,
1994, 2005, 2009; Eccles & Wigfield, 1995, 2002; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). The expectancy-
value axis does not represent a dichotomy but instead consists of two different constructs:
expectancy and value. This axis is clearly not dichotomous, since a theory may posit high
levels of expectancy as well as high levels of value. Such a situation would be represented on
the framework by an elongated ellipse on the expectancy-value axis. A theory of motivation
for which expectancy is a major attribute will be closer to the expectancy end of the axis;
alternatively, a theory for which value is a major attribute will be closer to the value end of the
axis. Theories for which expectancy and value are both emphasized will be close to the middle
of the axis. Expectancy and value function as mediator variables (Baron & Kenny, 1986) in
that they are part of the causal link between independent and dependent variables, with both
direct and indirect effects (Bailey, 2015; Eccles, 2009; Penk & Schipolowski, 2015). Thus, a
theory situated on the expectancy-value axis indicates the degree to which the components of
that theory function as mediator variables. For SDT, competence lies on the expectancy side of
the axis, while autonomy is on the value side of the axis (Figure 2).

This study used SDT in a completely transparent manner as the theoretical framework in
the Intermediate/Senior mathematics course for preservice teachers. At the beginning of the
course, students were introduced to the basic tenets of SDT, and it was explained that SDT
would be used as a framework. As activities and assignments were outlined, the role of SDT was
clearly articulated, as were the reasons for employing SDT. The critical role of student
motivation in mathematics achievement was described, as well as the need to base personal
teaching philosophies on a research-affirmed theory of learning. While there is a wide array of
theories of learning (Davis, 1996, estimates there are more than 400 such theories), the Ontario
Ministry of Education (2005, 2007) espouses constructivism, specifically social constructivism.

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The course emphasized that each student teacher’s personal theory of teaching, which the course
would help to develop, must be coherent with a theory of learning (Irvine, 2017) in order to
facilitate and optimize their respective students’ learning.

CLASSES

Much of the content of the face-to-face classes were common to most teacher education
programs. This included: the philosophy of student-centred pedagogy; lesson, assessment, and
unit planning; classroom management; technology in math class; mathematics content; and
interrogating the curriculum policy documents. Figure 1 illustrates the elements of the course.
Class structure involved flexible groupings, activities, and learning instructional strategies
through “being the student” role playing as well as creating and delivering activities as “practice
teachers.” Student choice was a major aspect of all these activities, because research has shown
that student choice is a significant facet of motivation, as well as enhancing cognitive function
(Katz & Assor, 2007). Autonomy (e.g., choice) is one of the central tenets of SDT and all
activities were explicitly related to SDT.
More unique aspects of the classes involved regular student journaling using the
institution’s learning management system (LMS); this activity encouraged reflective practice. In
some cases, the journal was a verbal discussion among table groups rather than being in a
traditional written format. Appendix A presents some samples of required journal entry
questions. The journal entries are an example of how this course addressed SDT-related student
needs of competence and relatedness. For the purpose of this study all students were given
pseudonyms. As one student-teacher participant noted,
Last class allowed me to discover many different routes to assessment. They can be
formal or informal, large or small, authentic or traditional. My mind began racing about
the different ways to use the assessments from our gallery walk. How could I make them
applicable to everyday life? I want assessments to shake up the way we think about math,
allowing students to enjoy it more, with less anxiety. I believe developing a range of
assessments will take time, collaboration, and troubleshooting. They cannot be made
overnight or put together in a weekend. When assessing students’ work it is important
that there are many different styles of questions. Some people excel at knowledge-based
questions, while others find it easier to explain what has happened or what steps were
used, and why. As well, questions should come from a couple of curriculum expectations,
to give variety to the assessment. (Darren)
Analyzing this journal entry using content analysis yields a number of important though implicit
features of how Darren is internalizing SDT. He identifies several features of assessment that
denote autonomy (variety, applicability to students’ real lives, student enjoyment, reduced
student anxiety). He also recognizes different ways to assess student competence depending on
the student’s primary learning modality. In addition, Darren implies that belonging is important,
referring to collaboration and the need to make risk-taking a safe dimension of his classroom.
An additional feature of the classes required electronic responses to research articles
based on a set of guiding questions. This component and follow-up discussions in class
supported the theory-into-practice dimension. Students read articles by Jo Boaler (Boaler &
Humphreys, 2005), Deborah Ball (Ball & Bass, 2003), Marian Small (2010), Marshall and
Horton (2011), and other researchers. Each article was linked to the content and activities that
occurred in the class, and students responded electronically to guiding questions about the

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articles (see Appendix B). In general, preservice teachers’ responses to guided questions yielded
the least volume of text material that could be analyzed using content analysis, since the guided
questions were quite explicit and did not explicitly ask for links to SDT. However, some
responses provided an in-depth look at how SDT could be internalized. One such response, by
Lydia, is discussed below.
After reading Beyond One Right Answer I began to think about the different strategies
for questioning. Small outlined four different strategies for questioning. This made me
realize that although I was aware I should use questioning in my math class, I did not
know how. This article gave me some great ideas on how to implement questioning that
develops higher-order thinking. Having students work backwards or choose their own
values is also a great way to assess their knowledge of math and how comfortable they
feel with numbers. (Lydia)
Once again, the references to SDT in this response were implicit. Lydia recognizes that teacher
questioning can be used to both support her students’ need for competence and to promote
increased competence in higher-order thinking. Additionally, Lydia his identified her students’
need for comfort (belonging) in class, while providing autonomy through her students being able
to choose their own values for problems.
Another activity involved viewing a video clip of the “Border Problem” (Boaler &
Humphreys, 2005) and “being the student”—looking for as many different solution strategies as
possible prior to discussing the teaching techniques employed by Cathleen Humphreys in the
video clip. This activity, which occurred early in the first term, is an example of how preservice
teachers’ own SDT needs for autonomy and competence could be developed, as well as a sense
of belonging since the activity was initiated in groups and then snowballed into a whole class
discussion. After the class discussion, the instructor explicitly linked SDT to the activity and
invited students to suggest additional strategies for the activity that could support SDT. Students
found this activity very motivating and indicated that the activity stimulated them to engage
since it had multiple entry points and a low threshold of required prior knowledge.
In the second term, each class was dedicated to a particular mathematics course or
courses. In these classes, one-third of class time involved group teaching activities (outlined
below). The remainder of each class let students “be the students” as they worked through
activities appropriate for the course or courses under consideration, usually in a carousel format.
After completing each activity, students evaluated the activity by responding to questions:
• What expectations does/could this activity address?
• Would you use this activity? Why/Why not?
• What would you assess?
• How would you assess it?
A reflection by Caroline illustrates how SDT was embedded in this format.
Asking me to decide for each activity whether I would use it or not was very freeing. It
was also very new, since through my career as a student I had never been asked to make
evaluative decisions like this. My assignments were always ‘do these questions and don’t
ask why’ so being asked for my personal input was great. I would like to see more
activities like this one, where I get to decide. (Caroline)
This reflection emphasizes how motivating Caroline found having autonomy in her decision
process. It also unfortunately illustrates that student autonomy was rarely seen in her education
before this course, and how demotivating Caroline found that structure to be.

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ASSIGNMENTS

Assignments in this course included traditional ones involving lesson planning and a
(four-part) unit plan which included a concept map. These assignments offered students a
complete choice of topics and teammates. Two of the assignments were particularly engaging for
students. The first was constructed by another instructor at the institution and involved working
with problems from previously published Education Quality and Accountability Office (EQAO)
standardized assessments. In Ontario, all students write EQAO assessments in grades 3, 6, 9, and
10. Grade 3 and grade 6 students are assessed in mathematics, reading, and writing; grade 9
students are assessed in mathematics; and grade 10 students must write and pass a literacy test as
a graduation requirement. For this assignment, which addressed student needs for autonomy and
competence (SDT), students individually
• completed solutions to the problems in at least two different ways and reflected on their
work;
• observed two volunteers complete the problems and reflect on what they observed; and
• completed a written report reflecting on their experiences during this assignment and
relating the activity to overall and specific curriculum expectations.
This assignment was incredibly popular with students, and almost all them commented on the
utility of the assignment, and on how it energized them to engage in their teaching careers.
This was a great assignment. I could work with people of my choice .I chose two
classmates who before this I didn’t really know—we took turns being the teacher and the
students. It was really interesting to see the different methods that they chose to solve
these problems. Some of these methods I would never have thought of. This really
emphasized to me that I can’t just have one way of solving a problem, since my students
will have some different ones. I am a bit worried that if the solution is really far away
from what I would do, I might not realize that it’s a correct solution and my student will
suffer. This could really turn off a kid if he does it a right way and I mark it wrong. Will
we be looking at ways to recognize correct solutions in this course, I think that is really
important? (Michelle)
Michelle’s reflection began by identifying the needs for autonomy and belonging. She was
pleased that she was free to choose who she worked with (autonomy) and used this to become
acquainted with two classmates that she had not previously known (relatedness). Michelle also
commented on her own need for competence in recognizing correct student work and followed
this with a request that the course would support her competence need. Her comment about “this
could really turn the kid off” was important recognition of the link between motivation and
achievement, which is critical in mathematics (Ontario Education Quality and Accountability
Office, 2014).
The second assignment asked groups of students “being teachers” to construct and teach
to their classmates (“being students”) three student-centred activities applicable to a particular
mathematics course being addressed in that class based on the following guidelines:
• One activity had to involve technology;
• One activity had to employ manipulatives;
• The third activity was open (it could involve technology, manipulatives, or any other
active strategy);
• A total of 45 minutes was allotted for these three activities;

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• Classmates (“students”) had to be active at least 80% of the allotted time;

• The activities had to be situated within the specific mathematics course by identifying
what expectations the activities addressed, what accommodations could be made to
address exceptional students’ needs, and what modifications could be made to make the
activities useful in other courses;
• Peer assessment and instructor assessment occurred for each group;
• Any resources that were developed were uploaded to the LMS site so that the entire class
had access to them.
The group teaching assignment addressed all three needs pertaining to SDT (autonomy,
competence, relatedness) due to its group structure and the group becoming experts in one area
of their own choosing. Jennifer’s comments were typical:
I really liked this assignment. When it was my group’s turn to teach, we had complete
choice in what course and what activities to use. It really made me think about keeping
students engaged and that some students need different supports like technology or
manipulatives to make their learning better and more engaging. I am a very visual learner
and I didn’t often get a chance to work with anything other than paper and pencil, but
Tanya in my group was really excited to be doing technology, and Mark loved making
the manipulatives activity. He said that in his own math classes he had never had a
chance to do anything fun like that. (Jennifer)
Jennifer’s comments emphasized that she recognized that some learners are more engaged by
alternative teaching strategies and that paper and pencil can be demotivating for many students.
Her comments reflected the need for competence by all students and that that competence can be
supported in different ways. She also commented on the autonomy of having complete choice of
activities. Further, Jennifer’s comments indicate that she is internalizing the student-centred
focus that this course sought to inculcate.

Blended Portion of the Course

The course’s blended portion was its most unique feature, in that it addressed the
constraints of different schedules, practice teaching blocks, and start/end times for consecutive
versus concurrent students. More importantly, it addressed students’ need for autonomy (SDT),
with complete freedom of choice as to which activities were selected. Outside of class time,
students completed 12 nominal hours of activities selected from a list (see Table 1). Required
postings were made to each student’s Professional Portfolio in the LMS. This requirement was
extremely popular with students because it allowed them to investigate a topic of interest in more
detail or to examine other resources and activities for classroom use. Complete choice in
selecting which activities to complete generated high levels of engagement and motivation.
Some of the choices (e.g., book studies) were completed in student-selected groups. While no
single activity was chosen a large number of times, Elise, who chose “Gap Closing and
ePractice” as one of her activities, made some very insightful comments.
I read the Gap Closing materials on the ministry website and did a bunch of the ePractice
questions. While I can see some value in these materials since I will prob ably have
students who have learning gaps in my class and the materials are easy to access 24/7 I
was really struck by how these questions focus on the deficit model instead of the
attribute model that we talked about in class. I think all students will have some gaps,
sometimes really big gaps. When I start teaching I will have lots of gaps in what I do.

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But I’d like to think that every one of my students will be able to do some things right
when they come to my class. Instead of fixating on what they can’t do, are there
materials out there that focus on what students CAN do? My PMI has a lot of pluses and
some minuses, but I think this is the biggest minus of these materials.
Elise’s comments demonstrate a sophisticated understanding of student-centred teaching, and the
need to address every student’s need for competence. By seeking to provide other resources that
support this student competency need, Elise shows a maturity of thought that is often absent in
preservice teachers.
Book study was another choice that some students selected. This choice (autonomy),
done in self-selected student groups, promoted the relatedness dimension of SDT while explicitly
linking theory to practice. Kaylie’s group chose The Art and Science of Teaching, which offers
research-affirmed instructional strategies and discusses links to student-centred pedagogy.
My group really enjoyed working with this book. We all learned lots of strategies that
we can apply in our classrooms. I liked the format for the chapters, with their titles What
will I do to… My favourite chapter was What will I do to engage students. It had lots of
basic strategies like wait time and games and response cards that I can use immediately in
my practice teaching block. But I also liked that the book presents some research to back
up what they say. I was amazed that just getting students engaged in class can increase
their performance by 30 percentile points. We had some very active
discussions/arguments about what were the best strategies for us new teachers to start
with. Everybody chose different ones but we finally came to agreement that we should
all use as many of these strategies as possible. This book gave us a great starting point
for our own teaching. (Kaylie)
The autonomy dimension of SDT is interwoven into Kaylie’s response. She chose the members
of her group; she chose her favourite chapter; she chose teaching activities that she felt fit her
teaching goals. The relatedness dimension of SDT was also clear in her comments, as was the
need to engage students and motivate them to learn. Kaylie’s reflection illustrates that she (and
her group) understand the link between theory and practice, and that research can identify high-
yield instructional strategies and quantify those strategies to allow teachers to differentiate
among alternatives. This is a perspective on theory into practice that goes beyond SDT to
identify a more general theory to practice stance.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Inferences were drawn from four text sources. First, student journal entries routinely
linked classroom activities and assignments to the elements of SDT. Second, classroom
observations by the instructor identified students who vocalized the links between course
activities and SDT, as well as those who demonstrated through their actions and assignment
submissions that they had internalized the concepts. Student responses to guided questions from
assigned readings supported this internalization of SDT. Finally, student artifacts from the course
demonstrated that the majority understand the principles of SDT and were able to apply these
principles to produce teaching strategies and activities that resonated with SDT.
The construct under examination in this study was theory into practice, specifically the
use of SDT as a framework for a preservice course in order to inculcate in preservice teachers the
attitude that their teaching philosophy needs to be grounded in research and that this philosophy
needs to recognize the key role that motivation plays in learning of mathematics. Research

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question #1, how well does the current course described in this paper inculcate a theory into
practice stance among preservice teachers, was strongly supported. Anecdotal comments by the
preservice teacher participants indicated that a research-affirmed stance became a major
dimension of their developing professional philosophy. Some student comments were indicative
of a deep understanding of the issue of theory into practice. Sharon’s final reflection
demonstrated this stance.
I was able to reflect and grow as an educator. I now understand the need to have
a personal teaching philosophy before I go into my first class and that what I do in
class is based on that philosophy. Self-determination theory is a good one,
although I may move away from it as I get more experience if I can find
something that fits my style better. Thank you so much for your guidance and all
the advice you gave about teaching. I can tell you have a lot of experience.
(Sharon)

Sharon’s response also supports research question #4, how will students demonstrate that these
theory-into-practice principles have been internalized as they transition into their professional
practice. This stance was echoed by another student’s final reflection:
Thank you for giving us information on SDT and how it can be used to provide a
framework for our professional practice. As I move into the teaching phase of my
career, I can use SDT to give me a solid foundation on which to base my first year
of real teaching. Meeting the needs of my students will be easier with the base
that you provided, along with the great resources that you shared with us.
(Maroni)
With respect to research question #2, is SDT an appropriate theoretical framework for
such a course and what is the evidence, SDT is a richly-researched theory that makes
practitioners aware that teachers need to not just consider subject content but also address other
dimensions of student learning, especially motivation. While other theoretical frameworks were
considered for this course, SDT provides a relatively straightforward set of principles that almost
every student in the course recognized as echoing their own educational experiences. This
personalization of the theoretical framework made comprehension much easier, as well as
providing motivation for the students in the course to apply their learning about SDT to the
course activities. It would be useful to examine instances of other courses taught using
alternative theoretical frameworks to determine whether a similar level of application and
inculcation of theoretical principles occurred.
The importance of explicitly addressing motivational and affective dimensions was
clearly articulated by the majority of the preservice teachers, supporting research question #3,
how well do the components of this course inculcate the need to address student motivation
explicitly in every mathematics course taught.
This course was lots of fun and very useful and practical. My math classes in the past
were really rigid and boring, with us just following what the teacher did at the board and
then doing lots of questions. I looked forward to coming to this class and had fun every
day. Plus I learned lots of activities and teaching strategies that I plan to use to make my
own classes fun for my students. You always showed respect for us as adults and that is
something I will take to my own classes as well. (Natalie)
Table 2 shows the approximate number of instances that students demonstrated their
understanding of SDT either explicitly or implicitly. By the end of the course, 54% of students

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were in the “often” category, and 73% in the “often” or “sometimes” categories. Implicit
evidence of SDT internalization included student in-class comments and observations recorded
by the instructor in field notes, student lesson plans and unit plans that showed that students
understood the needs for student choice (autonomy), groupings (relatedness) and differentiated
assessment practices that allowed students to demonstrate competence.
Validating evidence for these inferences will only truly be obtained once these preservice
teachers enter their own classrooms and demonstrate through their professional practice that they
have internalized the concept of theory into practice and formulated a philosophy of teaching that
recognizes the need to address student motivation and affective dimensions.
Based on the text analysis, all four research questions were answered in the affirmative.
The course described in this paper represented a theory into practice paradigm that a large
percentage of students both accepted and in some case, embraced. SDT proved to be a rich
theoretical framework, both easy for students to understand and use as well as a fulsome
theoretical stance that placed a priority on students’ needs and fit very well within a student-
centred teaching philosophy. All the components of the course received favourable ratings from
the students, and the tenets of SDT interwoven into the activities were clearly articulated by the
majority of the students. While the degree of internalization of this theoretical framework will
only be truly demonstrated by the actions of the graduates once they begin their professional
careers, the quality of the products produced in this course and the depth of their comments and
linkages to SDT are strong indicators that the goals of this course structure were attained.

LIMITATIONS

A limitation of this study is that this was only one class section, in one particular year of
one faculty of education. Further, SDT is only one of many theoretical frameworks that could be
selected. So the conclusions from this study may not be replicable in other circumstances.
However, the results of this study are encouraging in identifying one route to addressing the
theory into practice issue, which is a thorny issue for the research community (Nuthall, 2004).
In sum, this course illustrates how a research-affirmed stance can be used both to
demonstrate a theory-into-practice linkage as well as inculcate in our preservice teachers an
awareness of grounding a teaching philosophy in research, and identifying major aspects of such
a philosophy, such as addressing student motivation and affective dimensions, with a student-
centred lens on their professional practice.

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Table 1
The Activity Choice Table
Activity Description Resources Posting Nominal
hours
Compare Desmos Compare and contrast Desmos.com Written 2
and GeoGebra Desmos and Geogebra. Geogebra.com comparison of
Consider ease of use, these two
functionality, flexibility, resources. Can
breadth of coverage, any be in table
missing functions. form.
Compare the Math Identify similarities and Math Processes: Any Written 1
Processes with the differences between the Ontario curriculum policy analysis of
US Math Practices Ontario Mathematical document, or on similarities
Processes and the US www.edugains.ca and
Common Core Mathematical US Math Practices: differences.
Practices. In your opinion, is Posted on Sakai in Online
either set of processes/ Resources folder.
practices missing important
concepts?
SMART Exchange Identify an artifact from the Smartexchange.com Artifact and 1
SMART Exchange site and SMART Notebook written
outline how it could be used activation code is analysis of
in class. Be explicit about XXXXXXX how it could
what grades and expectations be used.
this would address.
SmartBrief article Identify one article from this SmartBrief.com Written 1
service and critically analyze Sign up for any or all of reflection.
it, particularly how it applies these (free) eletters:
to the Ontario context. Accomplished teacher by
SmartBrief; education
week.org; NCTM
smartbrief; smartbrief on
education, ASCD
smartbrief, smartbrief on
edtech.
CLIPS Work through one of the www.edugains.ca Written report. 1
CLIPS modules. Decide how Search CLIPS
or where the module could
be used by your students.

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Table 1
The Activity Choice Table (Cont’d)
Activity Description Resources Posting Nominal
hours
OAME assessment Analyze one of the www.oame.on.ca PMI analysis. 1
assessments found in the username: XXXX
member’s section of the password: XXXX
OAME website. Conduct a
PMI and post your findings.
Become a Develop a TIPS4RM lesson See sheet “Become a TIPS4RM 2
TIPS4RM lesson on a specified expectation TIPS4RM Lesson Lesson plan.
author (see additional information). Author”
Border Problem Watch Border Problem Part 2 Border Problem Part 2 Written 1
Part 2 and identify teacher posted on Sakai in Online reflection.
strategies to encourage math Resources folder.
talk in her class.
Kahoot quiz Construct a quiz or survey www.getkahoot.com Quiz or 1
using Kahoot. survey.
Learning style Take one or more learning Internet. Search learning Written report, 1
survey style surveys on the Internet. styles or learning plus sample of
Discuss how using such a modalities. the survey.
survey with your students
could enhance their learning.
TI resources Identify an artifact from the Education.TI.com Artifact and 1
education portion of the Also TI-Math; TI-Nspired written
Texas Instruments website. Math analysis of
Outline how it could be used how it could
in class. Be explicit about be used.
what grades and expectations
this would address.
Gap Closing and Examine the Gap Closing Edugains.ca PMI analysis. 1
ePractice materials and try some Search gap closing
ePractice activities. Reflect
on the strengths and
weaknesses of these
materials and conduct a PMI
analysis.

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Table 1
The Activity Choice Table (Cont’d)
Activity Description Resources Posting Nominal
hours
Poll Everywhere Construct a survey for use in Polleverywhere.com Survey and 2
your classroom. Identify the (free) comments on its
grade, strand, and topic(s), implementation.
including the expectations
that the survey would
address. Try the survey out
on a few willing volunteers.
Gizmos Identify an artifact from the Explorelearning.com Artifact and 1
Gizmos website. Outline how Math: XXXX written analysis
it could be used in class. Be Grade 7-8 and of how it could
explicit about what grades Science:XXXX be used.
and expectations this would
address.
TIPS interactive Examine a sample TIPS Edugains.ca Modified lesson. 1
SMART Board interactive whiteboard Search TIPS IWB
lessons lesson, and then modify it for
a different topic or grade.
GSP applets Examine the available GSP Edugains.ca Name the 3 1
applets, identify 3 that you Search technology applets, and
would consider using in provide the
class, with reasons. Your reasons, courses,
reasons should include which and
course and expectations the expectations.
applets would address.
GSP lessons Identify an artifact from the http://keyonline.keypres Lesson title and 1
Geometer's Sketchpad s.com analysis.
Lesson Link website. Outline Use login : XXXX
how it could be used in class. Password: XXXX
Be explicit about what grades
and expectations this would
address.
Algebra Tiles Investigate the additional Sakai Online Resources Identify 2
extended algebra tiles resources posted resource and
on Sakai. Identify at least one analysis.
resource that you would use
in class, with grade and
expectations.

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Table 1
The Activity Choice Table (Cont’d)
Activity Description Resources Posting Nominal
hours
Math Examine the resources Edugains.ca Written 1
Manipulatives available for manipulative Search manipulatives reflection.
use. Select one of the
manipulatives and critically
reflect on the resource that is
provided.
Ontario Identify an artifact from the https://resources.elearning Artifact and 1
Educational OERB website. Outline how ontario.ca/ written
Resource Bank it could be used in class. Be Login: XXXX analysis of
explicit about what grades Password: XXXX how it could
and expectations this would be used.
address.
TED Talk Watch a Dan Meyer TED https://www.ted.com/talks Written 1
Talk and write a reflection on reflection
what he said. Do you agree
with him?
Understanding by Reflect on Wiggins and Wiggins & McTighe Written 1
Design McTighe’s Understanding by (2005). Understanding by reflection
Design. Design framework
Available at:
http://tiny.cc/xx7wqy
Mindful Learning Read this article and reflect Langer, E. The Power of Written 2
on how it applies to you as a Mindful Learning reflection
beginning teacher. Posted on Sakai, Online
Resources
Professional Shift Read the Sakai article on Maynes & Hatt (2013). Written 2
Theory professional shift theory and Professional shift theory. reflection
write a reflection on how it Posted on Sakai, Online
applies to you. Resources
Tailoring math Read the article and critically Simmt, Sookochoff, Written 2
curriculum reflect on the contents. McFeetors, & Mason. reflection
Curriculum Development
to promote visualization
and mathematical
reasoning.
Posted on Sakai, Online
Resources

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Table 1
The Activity Choice Table (Cont’d)
Activity Description Resources Posting Nominal
hours
Book Study: This activity is best done in a Chapter
group. discussion
1. Read the book. I suggest summaries
reading one chapter at a
time and then discussing
that chapter.
2. As a group, discuss the
chapter. Especially
consider how the
information applies to
you, a beginning teacher.
3. Write up a summary of
your discussion.
4. Post your writeup to
Sakai.
5. Repeat steps 1-4 for each
chapter.
Book Study 1: See above Marzano, R. (2007). The 6
The Art and Art and Science of
Science of Teaching.
Teaching Will be on reserve in the
IRC (multiple copies)
Book Study 2: Keeley & Tobey (2011). 6
Mathematics Mathematics Formative
Formative Assessment: 75 Practical
Assessment Strategies for Linking
Assessment, Instruction,
and Learning.
Will be on reserve in the
IRC (multiple copies)
Book Study 3: Hattie, J. (2012). Visible 6
Visible Learning Learning For Teachers:
For Teachers Maximizing Impact on
Learning.
Will be on reserve in the
IRC (multiple copies)

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Table 2. Student references to self-determination theory

Often Sometimes Rarely Never Total number
of students
Term 1 8 6 5 3 22
September to
December
Term 2 12 4 4 2 22
January to
April

Look fors:
• Explicit mention of SDT terminology (autonomy, competence, relatedness)
• Mention of related concepts (motivation, choice, mastery, group processing, engagement,
attitude, peer, consensus, justification, confidence, self-efficacy, explain, independence,
counter-example)
• Imputed concepts of SDT from instructor observations and field notes
• Imputed concepts of SDT as demonstrated in assignments

Figure 1. Tools of education.

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Intrinsic

Self -
Determination
Theory

Expectancy Value

Extrinsic

Figure 2. Location of SDT on Irvine’s (2018) framework for comparing theories related to
motivation. Reprinted with permission.

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Appendix A: Selected Journal Entry Questions

• Why are you here?
• With reasons, what was today’s most interesting fact, activity, strategy?
On the page Underlying views of mathematics & learning mathematics for school, the
column “View reflected in the Ontario Curriculum” is POLICY (non-negotiable)
• Which aspects of this policy do you find:
o Encouraging
o Disturbing
o Exhilarating
o Counter to your personal philosophy of teaching mathematics
• Assess your knowledge of assessment
• What questions do you have about questioning?
• Which of the heuristics best matches your current teaching style?
• Assess the effectiveness of your current teaching style
• What if anything do you need to change?
• Why?
Midterm report card for the instructor:
• I would like to see more of ……..
• I would like to see less of ………..
• I would like to see about the same amount of ………..
• The best thing in this class so far is ……….
• The worst thing in this class so far is ……..
• How are the overall expectations in the curriculum policy documents similar to big
ideas?
• How are they different?
• In your own words, what is a big idea in mathematics and why does it matter?
• In this course, I have emphasized a vision of student centred learning, in which
students take an active part in developing their math concepts. Are there some
topics in the math curriculum that do not fit this vision well, and that would be
better developed through direct instruction (NOT lecture)?
• Give some examples and justify why you have chosen these examples.
For the first lesson of your unit plan topic:
• Identify 5 different ways to introduce your topic (Minds On)
• If you choose an activity we have done, just the name is sufficient. If you choose
an activity we have not done, some description will be needed.
• If you choose a strategy (e.g. placemat), provide a brief description of what you
expect students to do/respond to.
Tell me what the second-year math course should look like:
• Consider:
• topics,
• format,
• student input
• anything else you think should be considered

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• What is your assessment of SDT as a research-affirmed framework for your

personal teaching philosophy?
• Cite examples from your class participation or your assignments to support
your assessment of SDT.

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Appendix B: Guiding Questions for Selected Readings

The Role of Teacher Questions

(Jo Boaler)
1. Sort the Question Types in Appendix A into surface learning and deep learning. Use
your own definitions of surface learning and deep learning.
2. Sort the Question Types in Appendix A into higher order thinking and lower order
thinking. Use your own definitions of higher order thinking and lower order thinking.
3. Boaler claims that Type 3 questions, Exploring mathematical meanings and
relationships, is the most important type of question. Do you agree or disagree?
Justify your answer.
Beyond One Right Answer
(Marian Small)
1. Use each of Small's four strategies for creating open questions to create four questions
for Grade 9 Applied Mathematics (MFM1P).
2. What is the difference between open questions and parallel tasks?
3. Use each of Small's two strategies for creating parallel tasks to create two parallel tasks
for Grade 12 Calculus and Vectors (MCV4U).
4. How do open questions and parallel tasks relate to SDT?
Toward a Practice-Based Theory of Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching
(Deborah Ball and Hyman Bass)
1. What is pedagogical content knowledge, and how is it different from mathematical
content knowledge?
2. Describe what is meant by unpacking, and by connectedness, in the context of teaching
mathematics.
3. Ball and Bass list eight activities in which math teachers must engage. What are they?
Are any of the eight more important than others? Justify your response.
4. Are you convinced by the article that pedagogical content knowledge is different from
mathematical content knowledge? Which is more important to a math teacher? Justify
your response, citing evidence from the article.

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The Relationship of Teacher-Facilitated, Inquiry-Based Instruction to Student Higher-

Order Thinking
(Jeff Marshall and Robert Horton)
1. Why use inquiry learning?
2. Briefly describe the 4 Es of inquiry learning.
Answer the following questions TRUE or FALSE:
3. Student cognitive levels are higher when more time is spent on ENGAGE.
4. Student cognitive levels are higher when more time is spent on EXPLORE.
5. Student cognitive levels are higher when more time is spent on EXPLAIN.
6. Student cognitive levels are higher when more time is spent on EXTEND.
7. When more time is spent on EXPLORE, the amount of time students spend in higher
order cognitive skills increases.
8. When more time is spent on EXPLORE, the amount of time students spend in lower
order cognitive skills increases.
9. When more time is spent on EXPLAIN, the amount of time students spend in higher
order cognitive skills increases.
10. When more time is spent on EXPLAIN, the amount of time students spend in lower
order cognitive skills increases.
11. Relate the article's definition of higher order cognitive skills to one of:
a) the original Bloom's taxonomy
b) revised Bloom's taxonomy
c) Marzano's taxonomy

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