3549, BALANCED FAULT developed for the formation of the bus impedance matrix. These function are Zbus = zbuild(zdata) and Zbus = zbuildpi(linedata, gendata, yload). The latter one is compatible with power flow inpu¥output files. A program named symfault is developed for systematic computation of three-phase balanced faults for a large interconnected power system. 9.2 BALANCED THREE-PHASE FAULT This type of fault is defined as the simultaneous short circuit across all three phases, It occurs infrequently, but it is the most severe type of fault encountered. Because the network is balanced, it is solved on a per-phase basis. The other two phases carry identical currents except for the phase shift, In Chapter 8 it was shown that the reactance of the synchronous generator under short-circuit conditions is a time-varying quantity, and for network analysis three reactances were defined. The subtransient reactance X’, for the first few cycles of the short circuit current, transient reactance X!, for the next (say) 30 cycles, and the synchronous reactance X,, thereafter. Since the duration of the short circuit current depends on the time of operation of the protective system, it is not always easy to decide which reactance to use. Generally, the subtransient reactance is used for determining the interrupting capacity of the circuit breakers, In fault studies required for relay setting and coordination, transient reactance is used. Also, in typical transient stability studies, transient reactance is used. AA fault represents a structural network change equivalent with that caused by the addition of an impedance at the place of fault. If the fault impedance is zero, the fault is referred to as the bolted fault or the solid fault. The faulted network can be solved conveniently by the Thévenin’s method, The procedure is demonstrated in the following example. Example 9.1 The one-line diagram of a simple three-bus power system is shown in Figure 9.1. Bach generator is represented by an emf behind the transient reactance. All impedances are expressed in per unit on a common 100 MVA base, and for sim- plicity, resistances are neglected. The following assumptions are made. (® Shunt capacitances are neglected and the system is considered on no-load. (ii) All generators are running at their rated voltage and rated frequency with their emfs in phase. Determine the fault current, the bus voltages, and the line currents during the fault when a balanced three-phase fault with a fault impedance Zy = 0.16 per unit occurs on92. BALANCED THREE-PHASEFAULT 355 (@) Bus 3. (b) Bus 2. (©) Bus 1. FIGURE 9. ‘The impedance diagram ofa simple power system. ‘The fault is simulated by switching on an impedance Zy at bus 3 as shown in Figore 9.2(a). Thévenin’s theorem states that the changes in the network volt- age caused by the added branch (the fault impedance) shown in Figure 9.2(a) is, equivalent to those caused by the added voltage Vs(0) with all other sources short- circuited as shown in Figure 9.2(b). Vin = Va(0) Zy = 50.16 IP) = 2 = j0.16 @ o Lt FIGURE 92 (@) The impedance network for fault at bus 3. (b) Thévenin’s equivalent network.386. 9. BALANCED FAULT (a) From 9.2(b), the fault current at bus 3 is Va(0) B(F) = a(F) Zagat Zy where V(0) is the Thévenin’s voltage or the prefault bus voltage. The prefault bus voltage can be obtained from the results ofthe power flow solution. In this example, since the loads are neglected and generator’s emis are assumed equal to the rated value, all the prefault bus voltages are equal to 1.0 per unit, ie., Vi(0) = V4(0) = Va(0) = 1.0. pa ss is the Thévenin’s impedance viewed from the faulted bus. ‘To find the Thévenin's impedance, we convert the A formed by buses 123 to an equivalent Y as shown in Figure 9.3(a). (j0.24 90.1 233 = 50.34 3 3 L(F)|@ Vin IF) {@) Via 50.16 ‘90.16 = oF FIGURE 93 Reduction of Thévenin’s equivalent network (0.4) (70.8) (50.4) (50.4) Zia = Za, = POANGO8) _ ay = DAGON) _ “ 25 716 (90.2 36 716 (50.1 ‘Combining the parallel branches, Thévenin’s impedance is = (0.4)(50.6) 2a = EGG TIO = j0.24 + J0.1 = 70.34 From Figure 9.3(c), the fault current is WF) 10 AIP) = 7 +2; 7034+ 70.16 —§20 pu92. BALANCED THREE-PHASE FAULT 357 With reference to Figure 9.3(a), the current di are jons between the two generators -j12 pu Tox = —-j08 pa Ay AV2 = 0 (j0.4)(—30.8) AV, = (30.16)(—72) — 1.0 ‘The bus voltages during the fault are obtained by superposition of the prefault ‘bus voltages and the changes in the bus voltages caused by the equivalent emf ‘connected to the faulted bus, as shown in Figure 9.2(b), ie., VA(F) = Vi(0) + AN Va(F) = Va(0) + AVa Va(F) = Va(0) + AVs = 1.0 = 0.68, 1.00.24 =0.76 pu ‘The short circuit-currents in the lines are Vi(F) - Vo F) _ 0.76 - 0.68 Tio(F) = fa 708 ~J0.1 pu Vi(F) - Val(F) Tia(P) eee =-jll pu Va(F) ~ Va(F)} 32 ta) = REL=WE _ O88=052 09 py (b) The fault with impedance Zy at bus 2 is depicted in Figure 9.4(a), and its ‘Thévenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 9.4(b). To find the Thévenin’s impedance, we combine the parallel branches in Figure 9.4(b). Also, combining parallel branches from ground to bus 2 in Figure 9.5(a), results in _ 40.6)(j04) _ 20 = 064504 1074 From Figure 9.5(b), the fault current is ¥2(0) 1.0 B= Fe 2 j0.24+ 70.10 -92.5 pu3589, BALANCED FAULT (a) FIGURE 94 (a) The impedance network for fault at bus 2. (b) Thévenin’s equivalent network Yn ny 2, = 50.16 Zy = 50.16 © ft (a) FIGURE 9.5 Reduction of Thévenin’s equivalent network, With reference to Figure 9.5(a), the current divisions between the generators are =— 106 _ ~ 704+ 70.6 For the bus voltage changes from Figure 9.4(a), we get Tea (PF) = AM, = 0- (j0.2)(-J1.0) = -0.2 pu92. BALANCED THREE-PHASEFAULT 359. The bus voltages during the fault are obtained by superposition of the prefault bus voltages and the changes in the bus voltages caused by the equivalent emf connected to the faulted bus, as shown in Figure 9.4(b), i.e. 0-0. VA(F) = Vi(0) +AVi 08 pa V,(F) = V2(0) + AV: = 1.00.6 =04 pu Va(F) = Vs(0) + AVs = 1.0-0.4=0.6 pu ‘The short circuit-currents in the lines are Vi(F) — Val F) 08-04 7 Tya(r) = Wa VF) =~J05 pu za 0 VAlF) ~Va(F) _ 08 Tis(F) = ae =-J05 po Va(F) — Va(F) InP) = BOW = ao 305. po (©) The fault with impedance Zy at bus 1 is depicted in Figure 9.6(a), and its 's equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 9.6(b). 50.2 50.4 50.2 504 508 508 itt 4 1 J 2 a G04 j0.4 Vin JOA j0.4 % 38 1) 3 Lt a Zy = 50.16 @ = © FIGURES. (@) The impedance network for faut at bus 1. (b) Thévenin’s equivalent network. To find the Thévenin’s impedance, we combine the parallel branches in Figure 9.6(b). Also, combining parallel branches from ground to bus 1 in Figure 9.7(a),3609. BALANCED FAULT 90.2 JOA j0.16 j04 1 f 1 Van nF) 2p = 016 tC @ = ricuRe 97 Reduction of Thévenin’s equivalent newwork. results in = (90-2)(50.8) © 50-2 + j0.8 ay (0.16 From Figure 9.7(b), the fault current is ny = %O 1.0 5 at = 78.125 Zu + Z% ~ 7016+ 70.16 ~ 79125 Pe With reference to Figure 9.7(a), the current divisions between the two generators are = a0see * 702+ 708°" 50.2 : 02 +708 2") Tor (PF) = -32.50. pu Tes —§0.625. pu For the bus voltage changes from Figure 9.6(b), we get AY = 0- ( .2)(—92.5) = -0.50 pu AV2 = 0 ~ (j0.4)(—J0.625) = -0.25 pu = 30.625 AVs = —0.5 + (70.4)( 0.375. pu Bus voltages during the fault are obtained by superposition of the prefault bus volt- ages and the changes in the bus voltages caused by the equivalent emf connected92, BALANCED THREE-PHASE FAULT 361 to the faulted bus, as shown in Figure 9.6(b), i.e VA(F) =Vi(0) + AN, Va(F) = Va(0) + AV2 Va(F) = Va(0) + AVa = 1.0 — 0.50 = 0.50 pu 1.0-0.25 = 0.75 pu 0 — 0.375 = 0.625. pu ‘The short-circuit currents in the lines are Vo(F)—VA(F) _ In(F) aa in = VE n(n) = HOWE In the above example the load currents were neglected and all prefault bus voltages were assumed to be equal to 1.0 per unit. For mote accurate calculation, the prefault bus voltages can be obtained from the power flow solution. As we have seen in Chapter 6, in a power system, loads are specified and the load currents are unknown. One way to include the effects of load currents in the fault analysis is to express the loads by constant impedance evaluated at the prefault bus voltages. ‘This is a very good approximation which results in linear nodal equations. The procedure is summarized in the following steps. ‘© The prefault bus voltages are obtained from the results of the power flow solution ‘© In order to preserve the linearity feature of the network, loads are converted to constant admittances using the prefault bus voltages. ‘© The faulted network is reduced into a Thévenin's equivalent circuit as viewed from the faulted bus. Applying Thévenin’s theorem, changes in the bus volt- ages are obtained, ‘© Bus voltages during the fault are obtained by superposition of the prefault bus voltages and the changes in the bus voltages computed in the previous step. ‘* The currents during the fault in all branches of the network are then obtained.362 9, BALANCED FAULT 9.3 SHORT-CIRCUIT CAPACITY (SCC) ‘The short-circuit capacity at a bus is a common measure of the strength of a bus, ‘The short-circuit capacity or the short-circuit MVA at bus k is defined as the prod. uct of the magnitudes of the rated bus voltage and the fault current. The short- circuit MVA is used for determining the dimension of a bus bar, and the interrupt. ing capacity of a circuit breaker. The interrupting capacity is only one of many ratings of a circuit breaker and should not be confused with the momentary duty of the breaker described in (8.63). Based on the above definition, the short-circuit capacity or the short-circuit MVA at bus iis given by SCC = V3 Vigh,(F) x 10-° MVA 9.1) where the line-to-line voltage Vi, is expressed in kilovolts and 1, (JF) is expressed {in amperes. The symmetrical three-phase fault current in per unit is given by ¥%(0) IelP)u = 9.2) where Vi (0) is the per unit prefault bus voltage, and Xi is the per unit reactance to the point of fault. System resistance is neglected and only the inductive reactance of the system is allowed for. This gives minimum system impedance and maximum, fault current and a pessimistic answer. The base current is given by 1p = 52X18 oe where Sp is the base MVA and Vi is the line-to-line base voltage in kilovolts. Thus, the fault current in amperes is IF) = IP) pulp Vi(0) Sp x 10° (9.3) = YO) Su x 108 0.4 Kin VaVe of Substituting for I_() from (9.4) into (9.1) results in Vi(OSe Vi SCC = SS (9.5) Xe Ve 7 If the base voltage is equal to the rated voltage, i., Vz VS sco = +2 0.6) ue194, SYSTEMATIC FAULT ANALYSIS USING BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX. 363 ‘The prefault bus voltage is usually assumed to be 1.0 per unit, and we therefore obtain from (9.6) the following approximate formula for the short-circuit capacity or the short-circuit MVA. sco = 52 va 7) Xx 9.4 SYSTEMATIC FAULT ANALYSIS USING BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX ‘The network reduction used in the preceding example is not efficient and is not applicable to large networks. In this section a more general fault circuit analysis ‘using nodal method is obtained. We see that by utilizing the elements of the bus impedance matrix, the fault current as well as the bus voltages during fault are readily and easily calculated. Consider a typical bus of an n-bus power system network as shown in Fig- ture 9.8. The system is assumed to be operating under balanced condition and a per phase circuit model is used. Each machine is represented by a constant voltage source behind proper reactances which may be Xf, Xj, or Xq. Transmission lines are represented by their equivalent model and all impedances are expressed in per unit on a common MVA base. A balanced three-phase fault is to be applied at bus k through a fault impedance Zy. The prefault bus voltages are obtained from the power flow solution and are represented by the column vector 3 ro FIGURE 98 A typical bus of a power system,364 9. BALANCED FAULT ‘Veus(0) = | Vi(0) (9.8) As already mentioned, short circuit currents are so much larger than the steady- state values that we may neglect the latter. However, a good approximation is to represent the bus load by a constant impedance evaluated at the prefault bus volt- age, ie, Ico? SL ‘The changes in the network voltage caused by the fault with impedance Zy is ‘equivalent to those caused by the added voltage Vj,(0) with all other sources short- circuited. Zeroing all voltage sources and representing all components and loads by their appropriate impedances, we obtain the Thévenin’s circuit shown in Figure 9.9. The bus voltage changes caused by the fault in this circuit are represented by the column vector Za (9.9) ay AVins = | AVe (9.10) AVa on FIGURE 99 ‘A tical bus ofa power system.94, SYSTEMATIC FAULT ANALYSIS USING BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX. 365 From Thévenin’s theorem bus voltages during the fault are obtained by superposi- of the prefault bus voltages and the changes in the bus voltages given by Vous(F) = Vius(0) + AVous 11) In Section 6.2, we obtained the node-voltage equation for an n-bus network. The injected bus currents are expressed in terms of the bus voltages (with bus 0 as reference), ic., Tous = Yrus Vous 9.12) where Tyas is the bus current vector entering the bus and Ys is the bus admittance ‘matrix. The diagonal element of each bus is the sum of admittances connected to iti g#i (9.13) ‘The off-diagonal clement is equal to the negative of the admittance between the buses, ic, Yy = Ya = us (9.14) where yij (lower case) is the actual admittance of the line i-j. For more details refer to Section 6.2. In the Thévenin's circuit of Figure 9.9, current entering every bus is zer0 except at the faulted bus. Since the current at faulted bus is leaving the bus, it is taken as a negative current entering bus k. Thus the nodal equation applied to the ‘Thévenin’s circuit in Figure 9.9 becomes va Mak vin ay =| van -- tek Yen | | AVic (9.15) 0 um Sine or Tbus(F) = Yous OV ius (9.16) Solving for AVousy we have AVeus = ZousTous(F) (9.17)366 9, BALANCED FAULT where Zius = Yiu, is known as the bus impedance matrix. Substituting (9.17) into (9.11), the bus voltage vector during the fault becomes Vous (F) = Veus(0) + Zouslius(F) (9.18) ‘Writing the above matrix equation in terms of its elements, we have vr) V0) Burs Zig + Zin 0 VCP) | = | ve(0) | +] Zin <-> Zin <-> Zin | | ec) | 0.19) Znn 0 ValP) | | Va(0)] | Zan ++ Za Since we have only one single nonzero element in the current vector, the kth equa- tion in (9.19) becomes Vi(P) = Va(0) ~ Zinda(F) (9.20) Also from the Thévenin’s circuit shown in Figure 9.9, we have VF) = ZyTe(F) 9.21) For bolted fault, Zy = 0 and V,() = 0. Substituting for V,(FF) from (9.21) into (9.20) and solving for the fault current, we get Ve(0) 1(F) = Ol 9: WP) = Fe ay Ce ‘Thus for a fault at bus k we need only the Zy, element of the bus impedance matrix. ‘This element is indeed the Thévenin’s impedance as viewed from the faulted bus. Also, writing the ith equation in (9.19) in terms ofits element, we have Vi(F) = Vi(0) ~ Znde(F) (9.23) Substituting for J,(F), bus voltage during the fault at bus i becomes Fite (F) = Vi(0) — Vel) 9.24) MAF) = VO) — z AB vel) 20) With the knowledge of bus voltages during the fault, we can calculate the fault Current in all the lines. For the line connecting buses i and j with impedance zy, the short circuit current in this line (defined positive in the direction i — j) is VF) - HF) 2 Ay(F) = (9.25)94, SYSTEMATIC FAULT ANALYSIS USING BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX. 367 ‘We note that with the knowledge of the bus impedance matrix, the fault cur- rent and bus voltages during the fault are readily obtained for any faulted bus in the network. This method is very simple and practical. Thus, all fault calculations are formulated in the bus frame of reference using bus impedance matrix Zius- ‘One way to find Zpus is to formulate Yius matrix for the system and then find its inverse. The matrix inversion for a large power system with a large number of buses is not feasible. A computationally attractive and efficient method for finding. Zous mattix is “building” or “assembling” the impedance matrix by adding one network element at a time. In effect, this is an indirect matrix inversion of the ‘bus admittance matrix. The algorithm for building the bus impedance matrix is described in the next section. Example 9.2 ‘A three-phase fault with a fault impedance Z, = 30.16 per unit occurs at bus 3 in the network of Example 9.1. Using the bus impedance matrix method, compute the fault current, the bus voltages, and the Tine currents during the fault, In this example the bus impedance matrix is obtained by finding the inverse of the bus admittance matrix. In the next section, we describe an efficient method of finding the bus impedance matrix by the method of building algorithm. ‘To find the bus admittance matrix, the Thévenin’s cireuit in Figure 9.2(b) is redrawn with impedances converted to admittances as shown in Figure 9.10. The ‘th diagonal element of the bus admittance matrix is the sum of all admittances connected to bus i, and the ith off-diagonal element is the negative of the admit- tance between buses i and j. Referring to Figure 9.10, the bus admittance matrix by inspection is = 78.75 f125 525 Yous =| 1.25 -j6.25 52.5 525 725 —75.0 Using MATLAB inverse function iny, the bus impedance matrix is obtained J0.16 j0.08 70.12 Zing = | 0.08 70.24 70.16 50.12 70.16 50.34 From (9.22), for a fault at bus 3 with fault impedance Z¢ = j0.16 per unit, the fault current is Va(O) eee) IAF) = FZ; ~ F034 + j016 —J2.0 pu368 9, BALANCED FAULT FIGURE 9.10 ‘The admittance diagram for system of Figute 9.2 (b) From (9.23), bus voltages during the fault are VF) = Vi(0) ~ ZisIs(F) Va(P) = Va(0) ~ ZasIs(F) 1.0 — (J0.12)(—2.0) = 0.76 1.0 — (70.16)(—32.0) = 0.68 Va(F) = Va(0) ~ Zsa Ia(F) = 1.0 — (j0.34)(—J2.0) = 0.32 From (9.25), the short circuit currents in the lines are ta(F) = MOE) «OT 988 = oa pu nal) = WAV) _ 076-082 _ 213 0.4 esl) ee) 08 0S 223 j04 222 ‘The results are exactly the same as the values found in Example 9.1(a). The reader {s encouraged to repeat the above calculations for fault at buses 2 and 1, and com- pare the results with those obtained from parts (b) and (c) in Example 9.1. Note that the values of the diagonal elements in the bus impedance matrix are the same as the Thévenin’s impedances found in Example 9.1, thus eliminating