T&D Unit 4 Notes Final

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22EE403
Transmission and
Distribution
(Lab Integrated)
Department EEE
Batch/Year 2022-26/II Year
Created by Mr. S.Balamurugan
Date 10.01.2024
5
1. TABLE OF CONTENTS
S. No Topic Page No.
1 Table of contents 5
2 Course Objectives 6
3 Pre Requisites 7
4 Syllabus 8
5 Course outcomes 9
6 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 12
7 Lecture Plan 13
8 Activity based learning 15
9 Lecture Notes 18
10 Assignments 59
Part A (Question and Answer) 61
11
12 Part B Qs 64
13 Supportive online Certification courses 66
Real time Applications in day to day life and to 68

14
Industry
15 Contents beyond the Syllabus 69
16 Assessment Schedule 70
17 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 74
18 Mini Project suggestions 76
6
2. COURSE OBJECTIVES
The student should be made to:
• To study the structure of Electric Power System, distribution systems, EHVAC,

HVDC, FACTS and Smart grid.
• To develop expressions for the computation of transmission line parameters
• To develop the equivalent circuits for the transmission lines based on

distance and to determine voltage regulation and efficiency.
• To analyze the voltage distribution in insulator strings to improve the

efficiency and types, construction of cable and also methods to improve the
efficiency.
• To understand the mechanical design of transmission lines, types of

substations, methods of grounding and load forecasting
7
3. PREREQUISITES
SEMESTER 3
SEMESTER 2
SEMESTER 1
8
4. SYLLABUS
20EE503 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION LTPC3003
UNIT I STRUCTURE OF POWER SYSTEM 9

Structure of Power System – Overhead and Underground systems – Kelvin’s Law – AC and DC
Distributors - Distributed and Concentrated loads- Interconnection Distributed system - Trends
in Transmission and Distribution: EHVAC, HVDC, FACTS and Smart Grid (Qualitative treatment
only).
UNIT II TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS 9
Parameters of single and three phase Transmission lines with Single and Double circuits -
Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance of Solid, Stranded and Bundled conductors,
Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical spacing and transposition – Application of self and mutual
GMD; Skin and Proximity effects - Effects of earth on the capacitance of the Transmission line -
Interference with neighbouring communication circuits- Formation of Corona discharge, Critical
Voltages and Factors affecting corona.
UNIT III MODELLING AND PERFORMANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINES 9
Performance of Transmission lines - Short line, Medium line and Long line - phasor diagram and
Generalized circuits constant analysis - surge impedance, Real and Reactive power flow in lines
– Power Circle diagrams -Ferranti effect - Techniques of Voltage Control and Power factor
improvement.
UNIT IV INSULATORS AND CABLES 9
Insulators-Types of Insulators-Insulator material and its properties- Voltage distribution in
insulator string, Improvement of string efficiency, testing of insulators-Underground Cables-
Types of cables- Construction of cable- Insulation Resistance -Capacitance of Single core and 3-
core belted cable-Grading of cables-Testing of cable fault: Loop tests.
UNIT V MECHANICAL DESIGN OF LINES, GROUNDING AND LOAD VARIATION
9
Mechanical design of OH lines -Stress and Sag Calculation – Effects of Wind and Ice loading-
Line Supports –Tower Spotting-Types of Towers- Substation layout -Methods of Grounding-
System load variation -Load curves and Load duration curves -Load forecasting.
9
5. COURSE OUTCOMES
On completion of the course, the students will be able to
CO NO. COURSE OUTCOME K-LEVEL
Understand the structure of power system

CO403.1 K3
and various distribution systems
Discuss the Modelling of the transmission
CO403.2 K3
line parameters
Analyse the equivalent circuits for the
CO403.3 K3
transmission lines based on distance
Explain the different types, characteristics of
CO403.4 cables and design the performance K3
parameters of different line insulators

Interpret the significance of sag on overall
CO403.5 K3
design overhead lines
Explain the type of substation, grounding
CO403.6 K2
systems along with the load variation.
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PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POS)
On completion of the B.E (Electrical and Electronics Engineering) Degree

the Electrical Engineering graduates will be able to
Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified
needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the
cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of
data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to
complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge
to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate
the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member
or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with
the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make
effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the engineering and management principles and apply these to one's own work,
as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.
Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.
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PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOS)
After successful completion of the B.E degree program, the

graduates will be able to
• PSO 1: Analyze the performance of complex interconnected Power
system..
• PSO 2: Implement latest technological developments in the field of
Control and Automation
• PSO 3:Apply cutting edge technology to trouble shoot Electrical
equipment.
• PSO4 : Develop managerial skills to establish Start-up Company in
the field of Engineering and Technology..
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6. CO- PO/PSO MAPPING
Program
Course Out Comes
Program Outcomes Specific

Level of CO
Outcomes
K3,
K5,
K4
K5
A3
A3
K3
K5
K6
A3
A2
A3
A3
A2
PSO-2
PSO-4
PSO-1
PSO-3
PO-10
PO-11
PO-12
PO-2
PO-3
PO-1
PO-4
PO-5
PO-6
PO-7
PO-8
PO-9
CO1
K2 3 3 2 - - - - - - - - - 2 1 - -
CO2
K3 2 3 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 - -
CO3
K3 2 3 1 - - - - - - - - - 2 1 -
CO4
K2 2 3 2 - - - - - - - - - 2 1 2 -
CO5
K3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - - - 3 2 - -
CO6
K2 3 3 2 - - - - - - - - - 3 2 2 -
CO
3 3 2 - - - - - - - - - 3 2 2 -
13
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LECTURE PLAN
UNIT IV INSULATORS AND CABLES 9
Insulators-Types of Insulators-Insulator material and its properties- Voltage

distribution in insulator string, Improvement of string efficiency, testing of
insulators-Underground Cables-Types of cables- Construction of cable-
Insulation Resistance -Capacitance of Single core and 3-core belted cable-
Grading of cables-Testing of cable fault: Loop tests.
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Lecture Plan
Actua
Mode
No. of l Pertai Taxono
Sl. Propos of
Topic period Lectu ning my
No. ed Date Deliver
s re CO Level
y
Date
Insulators-Types of
Insulators-Insulator
1 1 CO4 K3 PPT
material and its
properties- 09.3.2024
Chalk
Voltage distribution in CO4
2 1 K3 and Talk
insulator string,
14. 3.2024
Improvement of string Chalk
3 1 CO4 K3
efficiency 15. 3.2024 and Talk
Chalk
4 testing of insulators 1 CO4 K3
16.3.2024 and Talk
5 Cables-Types of cables 1 CO4 K3 PPT

18. 3.2024
6 Construction of cable- 1 21. 3.2024 CO4 K3 PPT
Insulation Resistance -
Chalk
7 Capacitance of Single 1 22. 3.2024 CO4 K3
and Talk
core Cable
Capacitance of 3-core
8 1 25. 3.2024 CO4 K3 PPT
belted cable
cables-Testing of cable K3
9 1 28. 3.2024 CO4 PPT
fault: Loop tests.
15
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ACTIVITY BASED
LEARNING
1 To install software: MATLAB SIMULINK
2. Hands on : simulation experiments (Blooms Taxonomy Level : K4)
3. Quiz(Blooms Taxonomy Level : K2)
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8.Activity based learning-1
Title of activity : Hands on simulation experiment
Topic : Simulate string efficiency of insulator.
Time : 30 Minutes
Aim:
Activity can be done in using MATLAB Simulink software to determine the
string efficiency of the insulator.
Requirement:
MATLAB Simulink software
Description:
The suspension type insulator has been designed using the Simulink block to
obtain the string efficiency.
Observation:
The value of K, voltage across each disc.
Result:
The ratio between shunt capacitance to self capacitance

%String Efficiency
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LECTURE NOTES
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INSULATOR
The insulators provide necessary insulation between line conductors and supports
and thus prevent any leakage current from conductors to earth. The properties of
the insulator
(i) High mechanical strength in order to withstand conductor load, wind load .
(ii) High electrical resistance of insulator material in order to avoid leakage currents
to earth.
(iii) High relative permittivity of insulator material in order that dielectric strength is
high.
(iv) The insulator material should be non-porous, free from impurities and cracks
otherwise the permittivity will be lowered.
(v) High ratio of puncture strength to flashover.
The most commonly used material for insulators of overhead line is porcelain but
glass, steatite and special composition materials are also used to a limited extent.
Porcelain is produced by firing at a high temperature a mixture of kaolin, feldspar
and quartz.
Types of Insulators:
1.Pin type Insulator:
The pin type insulator is secured to the cross-arm on the pole. There is a groove on
the upper end of the insulator for housing the conductor. The conductor passes
through this groove and is bound by the annealed wire of the same material as the
conductor
Pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of electric power at
voltages up to 33 kV. Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV, the pin type insulators
become too bulky and hence uneconomical.
Fig 1 Pin Type Insulator

Causes of Insulation Failure:
Insulators are required to withstand both mechanical and electrical stresses. The
latter type is primarily due to line voltage and may cause the breakdown of the
insulator. The electrical breakdown of the insulator can occur either by flash-over or
puncture. In flashover, an arc occurs between the line conductor and insulator pin
(i.e., earth) and the discharge jumps across the air gaps, following shortest distance.
Fig. shows the arcing distance (i.e. a + b + c) for the insulator. In case of flash-over,
the insulator will continue to act in its proper capacity unless extreme heat produced
by the arc destroys the insulator.
Fig 2 Arcing Distance
In case of puncture, the discharge occurs from conductor to pin through the body of
the insulator. When such breakdown is involved, the insulator is permanently destroyed
due to excessive heat.
The ratio of puncture strength to flashover voltage is known as safety factor i.e.,
Puncture strength
Safety factor of insulator =
Flash over voltage
For pin type insulators, the value of safety factor is about 10.
2 Suspension type insulators.

The cost of pin type insulator increases rapidly as the working voltage is increased.
Therefore, this type of insulator is not economical beyond 33 kV.
It consist of a number of porcelain discs connected in series by metal links in the form
of a string. The conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this string while the other
end of the string is secured to the cross-arm of the tower. Each unit or disc is designed
for low voltage, say 11 kV. The number of discs in series would obviously depend upon
the working voltage. For instance, if the working voltage is 66 kV, then six discs in
series will be provided on the string.
Advantages:
(i) Suspension type insulators are cheaper than pin type insulators for voltages
beyond 33 kV.
(ii) Each unit or disc of suspension type insulator is designed for low voltage, usually
11 kV. Depending upon the working voltage, the desired number of discs can be
connected in series.
(iii) If any one disc is damaged, the whole string does not become useless because the
damaged disc can be replaced by the sound one.
(iv) The suspension arrangement provides greater flexibility to the line. The
connection at the cross arm is such that insulator string is free to swing in any
direction and can take up the position where mechanical stresses are minimum.
In case of increased demand on the transmission line, it is found more satisfactory
to supply the greater demand by raising the line voltage than to provide another set
of conductors. The additional insulation required for the raised voltage can be easily
obtained in the suspension arrangement by adding the desired number of discs.
(i) The suspension type insulators are generally used with steel towers. As the
conductors run below the earthed cross-arm of the tower, therefore, this
arrangement provides partial protection from lightning
3. Strain insulators.
When there is a dead end of the line or there is corner or sharp curve, the line is
subjected to greater tension. In order to relieve the line of excessive tension, strain
insulators are used. For low voltage lines (< 11 kV), shackle insulators are used as
strain insulators .The discs of strain insulators are used in the vertical plane. When
the tension in lines is exceedingly high, as at long river spans, two or more strings
are used in parallel.
Fig 3 Strain and Shackle Insulator

4. Shackle insulators
This insulators can be used either in a horizontal position or in a vertical position.
They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to the cross arm. The fig above
shows a shackle insulator fixed to the pole. The conductor in the groove is fixed with
a soft binding wire.
Potential Distribution over Suspension Insulator String:
A string of suspension insulators consists of a number of porcelain discs connected

in series through metallic links.
Description:
Considering three discs connected between two metal links , each disc forms the
capacitor C this is called self capacitance or mutual capacitance. In actual practice
capacitance also exists between metal fitting of each disc and tower or earth. This is
known as shunt capacitance 𝑐1 . Due to shunt capacitance, charging current is not
the same through all the discs of the string. Therefore, voltage across each disc will
be different. The disc nearest to the line conductor will have the maximum voltage.
Thus referring to the fig below V3 will be much more than V2 or V1.
Fig 4 Potential Distribution
(i) The voltage impressed on a string of suspension insulators does not distribute
itself uniformly across the individual discs due to the presence of shunt
capacitance.
(ii) The disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it. As we move
towards the cross-arm, the voltage across each disc goes on decreasing.
(iii) The unit nearest to the conductor is under maximum electrical stress and is
likely to be punctured. Therefore, means must be provided to equalize the
potential across each unit.
(iv) If the voltage impressed across the string were d.c. then voltage across each
unit would be the same. It is because insulator capacitances are ineffective for
d.c.
String Efficiency:
The ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product of number of discs and
the voltage across the disc nearest to the conductor is known as string .
String efficiency = Voltage across the string /n × Voltage across disc nearest to
conductor.
Voltage across the string
String efficiency =
n × Voltage across disc nearest to conductor
where n = number of discs in the string.
String efficiency is an important consideration since it decides the potential
distribution along the string. The greater the string efficiency, the more uniform is
the voltage distribution.
Expression:
Let us suppose that self capacitance of each disc is C. Let us further assume that
shunt capacitance C1 is some fraction K of self capacitance i.e., C1 = KC. Starting
from the cross-arm or tower, the voltage across each unit is V1,V2 and V3
respectively as shown.
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to node A, we get,
I2 = I1 + i1
V2ω C* = V1ω C + V1ω C1
V2ω C = V1ω C + V1ω K C
∴ V2 = V1 (1 + K) ...(i)
Fig 5 String Efficiency

Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to node B, we get,
I3 = I2 + i2
V3 ω C = V2ω C + (V1 + V2) ω C1†
V3 ω C = V2ω C + (V1 + V2) ω K C
V3 = V2 + (V1 + V2)K
= KV1 + V2 (1 + K)
= KV1 + V1 (1 + K) 2
= V1 [K + (1 + K) 2 ]
∴ V3 = V1[1 + 3K + 𝐾 2 ] ...(ii)
Voltage between conductor and earth (i.e., tower) is
V = V1 + V2 + V3
= V1 + V1(1 + K) + V1 (1 + 3K + 𝐾 2 )
= V1 (3 + 4K + K2)
∴ V = V1(1 + K) (3 + K) .. .(iii)
From expressions (i), (ii) and (iii), we get,
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑉
= = = …….. (iv)
1 1+𝐾 1+3𝐾+𝐾2 (1+𝐾)(3+𝐾)
𝑉
𝑉1 =
(1 + 𝐾)(3 + 𝐾)
Voltage across second unit from top, V2 = V1 (1 + K)
Voltage across third unit from top, V3 = V1 (1 + 3K + 𝐾 2 )
Voltage across the string
%String efficiency = *100
n × Voltage across disc nearest to conductor
𝑉
%String efficiency =
3∗𝑉3
Important Points:
(i) If K = 0·2 , then from exp. (iv), we get, V2 = 1·2 V1 and V3 = 1·64 V1. This
clearly shows that disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across
it; the voltage across other discs decreasing progressively as the cross-arm in
approached.
(ii) The greater the value of K (= C1/C), the more non-uniform is the potential
across the discs and lesser is the string efficiency.
(iii) The inequality in voltage distribution increases with the increase of number
of discs in the string. Therefore, shorter string has more efficiency than the
larger one.
Methods of Improving String Efficiency:
To equalize the potential across the various units of the string equal to improve the
string efficiency. The various methods are
(i) By using longer cross-arms:

The value of string efficiency depends upon the value of K which is ratio of shunt
capacitance to mutual capacitance. The lesser the value of K, the greater is the
string efficiency and more uniform is the voltage distribution. The value of K can be
decreased by reducing the shunt capacitance. In order to reduce shunt capacitance,
the distance of conductor from tower must be increased in which longer cross-arms
should be used.
Fig 6 Longer Cross Arm
ii) By grading the insulators.

In this method, insulators of different dimensions are so chosen that each has a
different capacitance. The insulators are capacitance graded they are assembled in
the string in such a way that the top unit has the minimum capacitance, increasing
progressively as the bottom unit is reached. Since voltage is inversely proportional to
capacitance, this method tends to equalize the potential distribution across the units
in the string.
This method has the disadvantage that a large number of different-sized insulators
are required.
iii) By using a guard ring.
The potential across each unit in a string can be equalized by using a guard ring
which is a metal ring electrically connected to the conductor and surrounding the
bottom insulator as shown in the Fig. The guard ring introduces capacitance be
tween metal fittings and the line conductor.
Fig 7 Guard Ring

The guard ring is contoured in such a way that shunt capacitance currents i1, i2 etc.
are equal to metal fitting line capacitance currents i′1, i′2 etc. The result is that
same charging current I flows through each unit of string. Consequently, there will
be uniform potential distribution across the units.
Formulas:
(i) The maximum voltage appears across the disc nearest to the conductor (i.e.,
line conductor).
(ii) The voltage across the string is equal to phase voltage i.e.,
Voltage across string = Voltage between line and earth = Phase Voltage
(ii) Line Voltage = 3× Voltage across string
Problem :
In a 33 kV overhead line, there are three units in the string of insulators. If the
capacitance between each insulator pin and earth is 11% of self-capacitance of each
insulator, find (i) the distribution of voltage over 3 insulators and (ii) string efficiency.
Solution:
The fig shows the equivalent circuit of string insulators. Let V1, V2 and V3 be the
voltage across top, middle and bottom unit respectively. If C is the self-capacitance
of each unit, then KC will be the shunt capacitance.
Shunt Capacitance
K= = 0.11 ; Voltage across the string =33/ 3 =19.05kv
Self capacitance
At Junction A
I2 = I1 + i1
or V2 ω C = V1 ω C + V1K ω C
or V2 = V1 (1 + K) = V1 (1 + 0·11)
or V2 = 1·11 V1 ...(i)
At Junction B
I3 = I2 + i2
or V3 ω C = V2 ω C + (V1 + V2) K ω C
or V3 = V2 + (V1 + V2) K
= 1·11V1 + (V1 + 1·11 V1) 0·11
∴ V3 = 1·342 V1
(i) Voltage across the whole string is
V = V1 + V2 + V3 = V1 + 1·11 V1 + 1·342 V1 = 3·452 V1
or 19·05 = 3·452 V1
∴ Voltage across top unit, V1 = 19·05/3·452 = 5·52 kV
Voltage across middle unit, V2 = 1·11 V1 = 1·11 × 5·52 = 6.13 kV
Voltage across bottom unit, V3 = 1·342 V1 = 1·342 × 5·52 = 7.4 Kv
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 19.05

String Efficiency= *100 = *100=85.8%
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 ∗𝑉3 3∗7.4
Problem :
Each line of a 3-phase system is suspended by a string of 3 similar insulators. If the
voltage across the line unit is 17·5 kV, calculate the line to neutral voltage. Assume
that the shunt capacitance between each insulator and earth is 1/8th of the
capacitance of the insulator itself. Also find the string efficiency.
Solution.
Fig. shows the equivalent circuit of string insulators. If C is the self capacitance of
each unit, then KC will be the shunt capacitance where K = 1/8 = 0·125.
At Junction A
I2 = I1 + i1
or V2 ω C = V1 ω C + V1K ω C
or V2 = V1 (1 + K) = V1 (1 + 0.125)
or V2 = 1·125 V1
At Junction B
I3 = I2 + i2
or V3 ω C = V2 ω C + (V1 + V2) K ω C
or V3 = V2 + (V1 + V2) K
= 1·125V1 + (V1 + 1·125 V1) 0·125
∴ V3 = 1·39 V1
Voltage across top unit, V1 = V3/1·39 = 17·5/1·39= 12·59 kV
Voltage across middle unit,
V2 = 1·125 V1 = 1·125 × 12·59 = 14·16 kV
∴ Voltage between line and earth (i.e., line to neutral)
= V1 + V2 + V3 = 12·59 + 14·16 + 17·5 = 44.25 kV

String Efficiency= *100 = * 100=84.28%
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 ∗𝑉3 3∗17.5
Problem :
A string of 5 insulators is connected across a 100 kV line. If the capacitance of each
disc to earth is 0·1 of the capacitance of the insulator, calculate (i) the distribution of
voltage on the insulator discs and (ii) the string efficiency.
Solution.
Suppose XC = 1 Ω. As the ratio of self capacitance to shunt capacitance is 10,
therefore, XC1 = 10 Ω as shown in Fig. . Suppose that potential V across the string is
such that 1A current flows in the top insulator. Then potential across each insulator
will be as shown in Fig.
The value obtained for V = 1 + 1·1 + 1·31 + 1·65 + 2·16 = 7·22 volts and
starting from top, the percentage of V (i.e., 7·22 volts)
across various units are :
*13·8 %, 15·2 %, 18·2 %, 22·8 % and 30%
Voltage across string = 100/ 3 = 57·7 kV
(i) Voltage across top insulator, V1 = 0·138 × 57·7 = 7·96 kV
(ii) Voltage across 2nd from top, V2 = 0·152 × 57·7 = 8·77 kV.
Then potential across each insulator will be as shown in Fig.
Voltage across 3rd from top, V3= 0·182 × 57·7 = 10·5 kV
Voltage across 4th from top, V4= 0·228 × 57·7 = 13·16 kV
Voltage across 5th from top,V5 = 0·3 × 57·7 = 17·3 kV

String Efficiency= 𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 ∗𝑉 *100 = *5∗17.3100=66.7%
5
Problem :
Each line of a 3-phase system is suspended by a string of 3 indentical insulators of
self-capacitance C farad. The shunt capacitance of connecting metal work of each
insulator is 0·2 C to earth and 0·1 C to line. Calculate the string efficiency of the
system if a guard ring increases the capacitance to the line of metal work of the
lowest insulator to 0·3 C.
Solution.
The capacitance between each unit and line is artificially increased by using a guard
ring as shown in Fig. This arrangement tends to equalize the potential across
various units and hence leads to improved string efficiency. It is given that with the
use of guard ring, capacitance of the insulator link-pin to the line of the lowest unit
is increased from 0·1 C to 0·3 C
At Junction A
I2 + i′1 = I1 + i1
V2 ω C + (V2 + V3) ω × 0·1 C
= V1 ω C + V1 × 0·2 C ω
V3 = 12 V1 − 11 V2 ...(i)
At Junction B
I3 + i′2 = I2 + i2
V3 ω C + V3 × 0·3 C × ω =V2 ω C + (V1 + V2) ω × 0·2 C
or 1·3 V3 = 1·2 V2 + 0·2 V1 ...(ii)
Substituting the value of V3 from exp. (i) into exp. (ii), we get,
1·3 (12 V1 − 11V2) = 1·2 V2 + 0·2 V1
or 15·5 V2 = 15·4 V1
∴ V2 = 15·4 V1/15·5 = 0·993 V1 ...(iii)
Substituting the value of V2 from exp. (iii) into exp. (i), we get,
V3 = 12 V1 − 11 × 0·993 V1 = 1·077 V1
Voltage between conductor and earth (i.e. phase voltage)
= V1 + V2 + V3 =V1 + 0·993 V1 + 1·077 V1 = 3·07 V1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 3.07𝑉

String Efficiency= 𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 ∗𝑉 *100 = *3∗1.07𝑉
1
100=95%
5 1
Testing Of Overhead Line Insulators:
A good insulator should have a good mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical
load and stresses. It should have a high dielectric strength to withstand operating and
flashover voltages. Also, an insulator must be free from pores or voids, which may
damage it. Therefore, to ensure desired performance of insulators, each insulator has
to undergo various tests.
Types of Testing
1.Power frequency dry flashover test

2.Power frequency wet flashover test
3.Impulse frequency flashover test
1.Power Frequency Dry Flashover Test
The insulator to be tested is mounted in the same manner in which it is to be used.
Then, a variable voltage source of power frequency is connected between the
electrodes of the insulator. The voltage is gradually increased up to the specified
voltage. This specified voltage is less than the minimum flashover voltage. The
voltage at which surrounding air of the insulator breaks down and become conductive
is known as flashover voltage. The insulator must be capable of withstanding the
specified voltage for one minute without flashover.
2.Impulse Frequency Flashover Test
This test is to ensure that the insulator is capable of sustaining high voltage surges
caused by lightning. The insulator under test is mounted in the same manner as in
above tests. An impulse voltage generator which generates a very high voltage at a
frequency of several hundred kilohertz is connected to the insulator. This voltage is
applied to the insulator and spark-over voltage is noted.
The ratio of impulse spark-over voltage to spark-over voltage at power frequency
is called as the impulse ratio. This ratio should be approximately 1.4 for pin type
insulators and 1.3 for suspension type insulators.
3.Power Frequency Wet Flashover Test (Rain Test)
In this test, the insulator is sprayed with water at an angle of 45° in such a
manner that its precipitation should not be more than 5.08 mm/min. The voltage
is then gradually increased up to the specified voltage. The voltage is maintained
at the specified value for 30 seconds or one minute and the insulator is observed
for puncture or breakdown. If the voltage is maintained for one minute, this test is
also called as one-minute rain test
Performance Tests Of Insulators
1. Temperature cycle test
2. Puncture voltage test
3. Mechanical strength test
4. Electro-mechanical test
5. Porosity test
Temperature Cycle Test
In this test, the insulator under test is first heated in water at 70° for one hour.
Then the insulator is immediately cooled at 7° for another hour. This cycle is
repeated three times. Then the insulator is dried and its glazing is thoroughly
observed for any damages or deterioration.
Puncture Voltage Test
The purpose of this test is to determine the puncture voltage. The insulator to be
tested is suspended in insulating oil. A voltage is applied and increased gradually
until the puncture takes place. The voltage at which insulator starts to puncture is
called as puncture voltage. This voltage is usually 30% higher than that of the dry
flash-over voltage for a suspension type insulators.
Mechanical Strength Test
In this test, the insulator under test is applied by 250% of the maximum working
load for one minute. This test is conducted to determine the ultimate mechanical
strength of the insulator.
Electro-Mechanical Test
This test is conducted only for suspension type insulators. In this test, a tensile
stress of 250% of maximum working tensile stress is applied to the insulator. After
this, the insulator is tested for 75% of dry spark-over voltage.
Porosity Test
In this test, a freshly manufactured insulator sample is broken into pieces. These
pieces are then immersed into a 0.5% to 1% alcohol solution fuchsine dye under
pressure of 150 kg/cm2 for several hours (say 24 hours). After that, the pieces
are removed from the solution and examined for the penetration of the dye into it.
This test indicates the degree of porosity.
Routine Tests Of Insulators
1. High voltage test
2. Proof load test
3. Corrosion test
1. High Voltage Test
This test is usually carried out for pin insulators. In this test, the insulator is
inverted and placed into the water up to the neck. The spindle hole is also filled
with water and a high voltage is applied for 5 minutes. The insulator should
remain undamaged after this test.
2. Proof Load Test
In this test, each insulator is applied with 20% in excess of working mechanical
load (say tensile load) for one minute. The insulator should remain undamaged
after this test.
3. Corrosion Test
In this test, the insulator with its metal fitting is suspended into a copper sulfate
solution for one minute. Then the insulator is removed from the solution and
wiped and cleaned. This procedure is repeated for four times. Then the insulator
is examined for any metal deposits on it. There should be zero metal deposits on
the insulator.
UNDERGROUND CABILITYS
Electric power can be transmitted or distributed either by overhead system or by

underground cables. The underground cables have several advantages such as less
liable to damage through storms or lightning, low maintenance cost, less chances
of faults, smaller voltage drop and better general appearance. But major drawback
is that they have greater installation cost and introduce insulation problems at high
voltages compared with the equivalent overhead system. Some locations may be
thickly populated areas where municipal authorities prohibit overhead lines for
reasons of safety, or around plants and substations or where maintenance
conditions do not permit the use of overhead construction. The chief use of
underground cables for many years has been for distribution of electric power in
congested urban areas at comparatively low or moderate voltages. In recent
improvements in the design and manufacture have led to the development of
cables suitable for use at high voltages.
Underground Cables
An underground cable essentially consists of one or more conductors
covered with suitable insulation and surrounded by a protecting cover.
(i)The conductor used in cables should be tinned stranded copper or aluminium of

high conductivity. Stranding is done so that conductor may become flexible and
carry more current.
(ii) The conductor size should be such that the cable carries the desired load current
without
overheating and causes voltage drop within permissible limits.
(iii) The cable must have proper thickness of insulation in order to give high degree of
safety and
reliability at the voltage for which it is designed.
(iv) The cable must be provided with suitable mechanical protection so that it may
withstand the
rough use in laying it.
(v) The materials used in the manufacture of cables should be such that there is
complete chemical and physical stability throughout.
Construction of Cables:
(i) Cores or Conductors.
A cable may have one or more than one core (conductor) depending upon the type of
service for which it is intended. So the 3-conductor cable shown in Fig. is used for 3-
phase service. The conductors are made of tinned copper or aluminium and are usually
stranded in order to provide flexibility to the cable.
(ii) Insulation.
Each core or conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of insulation, the thickness
of layer depending upon the voltage to be withstood by the cable. The commonly used
materials for insulation are impregnated paper, varnished cambric or rubber mineral
compound.
(iii) Metallic sheath.
To protect the cable from moisture, gases or other damaging liquids (acids or alkalis) in
the soil and atmosphere, a metallic sheath of lead or aluminum is provided over the
insulation as shown in the diagram.
(iv) Bedding.
Over the metallic sheath is applied a layer of bedding which consists of a fibrous
material like jute or hessian tape. The purpose of bedding is to protect the metallic
sheath against corrosion and from mechanical injury due to armoring.
Figure 8 Construction of a Cable

(v) Armouring.
Over the bedding, armouring is provided which consists of one or two layers of
galvanized steel wire or steel tape. Its purpose is to protect the cable from
mechanical injury while laying it and during the course of handling. Armouring
may not be done in the case of some cables.
(vi) Serving.
In order to protect armouring from atmospheric conditions, a layer of fibrous
material (like jute) similar to bedding is provided over the armouring. This is
known as serving.
Insulating Materials for Cables

The insulating materials used in cables should have the following properties :
(i) High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current.
(ii) High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of the cable.
(iii) High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical handling of cables.
(iv) Non-hygroscopic i.e., it should not absorb moisture from air or soil. The
moisture tends to decrease the insulation resistance and hastens the breakdown
of the cable. In case the insulating material is hygroscopic, it must be enclosed in
a waterproof covering like lead sheath.
(v) Non-inflammable.
(vi) Low cost so as to make the underground system a viable proposition.
(vii) Unaffected by acids and alkalies to avoid any chemical action.
The principal insulating materials used in cables are rubber, vulcanized India rubber,
impregnated paper, varnished cambric and polyvinyl chloride.
1. Rubber.
Rubber is obtained from milky sap of tropical trees or it is produced from oil
products. It has relative permittivity varying between 2 and 3, dielectric strength
is about 30 kV/mm and resistivity of insulation is 10^17Ω cm. The pure rubber
has reasonably high insulating properties, it suffers form some major drawbacks
such as absorbing moisture, maximum safe temperature is low (about 38ºC), soft
and liable to damage due to rough handling and ages when exposed to light.
Therefore, pure rubber cannot be used as an insulating material.
2. Vulcanized India Rubber (V.I.R.).
It is prepared by mixing pure rubber with mineral matter such as zine oxide, red
lead etc., and 3 to 5% of Sulphur. The compound so formed is rolled into thin
sheets and cut into strips. Vulcanized India rubber has greater mechanical
strength, durability and wear resistant property than pure rubber. Its main
drawback is that Sulphur reacts very quickly with copper and for this reason,
cables using VIR insulation have tinned copper conductor. The VIR insulation is
generally used
3. Impregnated paper.
It consists of chemically pulped paper made from wood chippings and

impregnated with some compound such as paraffinic or naphthenic material. This
type of insulation has almost superseded the rubber insulation. It is because it has
the advantages of low cost, low capacitance, high dielectric strength and high
insulation resistance. The only disadvantage is that paper is hygroscopic and even
if it is impregnated with suitable compound, it absorbs moisture and thus lowers
the insulation resistance of the cable for low and moderate voltage cables.
4. Varnished cambric.
It is a cotton cloth impregnated and coated with varnish. This type of insulation is
also known as empire tape. The cambric is lapped on to the conductor in the form
of a tape and its surfaces are coated with petroleum jelly compound to allow for
the sliding of one turn over another as the cable is bent. As the varnished cambric
is hygroscopic, therefore, such cables are always provided with metallic sheath. Its
dielectric strength is about 4 kV/mm and permittivity is 2.5 to 3.8.
5. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Polyvinyl chloride has high insulation resistance, good dielectric strength and
mechanical toughness over a wide range of temperatures. It is inert to oxygen and
almost inert to many alkalies and acids. Therefore, this type of insulation is
preferred over VIR in extreme environmental conditions such as in cement factory
or chemical factory. As the mechanical properties (i.e., elasticity etc.) of PVC are
not so good as those of rubber, therefore, PVC insulated cables are generally used
for low and medium domestic lights and power installation.
Classification of Cables
Cables for underground service may be classified in two ways according to
(i) the type of insulating material used
(ii) the voltage for which they are manufactured.
According to the voltage level the cables has been classified into.
(i) Low-tension (L.T.) cables — upto 1000 V
(ii) High-tension (H.T.) cables — upto 11,000 V
(iii) Super-tension (S.T.) cables — from 22 kV to 33 kV
(iv) Extra high-tension (E.H.T.) cables — from 33 kV to 66 kV
(v) Extra super voltage cables — beyond 132 kV
A cable may have one or more than one core depending upon the type of
service for which it is intended. It may be (i) single-core (ii) two-core (iii) three-core
(iv) four-core etc. For a 3-phase service, either 3-single-core cables or three-core
cable can be used depending upon the operating voltage and load demand.
Figure 4.2 shows the constructional details of a single-core low tension
cable. The cable has ordinary construction because the stresses developed in the
cable for low voltages (upto 6600 V) are generally small. It consists of one circular
core of tinned stranded copper (or aluminium) insulated by layers of impregnated
paper. The insulation is surrounded by a lead sheath which prevents the entry of
moisture into the inner parts. In order to protect the lead sheath from corrosion, an
overall serving of compounded fibrous material (jute etc.) is provided.
Figure 9 Construction of a single-core low tension cable
Single-core cables are not usually armoured in order to avoid excessive

sheath losses. The principal advantages of single-core cables are simple construction
and availability of larger copper section.
Cables for 3-Phase Service
For the voltages up to 66 kV, 3-core cable (i.e., multi-core construction) is preferred due to
economic reasons. But, for voltages beyond 66 kV, 3-core-cables become too large and unwieldy
and, therefore, single-core cables are used. The following types of cables are generally used for
3-phase service :
The following types of cables are generally used for 3-phase service :
1. Belted cables — up to 11 kV
2. Screened cables — from 22 kV to 66 kV
3. Pressure cables — beyond 66 kV.
1. Belted cables.
These cables are used for voltages upto 11kV but in some cases is used
for 22kV. The cores are insulated from each other by layers of impregnated paper.
Another layer of impregnated paper tape, called paper belt is wound round the
grouped insulated cores. The gap between the insulated cores is filled with fibrous
insulating material (jute etc.) so as to give circular cross-section to the cable. The
cores are generally stranded and may be of noncircular shape to make better use of
available space. The belt is covered with lead sheath to protect the cable against
ingress of moisture and mechanical injury. The lead sheath is covered with one or
more layers of armoring with an outer serving.
Figure 10 belted type construction

The belted type construction is suitable only for low and medium voltages
as the electrostatic stresses developed in the cables for these voltages are more or
less radial i.e., across the insulation. But for high voltages (beyond 22 kV), the
tangential stresses also become important. These stresses act along the layers of
paper insulation. As the insulation resistance of paper is quite small along the layers,
therefore, tangential stresses set up leakage current along the layers of paper
insulation. The leakage current causes local heating, resulting in the risk of
breakdown of insulation at any moment. In order to overcome this difficulty,
screened cables are used where leakage currents are conducted to earth through
metallic screens.
2. Screened cables.
These cables are meant for use up to 33 kV, but in particular cases their
use may be extended to operating voltages up to 66 kV. Two principal types of
screened cables are H type cables and S.L. type cables.
H-type cables.
This type of cable was first designed by H. Hochstadter and hence the
name. Fig. 4.4 shows the constructional details of a typical 3-core, H-type cable.
Each core is insulated by layers of impregnated paper. The insulation on each core is
covered with a metallic screen which usually consists of a perforated aluminium foil.
The cores are laid in such a way that metallic screens make contact with one
another. An additional conducting belt (copper woven fabric tape) is wrapped round
the three cores. The cable has no insulating belt but lead sheath, bedding, armoring
and serving follow as usual.
Figure 11 3-core, H-type cable
An additional conducting belt (copper woven fabric tape) is wrapped round the three
cores. All the screen are connected to the ground.
Advantages of H type cables are dielectric stress has been increased and the
metallic screen increases the heat dissipating power of the cable.
(ii) S.L. type cables.
Fig. shows the constructional details of a 3-core S.L. (separate lead) type
cable. It is basically H-type cable but the screen round each core insulation is
covered by its own lead sheath. There is no overall lead sheath but only armoring
and serving are provided. The S.L. type cables have two main advantages over H-
type cables. Firstly, the separate sheaths minimize the possibility of core-to-core
breakdown. Secondly, bending of cables becomes easy due to the elimination of
overall lead sheath.
Figure 12 3-core S.L. (separate lead) type cable

Solid Cables:
The H type and SL type cables are solid type because the insulation in solid. When
the voltage is above 66kV the solid type cables will have these advantages
Limitations:
(a) As a solid cable carries the load, its conductor temperature increases and the cable
compound (i.e., insulating compound over paper) expands. This action stretches the lead
sheath which may be damaged.
(b) When the load on the cable decreases, the conductor cools and a partial vacuum is
formed within the cable sheath. If the pinholes are present in the lead sheath, moist air may
be drawn into the cable. The moisture reduces the dielectric strength of insulation and may
eventually cause the breakdown of the cable.
(c) In practice, †voids are always present in the insulation of a cable. Modern techniques of
manufacturing have resulted in void free cables. However, under operating conditions, the
voids are formed as a result of the differential expansion and contraction of the sheath and
impregnated compound. The breakdown strength of voids is considerably less than that of
the insulation. If the void is small enough, the electrostatic stress across it may cause its
breakdown. The voids nearest to the conductor are the first to break down, the chemical and
thermal effects of ionization causing permanent damage to the paper insulation.
3. Pressure cables
For voltages beyond 66 kV, solid type cables are unreliable because there is a
danger of breakdown of insulation due to the presence of voids. When the operating voltages
are greater than 66 kV, pressure cables are used. In such cables, voids are eliminated by
increasing the pressure of compound and for this reason they are called pressure cables. Two
types of pressure cables are oil-filled cables and gas pressure cables are commonly
used.
(i) Oil-filled cables.
In such types of cables, channels or ducts are provided in the cable for oil
circulation. The oil under pressure (it is the same oil used for impregnation) is kept constantly
supplied to the channel by means of external reservoirs placed at suitable distances (say 500
m) along the route of the cable. Oil under pressure compresses the layers of paper insulation
and is forced into any voids that may have formed between the layers. Due to the elimination
of voids, oil-filled cables can be used for higher voltages, the range being from 66 kV up to
230 kV. Oil-filled cables are of three types viz., single-core conductor channel, single-core
sheath channel and three-core filler-space channels.
Single-core conductor channel, oil filled cable.
The oil channel is formed at the center by stranding the conductor wire
around a hollow cylindrical steel spiral tape. The oil under pressure is supplied to the
channel by means of external reservoir. As the channel is made of spiral steel tape, it
allows the oil to percolate between copper strands to the wrapped insulation. The oil
pressure compresses the layers of paper insulation and prevents the possibility of
void formation. The system is so designed that when the oil gets expanded due to
increase in cable temperature, the extra oil collects in the reservoir. However, when
the cable temperature falls during light load conditions, the oil from the reservoir
flows to the channel. The disadvantage of this type of cable is that the channel is at
the middle of the cable and is at full voltage to earth, so that a very complicated
system of joints is necessary.
Figure 13 Single-core conductor channel, oil filled cable
Single core sheath channel oil-filled cable.

In this type of cable, the conductor is solid similar to that of solid cable
and is paper insulated. The, oil ducts are provided in the metallic sheath as shown.
In the 3-core oil-filler cable shown in Fig. , the oil ducts are located in the filler
spaces. These channels are composed of perforated metal-ribbon tubing and are at
earth potential.
Figure 14 Single core sheath channel oil-filled cable

Advantages:
i. Formation of voids and ionisation are avoided.
ii. Allowable temperature range and dielectric strength are increased
iii. Possibility of earth faults is decreased.
Disadvantage:
The high initial cost and complicated system of laying.
Gas pressure cables.

The voltage required to set up ionisation inside a void increases as the
pressure is increased. Therefore, if ordinary cable is subjected to a sufficiently high
pressure, the ionisation can be altogether eliminated. At the same time, the
increased pressure.
Figure 15 Gas pressure cables
Figure 4.8 shows the section of external pressure cable designed by

Hochstadter, Vogal and Bowden. The construction of the cable is similar to that of an
ordinary solid type except that it is of triangular shape and thickness of lead sheath is
75% that of solid cable. The triangular section reduces the weight and gives low
thermal resistance but the main reason for triangular shape is that the lead sheath
acts as a pressure membrane. The sheath is protected by a thin metal tape. The
cable is laid in a gas-tight steel pipe. The pipe is filled with dry nitrogen gas at 12 to
15 atmospheres. The gas pressure produces radial compression and closes the voids
that may have formed between the layers of paper insulation. Such cables can carry
more load current and operate at higher voltages than a normal cable. Moreover,
maintenance cost is small and the nitrogen gas helps in quenching any flame.
However, it has the disadvantage that the overall cost is very high. produces radial
compression which tends to close any voids.
Insulation Resistance of a Single-Core Cable
The cable conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of insulating

material in order to prevent leakage current. The path for leakage current is radial
through the insulation. The opposition offered by insulation to leakage current is
known as insulation resistance of the cable. For satisfactory operation, the insulation
resistance of the cable should be very high. Consider a single-core cable of
conductor radius r1 and internal sheath radius r2 as shown in Fig.4.9.
Let l be the length of the cable and ρ be the resistivity of the insulation.
Figure 16 Single core cable
Consider a very small layer of insulation of thickness dx at a radius x. The

length through which leakage current tends to flow is dx and the area of X-section
offered to this flow is 2π x l
Insulation Resistance of considered layer
𝑑𝑥
=ρ
2π𝑥𝑙
Insulation Resistance of the whole cable is
𝑟2 𝑑𝑥
R=‫𝑟׬‬1 𝜌
2𝜋𝑥𝑙
𝜌 𝑟2
R= 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑟1
2𝜋𝐿
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
1. The insulation resistance of a single-core cable is 495 MΩ per km. If the

core diameter is 2·5 cm and resistivity of insulation is 4·5 × 10^14 Ω-cm,
find the insulation thickness
Solution.
Length of cable, l = 1 km = 1000 m Cable insulation resistance,
R = 495 MΩ = 495 × 106 Ω Conductor radius, r1 = 2·5/2 = 1·25 cm
Resistivity of insulation, ρ = 4·5 × 10^14 Ω-cm = 4·5 × 10^12 Ωm
Let r2 cm be the internal sheath radius
𝜌 𝑟
Now R=2𝜋𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑟2
1
𝑟 2𝜋𝑙𝑅 2𝜋∗1000∗495∗106
ln𝑟2 = 𝜌
= 4.5∗1012
=0.69
1
𝑟2 0.69
= 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔 =2
𝑟1 2.3
𝑟2 = 2𝑟1 = 2 ∗ 1.25 = 2.5𝑐𝑚
Insulation Thickness =𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = 2.5 − 1.25 = 1.25𝑐𝑚

Capacitance of a Single-Core Cable
A single-core cable can be considered to be equivalent to two long co-axial
cylinders. The conductor (or core) of the cable is the inner cylinder while the outer
cylinder is represented by lead sheath which is at earth potential. Consider a single
core cable with conductor diameter d and inner sheath diameter D .
Let the charge per meter axial length of the cable be Q coulombs and ε
be the permittivity of the insulation material between core and lead sheath.
Obviously ε = ε0εr where εr is the relative permittivity of the insulation.
Consider a cylinder of radius x meters and axial length 1 meter. The
surface area of this cylinder is = 2 π x × 1 = 2 π x m 2
Figure 17 Single-Core Cable
∴ Electric flux density at any point P on the considered cylinder is

𝑄
Dx = cm2
2𝜋𝑥
Electric intensity at any point
D 𝑄 𝑄
EX= ℇx=2𝜋𝜀𝑥 = volts/m
2𝜋𝜀0𝜀𝑟𝑥
The work done in moving a unit positive charge from point P through a distance dx
in the direction of electric field is EX dx. Hence, the work done in moving a unit
positive charge from conductor to sheath, which is the potential difference V
between conductor and sheath, is given by :
𝐷/2 𝐷/2 𝑄
V=‫𝑑׬‬/2 EX dx = ‫𝑑׬‬/2 dx
2𝜋𝜀0𝜀𝑟𝑥
Capacitance of the Cable is
𝑄
C=Q/V= 𝑄 F/m
2𝜋𝜀0𝜀𝑟
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝐷/𝑑
2𝜋𝜀0𝜀𝑟
= 𝐷
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒( 𝑑 )
2𝜋8.854∗10−12 ∗𝜀𝑟
= 𝐷 F/m
2.303𝑙𝑜𝑔10( 𝑑 )
If the cable has a length of ln meters, then capacitance of the cable is

𝜖𝑟𝑙
C= 𝐷 *10−9F
4.14𝑙𝑜𝑔10( 𝑑 )
Problem :
Calculate the capacitance and charging current of a single core cable used on a 3-
phase, 66 kV system. The cable is 1 km long having a core diameter of 10 cm and
an impregnated paper insulation of thickness 7 cm. The relative permittivity of the
insulation may be taken as 4 and the supply at 50 Hz.
Solution:
𝜀𝑟𝑙
Capacitance of the cable C= 𝐷 ∗ 10−9 F
41.4𝑙𝑜𝑔10( )
𝑑
Here ℇr=4; l=1000m,d=10cm,D=24cm
Substituting these values in the above expression,
4∗1000
C= 24 ∗ 10−9 F = 0.254*10−6 F = 0.254μF
41.4𝑙𝑜𝑔10( )
10
Voltage between core and sheath is

Vph = 66 / 3 = 38·1 kV = 38·1 × 103 V
Charging current = Vph / XC = 2π f C Vph
= 2π × 50 × 0·254 × 10−6 × 38·1 × 103A = 3.04 A

CAPACITANCE OF THREE-CORE BELTED TYPE CABLES
In the case of a 3-core cable as shown in Fig.4.7, the 3-cores are individually
insulated with paper insulation. The filler spaces between the core insulation is
also filled up with insulation, but depriving these of voids is much more difficult.
Figure 18 3-core cable
Belt insulation is used on top of all three core insulations, and the lead sheath is
extruded over this. Over the lead sheath, there is generally bitumen to prevent
damage.
In buried cables, additional protection is necessary to prevent damage. There are
two types of armouring used for these cables.
1. Steel tape armouring - the steel tape is usually wound in two layers with
opposite directions of lay
2. Steel wire armouring - the steel wires are laid in one or two layers.
The capacitance between the conductors to neutral of 3-core belted cables cannot
be obtained by a simple derivation as for the single core cable
Capacitance Of Three Core Cable
Consider a three cored symmetric underground cable as shown in the following
figure (i). Let Cs be the capacitance between any core and the sheath and Cc be
the core to core capacitance (i.e. capacitance between any two conductors).
Figure 19 Capacitances in Three core Cable

Measurement of Capacitance of 3-core Cables
Let Cs be the capacitance between any core and the sheath and Cc be the core to
core capacitance (i.e. capacitance between any two conductors).
Figure 20 Capacitances in Three core
In the above figure (ii), the three Cc (core to core capacitance) are delta connected and
the core to sheath capacitance Cs are star connected due to the sheath forming a single
point N. The circuit in figure (ii) can be simplified as shown in figure (iii). Outer points A, B
and C represent cable cores and the point N represents the sheath (shown at the middle
for simplification of the circuit).
Therefore, the whole three core cable is equivalent to three star connected capacitors
each of capacitance Cs + 3Cc as shown in fig. (iii).
The charging current can be given as, Ic = 2πf(Cs+3Cc)Vph A
Measurement Of Cs and Cc
Although core-core capacitance Cc and core-earth capacitance Ce can be obtained from
the empirical formulas for belted cables, their values can also be determined by
measurements. In order to calculate Cs and Cc we perform various experiments like:
First, the three cores are connected together and capacitance between the shorted cores
and the sheath is measured. Shorting the three cores eliminates all the three Cc
capacitors, leaving the three Cs capacitors in parallel. Therefore, if C1 is the now measured
capacitance, Cs can be calculated as, Cs = C1/3.
In the second measurement, any two cores and the sheath are connected together and
the capacitance between them and the remaining core is measured. If C2 is the measured
capacitance, then C2 = 2Cc+Cs (imagine the above figure (iii) in which points A, B and N
are short circuited). Now, as the value of Cs is known from the first measurement, Cc can
be calculated.
In case the test are not available the following empirical formulas can be used
Grading of Cables:
The process of achieving uniform electrostatic stress in the dielectric of cables is

known as grading of cables.
Under operating conditions, the insulation of a cable is subjected to electrostatic
forces. This is known as dielectric stress. The dielectric stress at any point in a
cable is in fact the potential gradient (or electric intensity) at that point.
Consider a single core cable with core diameter d and internal sheath diameter D.
The electric intensity at a point x meters from the centre of the cable is
𝑄
𝐸𝑥 = 2𝜋𝜀 𝑉/𝑚
0 𝜀𝑟 𝑥
By definition, electric intensity is equal to potential gradient. Therefore, potential
𝑄
gradient g at a point x meters from the Centre of cable is g = 𝐸𝑥 = 2𝜋𝜀
0 𝜀𝑟 𝑥
Potential gradient varies inversely as the distance x. Therefore, potential gradient
will be maximum when x is minimum i.e., when x = d/2 or at the surface of the
conductor. On the other hand, potential gradient will be minimum at x = D/2 or at
sheath surface.
Thus electrostatic stress in a single core cable has a maximum value(gmax) at the
conductor surface and goes on decreasing as we move towards the sheath. The
maximum voltage that can be safely applied to a cable depends upon gmax i.e.,
electrostatic stress at the conductor surface. For safe working of a cable having
homogeneous dielectric, the strength of di electric must be more than gmax . If a
dielectric of high strength is used for a cable, it is useful only near the conductor
where stress is maximum.
The maximum stress is an important consideration in the design of a cable. For
instance, if a cable is to be operated at such a voltage that maximum stress is 5
kV/mm, then the insulation used must have a dielectric strength of at least 5
kV/mm, otherwise breakdown of the cable will become inevitable.
The unequal stress distribution in a cable is undesirable for two reasons. Firstly,
insulation of greater thickness is required which increases the cable size.
Secondly, it may lead to the breakdown of insulation. In order to overcome above
disadvantages, it is necessary to have a uniform stress distribution in cables. This
can be achieved by distributing the stress in such a way that its value is increased
in the outer layers of dielectric. This is known as grading of cables.
The following are the two main methods of grading of cables :
(i) Capacitance grading
(ii) Intersheath grading
(i) Capacitance Grading
The process of achieving uniformity in the dielectric stress by using layers of

different dielectrics is known as capacitance grading.
In capacitance grading, the homogeneous dielectric is replaced by a composite
dielectric. The composite dielectric consists of various layers of different dielectrics
in such a manner that relative permittivity εr of any layer is inversely proportional
to its distance from the centre. Under such conditions, the value of potential
gradient at any point in the dielectric is constant and is independent of its
distance from the centre.
The capacitance grading can be explained beautifully by referring to Fig. 4.15
There are three dielectrics of outer diameter d1, d2 and D and of relative
permittivity ε1, ε2 and ε3 respectively. If the permittivity's are such that ε1 > ε2 >
ε3 and the three dielectrics are worked at the same maximum stress, then,
Figure 21 capacitance grading of cable
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= =
𝜺𝟏𝒅 𝜺𝟐𝒅𝟏 𝜺𝟑𝒅𝟐
𝜺𝟏d=𝜺𝟐 𝒅𝟏 = 𝜺𝟑 𝒅𝟐
Potential difference across the inner layer is

𝒅𝟏/𝟐 𝑸
𝑽𝟏 = ‫𝒅׬‬/𝟐 dx
𝟐πℇ𝟎ℇ𝟏𝒙
𝑄 𝑑1 𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑1
=
2𝜋𝜀0𝜀1
𝑙𝑛 𝑑
= 2
𝑑 ln 𝑑
Similarly, potential across second layer (V2) and third layer (V3) is given by ;
𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑
𝑉2 = 2
𝑑1 ln 𝑑12
𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷
𝑉3 = 𝑑2 ln
2 𝑑2
Total potential difference between core and earthed sheath is

V = V1 + V2 + V3
𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑 𝑑 𝐷
= 𝑑𝑙𝑛 1 +𝑑1𝑙𝑛 2 +𝑑2 𝑙𝑛
2 𝑑 𝑑1 𝑑2
If the cable had homogeneous dielectric, then, for the same values of d,
D and gmax, the permissible potential difference between core and earthed sheath
would have been
𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷
𝑉′ = 𝑑 ln
2 𝑑
Obviously, V > V′ i.e., for given dimensions of the cable, a graded cable
can be worked at a greater potential than non-graded cable. Alternatively, for the
same safe potential, the size of graded cable will be less than that of non-graded
cable. The following points may be noted :
(i) As the permissible values of gmax are peak values, therefore, all the voltages in
above expressions should be taken as peak values and not the r.m.s. values.
(ii) If the maximum stress in the three dielectrics is not the same, then,
𝑔1𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑 𝑔 𝑑 𝑔3𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷
V= d ln 𝑑1+ 2𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑1 𝑙𝑛 𝑑2 + 𝑑2 𝑙𝑛 𝑑
2 2 1 2 2
The principal disadvantage of this method is that there are a few high
grade dielectrics of reasonable cost whose permittivity's vary over the required
range.
(ii) Intersheath Grading
• In this method of cable grading, a homogeneous dielectric is used, but it is

divided into various layers by placing metallic intersheaths between the core and
lead sheath. The intersheaths are held at suitable potentials which are in between
the core potential and earth potential. This arrangement improves voltage
distribution in the dielectric of the cable and consequently more uniform potential
gradient is obtained.
• Consider a cable of core diameter d and outer lead sheath of diameter D. Suppose
that two intersheaths of diameters d1 and d2 are inserted into the homogeneous
dielectric and maintained at some fixed potentials.
Let V1, V2 and V3 respectively be the voltage between core and
intersheath 1, between intersheath 1 and 2 and between intersheath 2 and outer
lead sheath.
As there is a definite potential difference between the inner and outer
layers of each intersheath, therefore, each sheath can be treated like a
homogeneous single core cable.
Maximum stress between core and intersheath 1 is
𝑽𝟏
𝒈𝟏𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝒅 𝒅𝟏
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆( )
𝟐 𝒅
𝑽𝟐
𝒈𝟐𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆( )
𝟐 𝒅𝟏
𝑽𝟑
𝒈𝟑𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒅𝟐 𝑫
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆( )
𝟐 𝒅𝟐
Since the dielectric is homogeneous, the maximum stress in each layer is the same
i.e. g1max = g2max = g3max = gmax (say)
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟏
𝒅 𝒅𝟏 = 𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐 = 𝒅𝟐 𝑫
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆( ) 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆( ) 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆( )
𝟐 𝒅 𝟐 𝒅𝟏 𝟐 𝒅𝟐
As the cable behaves like three capacitors in series, therefore, all the
potentials are in phase i.e. Voltage between conductor and earthed lead sheath is V
= V1 + V2 + V3
Figure 22 Intersheath potential gradients
Intersheath grading has three principal disadvantages.

• Firstly, there are complications in fixing the sheath potentials.
• Secondly, the intersheaths are likely to be damaged during transportation and
installation which might result in local concentrations of potential gradient.
• Thirdly, there are considerable losses in the intersheaths due to charging currents.
For these reasons, intersheath grading is rarely used.
EXERCISE PROBLEM
A single core lead sheathed cable has a conductor diameter of 3 cm; the diameter of
the cable being 9 cm. The cable is graded by using two dielectrics of relative
permittivity 5 and 4 respectively with corresponding safe working stresses of 30
kV/cm and 20 kV/cm. Calculate the radial thickness of each insulation and the safe
working voltage of the cable
Solution.
Here, d = 3 cm ; d1 =? ; D = 9cm
ε1 = 5 ; ε2 = 4
g1max = 30 kV/cm ; g2max = 20 kV/cm
1
g1max ∝ 𝜀1𝑑
;
1
g2max ∝ ;
𝜀2𝑑1
𝑔1𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜀2𝑑1
=
𝑔2𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜀1𝑑
30 5∗3
d1= ∗ = 5.625𝑐𝑚
20 4
Radial thickness of inner dielectric

𝑑1−𝑑 5.625−3
= 2
= 2 = 1.312𝑐𝑚
Radial thickness of outer dielectric

𝐷−𝑑1 9−5.625
= 2
= 2
= 1.68𝑐𝑚
Permissible peak voltage for the cable

𝑔1𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑1 𝑔2𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷
V= dloge + 𝑑1 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
2 𝑑 2 𝑑1
30 5.625 20 9
= 2 ∗ 3𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 + ∗ 5.625𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 5.625
3 2
= 28·28 + 26·43 = 54·71 kV

Safe working voltage (r.m.s.) for the cable = 54.71/ 2 = 38·68 kV
Problem :
A single core cable of conductor diameter 2 cm and lead sheath of diameter 5.3 cm
is to be used on a 66 kV, 3-phase system. Two intersheaths of diameter 3·1 cm and
4·2 cm are introduced between the core and lead sheath. If the maximum stress in
the layers is the same, find the voltages on the intersheaths.
Solution.
Here, d = 2 cm ; d1 = 3·1 cm ; d2 = 4·2 cm
D = 5.3 cm ; V =( 66∗ 2)/ 3=53.9kV
𝑽𝟏
𝒈𝟏𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒅 𝒅𝟏 =2.28𝑣1
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆( )
𝟐 𝒅
𝑽𝟐
𝒈𝟐𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒅𝟐 𝒅𝟐 =2.12𝑣2
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆( )
𝟐 𝒅𝟏
𝑽𝟑
𝒈𝟑𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒅𝟐 𝑫 =2.04𝑣 3
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆( )
𝟐 𝒅𝟐
As the maximum stress in the layers is the same,

∴ g1max = g2max = g3max
or 2·28 V1 = 2·12 V2 = 2·04 V3
∴ V2 = (2·28/2·12) V1 = 1·075 V1
and V3 = (2·28/2·04) V1 = 1·117V1
Now V1 + V2 + V3 = V
or V1 + 1·075 V1 + 1·117 V1 = 53·9
or V1 = 53·9/3·192 = 16·88 kV
and V2 = 1·075 V1 = 1·075 × 16·88 = 18·14 kV
∴ Voltage on first intersheath (i.e., near to the core)
= V − V1 = 53·9 − 16·88 = 37·02 kV
Voltage on second intersheath
= V − V1 − V2 = 53·9 − 16·88 − 18·14 = 18·88 kV
Problem :
For a transmission system of voltage ‘765 kV’ volts having the core radius of ‘5’ cm
and outer radius of ‘0.40’ m. Find the maximum dielectric stress on single core cable
The maximum stress will occur at the surface of the conductor such that x(min) =
radius of core
Example
A single-core cable has a conductor diameter of 2 cm, inside diameter of sheath
is 6 cm and a length of 6 km. The cable is operated at 60 Hz and 7.2 kV. The
dielectric constant is 3.5, the dielectric power factor is 0.03 (δ=Cosфd) and
dielectric resistivity of the insulation is 1.3x107 MΩ.cm.
Calculate the following:

a) Maximum electric stress.
b) Capacitance of the cable.
c) Charging current.
d) Insulation resistance.
e) Total dielectric losses.
If the cable feeds a load at receiving end of 20A at 0.6 power factor lag, find
sending end current and power factor.
Solution
a) Emax = V/(r.ln(R/r))
= 6.55 kV/cm
b) C= k/(18.ln(R/r)) μF/km
= 0.176x6 = 1.0619 μF
c) Ich = V/Xc = ω.C.V = 2.88 A
d) Ri =ρ.ln(R/r)/(2πl)
= 3.79 MΩ
e) Pd = Ich.V.Cos фd =622 W
f) load current:
I= 20 ( Cosф – j sinф) =12 - j16
Ich= j2.88
Is= I + Ich =12- j13.12 = 17.78 A
фs = 47.55o
Cos фs = 0.67 lag
Testing of cable fault: Loop tests
There are several methods for locating the faults in underground cables. However, two
popular methods known as loop tests are :
(i) Murray loop test
(ii) Varley loop test
These simple tests can be used to locate the earth fault or short-circuit fault in
underground cables provided that a sound cable runs along the faulty cable. Both these
tests employ the principle of Wheatstone bridge for fault location
11.22 Murray Loop Test
The Murray loop test is the most common and accurate method of locating earth fault
or short-circuit fault in underground cables.
(i) Earth fault : Fig. 11.22 shows the circuit diagram for locating the earth fault by
Murray loop test. Here AB is the sound cable and CD is the faulty cable; the earth fault
occurring at point F. The far end D of the faulty cable is joined to the far end B of the
sound cable through a low resistance link. Two variable resistances P and Q are joined
to ends A and C respectively and serve as the ratio arms of the Wheatstone bridge.
Let R = resistance of the conductor loop up to the fault from the test end
X = resistance of the other length of the loop
Fig 23 Earth Fault
Note that P, Q, R and X are the four arms of the Wheatstone bridge. The resistances P
and Q are varied till the galvanometer indicates zero deflection. In the balanced
position of the bridge, we have,
Thus the position of the fault is located. Note that resistance of the fault is in the battery
circuit and not in the bridge circuit. Therefore, fault resistance does not affect the
balancing of the bridge. However, if the fault resistance is high, the sensitivity of the
bridge is reduced.
(ii) Short-circuit fault : Fig. 11.23 shows the circuit diagram for locating the short-circuit
fault by Murray loop test. Again P, Q, R and X are the four arms of the bridge. Note that
fault resistance is in the battery circuit and not in the bridge circuit. The bridge in
balanced by adjusting the resistances P and Q. In the balanced position of the bridge :
Fig 24 SC Fault
Varley Loop Test
The Varley loop test is also used to locate earth fault or short-circuit fault in
underground cables. This test also employs Wheatstone bridge principle. It differs
from Murray loop test in that here the ratio arms P and Q are fixed resistances.
Balance is obtained by adjusting the variable resistance S
Fig 24 Varley Loop Test Earth Fault

connected to the test end of the faulty cable. The connection diagrams for locating
the earth fault and short-circuit fault by Varley loop test are shown in Figs. 11.24
and 11.25 respectively.
Fig 25 Varley Loop SC Test

LINKS TO ONLINE
LEARNING
MATERIALS
Links to Videos, e-book reference, PPTs, Quizzes,
etc.
63
Quiz
1. With the rise in temperature ignoring Ice and wind effects is

a) Sag decreases
b) Sag increases
c) Sag remains constant
d) Sag becomes zero
2. The maximum sag if the working tension is 2879 kg on an
overhead transmission line with a span of 220 meters and the
conductor weighing 0.604 kg/m is
a) 8.96 m
b) 8.86 m
c) 8.85 m
d) 1.27 m
3. What is the value of working stress in overhead conductors?
a) Less than ultimate stress
b) More than ultimate stress
c) Always equal to ultimate stress
d) Should be zero
4.What happens to the tension in a conductor hung between two
poles, when temperature varies?
a) Tension increases with increase in temperature
b) Tension decreases with increase in temperature
c) Tension first increases and decreases with decrease in temperature
d) Tension in conductor is independent of temperature variation
5.The value of sag for proper operation of overhead transmission line
should be
a) High
b) Low
c) Neither too low nor too high
d) Anything
Youtube link
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KueRgL-GNHk
• for string efficiency calculation
NPTEL Videos
• https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/105/108105067/
VIDEO LECTURES
Sl.No. Topic Provider Link
1 Lecture - 18 Underground NPTEL https://youtu.be/1Ym2O

Cables viN0XM
2 Lecture - 19 Cables NPTEL https://www.youtube.com

/watch?v=Csw1OTdWu_8
3 PS49 Insulation Resistance & NIT Delhi https://www.youtube.com

Capacitance of Single Core /watch?v=ifvqGrGqz7M
Cable
10
ASSIGNMENTS
66
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. The three bus-bar conductors in an outdoor sub-station are supplied by units of

post insulators. Each unit consists of a stack of 3-pin insulators fixed one on the
top of the other. The voltage across the lowest insulator is 8·45 kV and that
across the next is 7·25 kV. Find the bus-bar voltage of the station.
2. A string of four suspension insulators is connected across a 285 kV line. The

self-capacitance of each unit is equal to 5 times pin to earth capacitance.
Calculate : (i) the potential difference across each unit, (ii) the string efficiency.
[(i) 27·65 kV, 33·04 kV, 43·85 kV, 60 kV (ii) 68·5%] Each of three insulators
forming a string has self-capacitance of “C” farad.
3. A transmission line has a span of 150 m between the level supports. The
conductor has a cross-sectional area of 2 cm2 . The ultimate strength is 5000
kg/cm2 . The specific gravity of the material is 8·9 gm/cm3 . If the wind pressure
is 1·5 kg/m length of conductor, calculate the sag at the centre of the conductor
if factor of safety is 5.
4. A single core cable has a core diameter of 2.5 cm, insulation thickness of 1.25
cm and resistivity of the insulation is 4.5 x10^14 ohm-cm. Calculate the
insulation resistance in Megaohms per km. (Ans:485-505)
5. single core cable is used on a 3 phase 66 kV system. The cable is one km long
having a core diameter of 15 cm and a sheath diameter of 60 cm. The relative
permittivity of the insulation is 3.6 and the supply frequency is 50 Hz. Calculate
the capacitance of the cable in microfarads. (Ans: 0.14-0.15)
6. For the data given in question 2, find the charging current in amperes. (Ans:1.7-
1.8 )
11
PART A
2 MARKS QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
68
UNIT-4
S.No Part A (Q & A) K Level COs
What are the requirements of the cables?

1. The size of the conductor used must be such that it should carry
the specified load without overheating and keeping the voltage
drop well within the permissible limits
2. At the voltage level for which cables are designed the insulation
1 K1 CO4
thickness must be proper so as to provide high degree of safety
and the reliability
3. The materials used in the manufacturing of the cables must be
such that there is complete chemical and physical stability
throughout.
List the various parts of cables.
2 K1 CO4
Core ,Insulation , Metallic sheath , Bedding, Armouring & Serving
What are the types of cables?
3 Low tension cable , High tension cable , belted cable. super tension K1 CO4
cable & extra tension cable
What are the advantages of separate lead sheath cables?
Due to individual lead sheath core to core fault possibility gets
4 K1 CO4
minimized The electrical stress are radial in nature Bedding of cable
is easy Increases the current carrying capacity
What are the types of insulators?
Pin type insulators
Suspension insulators
5 K1 CO4
Strain insulators
Shackle insulators
Stay insulators
What are the advantages of suspension type insulator?
Suspension type insulators are cheaper than pin type insulators. Each
6 unit or disc of suspension type insulator is designed for low voltage .If K1 CO4
anyone disc is damaged the hole string does not affected .Greater
flexibility the line.
Define string efficiency?
The ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product of number
7 K1 CO4
of discs and the voltage across the disc nearest to the conductor is
known as string efficiency.
What are the methods of improving string efficiency?
By using longer cross arms
8 K1 CO4
By grading the insulators
By using a guard ring
What is mean by insulators?
The insulators provide necessary insulation between line conductors
9 K1 CO4
and supports and thus prevent any leakage current from conductors to
earth.
What are the advantages of glass insulator?

As transparent cracks bubbles and defects in the insulator can be
easily detected by inspection
10 K1 CO4
The dielectric strength is very high
Cheaper than the porcelain
The resistivity is very high
What are the advantages of synthetic resin?
High tensile strength
11 K1 CO4
The weight is low
Cost is low
What is mean by self or mutual capacitance?
The porcelain portion which is an insulator is in between the two metal
12 K1 CO4
fittings. Thus it forms a capacitor. This is called self or mutual
capacitance.
What is mean by shunt capacitance?
In transmission line towers in addition to the self-capacitance there will
13 be capacitance between each metal fittings and the earth. i.e. tower the K1 CO4
air act as an insulating medium such a capacitance is called shunt
capacitance.
What is mean by guard ring?
The transmission line tower a large metal ring surrounding the line unit
14 K1 CO4
and connected to the metal part of the bottom of the line unit is used.
Such a ring is called guard ring
Define sag of a line?
15 The differences in level between the points of supports and the lowest K1 CO4
point of the conductor are called as sag.
What is the sag in transmission line?
While erecting the line , if the conductors are stretched too much
16 between supports then there prevails an excessive tension on the line K1 CO4
which may break the conductor. In order to have safe tension in the
conductor a sag in the line is allowed.
What is the need of testing the Insulator?
A good insulator should have a good mechanical strength to withstand
the mechanical load and stresses. It should have a high dielectric
17 strength to withstand operating and flashover voltages. Also, an K1 CO4
insulator must be free from pores or voids, which may damage it.
Therefore, to ensure desired performance of insulators, each insulator
has to undergo various tests.
What is mean by grading of cables?
The process of obtaining uniform distribution of stress in the insulation
18 of cables is called grading of cables K1 CO4
What is mean by capacitance grading?

19 The grading done by using the layers of dielectrics having different permittivity K1 CO4
between the core and the sheath is called capacitance grading
What are disadvantages of gas pressure cable?
20 K1 CO4
The only disadvantage of this cable is very high initial cost
What is the necessity of grading of an underground cable?
21 Grading of the underground cable is done to achieve uniform K1 CO4
electrostatic stress in the dielectric of cable.
List the four main insulating materials used in cables?(May/June 13)
22 K1 CO4
PVC ,Rubber, Impregnated paper & Polythene
What are the effects of grading of cables
23 Uniform electrostatic stress in the dielectric of cable is achieved by K1 CO4
grading of cables.
List out the four main properties of insulating materials for
cables.What are the desirable properties of insulator?
High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current
High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of the cable
24 High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical handling of K1 CO4
cables
Non-hygroscopic i.e) it should mot absorb moisture from air or soil.
Non inflammable
Unaffected by acids and alkalies
Show that the insulation resistance of cable is inversely proportional
to its length.
Derivation:
Let, r1 be the radius of the conductor
25 R be the radius of metallic sheath K1 CO4
r2 be the radius of annulus
l be the length of cable
be the resistivity of insulation
𝜌 𝑟
Insulation resistance R= 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 2 ohms/m
2𝜋𝑙 𝑟1
Give the classification of cable for and Service with operating
voltages.
Low tension cables - upto 1000 V
26 High tension cables - upto 11000 V K1 CO4
Super tension cables - from 22 KV- 33 KV
Extra High tension cables - from 33 KV- 66 KV
Extra super tension cables - beyond 132 KV
S.N
Part A (Q & A) K Level COs
o
What are the factors to be considered while selecting a cable for a

particular service?
1. Materials,
2. Working Voltage,
3. Load Current,
27 4. Short circuit current, K1 CO4
5. Load factor,
6. Frequency,
7. Acceptable Voltage Drop,
8. Economics
List the advantages of polythene insulators

They possess very good strength and toughness. They possess
good shock absorption capacity. Advantages of plastic are
28 corrosion resistant and chemically inert. They have low thermal K1 CO4
expansion of co-efficient and possess good thermal and electrical
insulating property
What is the function of sheath in a cables?

The sheath does not allow the moisture to enter and protects the
29 cable from all external influences like chemical or electrochemical K1 CO4
attack fire etc.
List out methods of grading also.

Methods of grading
30 Capacitance grading & Intersheath grading K1 CO4
12
PART B
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS
73
K
S.No Part B Questions COs
Level
1 Explain the various cables used for three phase system K2 CO4
What is grading of cable. Discuss the two methods of grading of cable
2 K2 CO4
in detail.
Describe with the neat sketch, the construction of a 3 core belted type
3 K2 CO4
cable.
Briefly explain about various types of cables used in underground
4 K2 CO4
system.
Discuss any two methods to increase the value of string efficiency, with
5 K1 CO4
suitable sketches. (13)
What are different methods to improve string efficiency of an
6 K1 CO4
insulator?(13)
A 3 phase overhead transmission line is being supported by three disc
insulators. The potential across top unit (i.e. near the tower) and the
middle unit are 8kV and 11kV respectively. Calculate, the ratio of
7 K1 CO4
capacitance between pin and earth to the self-capacitance of each unit,
Line Voltage, String Efficiency (13)
The self capacitance of each unit in a string of three suspension

insulators is C. The shunting capacitance of the connecting metal work
8 of each insulator to earth is 0·15 C while for line it is 0·1 C. Calculate (i) K2 CO4
the voltage across each insulator as a percentage of the line voltage to
earth and (ii) string efficiency(13)
Each line of a 3-phase system is suspended by a string of 3 identical
insulators of self-capacitance C farad. The shunt capacitance of
connecting metal work of each insulator is 0·2 C to earth and 0·1 C to
9 line. Calculate the string efficiency of the system if a guard ring K2 CO4
increases the capacitance to the line of metal work of the lowest
insulator to 0·3 C.(13)
10 With neat diagram explain the constructional features of various cables CO4
A 33 kV, 50 Hz , 3-phase underground cable, 4 km long uses three single core

cables. Each of the conductor has a diameter of 2.5 cm and the radial thickness
11 of insulation is 0.5 cm. Determine (i) Capacitance of the cable/phase (ii) CO4
charging current/phase (iii) total charging kVAR. The relative permittivity of
insulation is 3.
A cable is graded with three dielectrics of permittivity 4, 3 and 2. The

maximum permissible potential gradient for all dielectrics is same and
12 CO4
equal to 30 kV/cm. The core diameter is 1.5cm and sheath diameter is
5.5cm
K
S.No Part B Questions COs
Level
Explain with diagram of a different types of insulators used in overhead

13 K2 CO4
line (13)
14 Explain different methods of improving string efficiency (13) K2 CO4
In a 33 kV overhead line, there are three units in the string of insulators. If the
capacitance between each insulator pin and earth is 11% of self-capacitance of
15 K2 CO4
each insulator, find (i) the distribution of voltage over 3 insulators and (ii) string
efficiency. (13)
A 3-phase transmission line is being supported by three disc insulators. The
potentials across top unit (i.e., near to the tower) and middle unit are 8 kV and
16 11 kV respectively. Calculate (i) the ratio of capacitance between pin and earth K2 CO4
to the self-capacitance of each unit (ii)the line voltage and (iii) string efficiency.
(13)
Each line of a 3-phase system is suspended by a string of 3 similar insulators. If
the voltage across the line unit is 17·5 kV, calculate the line to neutral voltage.
17 K1 CO4
Assume that the shunt capacitance between each insulator and earth is 1/8th
of the capacitance of the insulator itself. Also find the string efficiency. (13)
18 Explain capacitance grading of an underground cable K1 CO4
19 Explain intersheaths grading of an underground cable K1 CO4
Explain the testing of an insulator in detail
20 K2 CO4
13
SUPPORTIVE ONLINE
CERTIFICATION
COURSES
76
ONLINE COURSES
S.N Name of the course Source Link

o
1 Electric Power Systems Coursera https://www.coursera.org/learn/electri
c-power-systems/home/welcome
2 Power System Engineering NPTEL https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/105/10

8105104/
3 Power System Generation, NPTEL https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/102/

Transmission and Distribution 108102047/
4 Power Engineering: Power System Udemy https://www.udemy.com/course/po

Analysis - Part 2 wer-system-analysis-part-2-
equipment-models/
5 Transmission Power Engineering Udemy https://www.udemy.com/course/tra
Fundamentals nsmission-power-engineering-
fundamentals/
77
14
REAL TIME
APPLICATIONS IN DAY
TO DAY LIFE AND TO
INDUSTRY
78
REALTIME APPLICATIONS[K4,CO4]
Real Time calculation of Sag:
The microcontroller and GPS system has been used for the sag monitoring. The GPS
will send the data to the controller, it will calculate the sag level and through the
ZigBee protocol the data will be transferred. The data regarding the sag is received
by the control and monitoring section and corresponding steps will be taken.
79
REALTIME APPLICATIONS[K4,CO4]
IR Value for Electrical cable and wiring

For insulation testing, we need to disconnect from panel or equipment
and keep them isolated from power supply. The wiring and
cables need to test for each other ( phase to phase) with a ground (E)
cable. The Insulated Power Cable Engineers Association (IPCEA)
provides the formula to determine minimum insulation resistance
values.
R = K x Log 10 (D/d)
R = IR Value in MΩs per 1000 feet (305 meters) of cable.
K = Insulation material constant.( Varnished Cambric=2460,
Thermoplastic Polyethylene=50000,Composite Polyethylene=30000)
D = Outside diameter of conductor insulation for single conductor wire
and cable ( D = d + 2c + 2b diameter of single conductor cable )
d – Diameter of conductor
c – Thickness of conductor insulation
b – Thickness of jacket insulation
HV test on new XLPE cable (As per ETSA Standard)
Application Test Voltage Min IR Value
New cables – Sheath 1KV DC 100 MΩ
New cables – Insulation 10KV DC 1000 MΩ
After repairs – Sheath 1KV DC 10 MΩ
After repairs – Insulation 5KV DC 1000MΩ
80
Measurement Procedure
IR Value Measurement (Conductors to conductor (Cross

Insulation))
• The first conductor for which cross insulation is being measured shall be
connected to Line terminal of the megger. The remaining conductors looped
together (with the help of crocodile clips) i. e. Conductor 2 and onwards, are
connected to Earth terminal of megger. Conductors at the other end are left free.
• Now rotate the handle of megger or press push button of megger. The reading of
meter will show the cross Insulation between conductor 1 and rest of the
conductors. Insulation reading shall be recorded.
• Now connect next conductor to Line terminal of the megger & connect the
remaining conductors to earth terminal of the megger and take measurements.
IR Value Measurement (Conductor to Earth Insulation)

• Connect conductor under test to the Line terminal of the megger.
• Connect earth terminal of the megger to the earth.
• Rotate the handle of megger or press push button of megger. The reading of
meter will show the insulation resistance of the conductors. Insulation reading
shall be recorded after applying the test voltage for about a minute till a steady
reading is obtained.
15
Additional Topics
82
Vibrations and Dampers in Transmission Lines:
The overhead transmission line experiences vibrations in the vertical plane and
there are two types of such vibrations, in addition to normal swinging in wind, called
the aeoline vibrations or resonant vibrations or high frequency oscillations and
galloping or dancing or low frequency vibrations.
Simple swinging of conductors is harmless provided the clearance is sufficiently large
so that the conductors do not approach within the sparking distance of each other.
Aeoline vibrations:
They are high frequency (5-100 Hz) and low amplitude (20 mm to 50 mm)
vibrations. They are caused by vortex phenomenon in light winds (5-20 km/hour).
The line conductor vibrates in a number of loops.
The length of the loop (half-wave length) depends on tension T and weight of
conductor W per meter length and is given by . The loop length varies from 1
to 10 meters depending upon T, W and f. These vibrations are common to all
conductors and are more or less always present. The harmful effects of such
vibrations take place at clamps or supports where the conductor suffers fatigue and
breaks eventually.
Low Frequency Vibrations:
Low frequency vibrations (about one Hz) occur during sleet storms with a strong
wind. The amplitude is very large, about 6 meters or more, and the conductors are
said to ‘dance’. Operation is almost impossible for the conductors touch one another,
since the ‘dancing’ takes place horizontally and vertically.
Dampers:
The conductors are protected by dampers which prevent the resonant vibrations
from reaching the conductors at the clamps or supports.
The stock bridge damper, consists of two weights attached to a piece of stranded
cable 0.3 or 0.5 m long, which is clamped to the line conductor. The energy of
vibration is absorbed by the stranded cable, and the vibration is rapidly damped
out.
Another successful damper consists of a box containing a weight resting on a
spring. In this case the spring absorbs the energy of vibration. The fatigue may
be reduced by reinforcing the conductor for a few meters on either side of the
clamp by binding metal rods or a length of the same conductor to the main
conductor outside the clamp.
16
ASSESSMENT
SCHEDULE
84
Assessment Schedule
Assessment Name Assessment Date
Internal Assessment I 14.02.2024
Internal Assessment II
03-04-2024
Model Examination 25.04.2024

17
PRESCRIBED TEXT
BOOKS &
REFERENCE BOOKS
86
TEXT BOOKS AND REFERENCE BOOKS
S.No Text Books
D.P.Kothari, I.J. Nagarath, ‘Power System Engineering’, Mc Graw-Hill Publishing

1 Company limited, New Delhi, Second Edition, 2008.
2 C.L.Wadhwa, ‘Electrical Power Systems’, New Academic Science Ltd, 2009

S.N. Singh, ‘Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution’, Prentice Hall of
3 India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, Second Edition, 2011
S.No REFERENCES
B.R.Gupta, ‘Power System Analysis and Design’ S. Chand, New Delhi, Fifth Edition,
1 2008.
Luces M.Fualken berry, Walter Coffer, ‘Electrical Power Distribution and Transmission’,
2 Pearson Education, 2007
Arun Ingole, "power transmission and distribution" Pearson Education, 2017

3
J.Brian, Hardy and Colin R.Bayliss ‘Transmission and Distribution in Electrical

4 Engineering’, Newnes; Fourth Edition, 2012.
5 G.Ramamurthy, “Handbook of Electrical power Distribution,” Universities Press, 2013.
S.No Name of the e-Book Link
1 Electric Power System by C L Wadhwa

https://1lib.in/book/3495299/92a12f
2 Modern Power System Analysis by Nagrath and https://1lib.in/book/11746913/f8079

Kothari 7
3 Power System Engineering by RK Rajput
4 Principles of Power System by V K Metha

https://drive.google.com/drive/fol
ders/12TT8EJFgPpkg-
5 Electric Power System by Das GGTvRybV8JKpvPRVJzt?usp=shari
ng
87
6 Power System Analysis by Hadi Sadat

18
MINI PROJECT
SUGGESTIONS
88
MINIPROJECT SUGGESTIONS [K4. CO4]
I. Develop a MATLAB SIMULINK circuit to determine the string efficiency of 18
capacitors connected in the suspension manner. The analysis has been done
without using the guard ring. Analyse its performance through simulation.
89
MINIPROJECT-II
2.Develop a MATLAB SIMULINK circuit to determine the string efficiency

of 18 capacitors connected in the suspension manner. The analysis has
been done using the guard ring. Analyse its performance through
simulation.
The string efficiency has been increased from 45% t0 75.99% this
result has been obtained by simulation.
3.In a 33kv overhead line, there are three units in the string of
insulators. If the capacitance between each insulator pin and earth is
22% of self capacitance of each insulator, find. The distribution of
voltage over 3 insulators and string efficiency without the shunt
capacitance.Develop a MATLAB SIMULINK circuit to determine the string
efficiency.
4. In a 33kv overhead line, there are three units in the string of

22% of self capacitance of each insulator, find. The distribution of
voltage over 3 insulators and string efficiency with the shunt
capacitance.Develop a MATLAB SIMULINK circuit to determine the string
efficiency.

22% of the capacitance of each insulator, find (i) the distribution of
voltage over 3 insulators and string efficiency improvement with the
longer cross arm method. Develop a MATLAB SIMULINK circuit to
determine the string efficiency.

22% of the capacitance of each insulator, find the distribution of voltage
over 3 insulators and string efficiency improvement with Guard ring
method. Develop a MATLAB SIMULINK circuit to determine the string
efficiency.

22% of the capacitance of each insulator, find (i) the distribution of
voltage over 3 insulators and string efficiency improvement with Longer
crossarm and Guard ring method. Develop a MATLAB SIMULINK circuit
to determine the string efficiency.
THANK YOU
Disclaimer:
This document is confidential and intended solely for the educational purpose of RMK Group of
Educational Institutions. If you have received this document through email in error, please notify the
system manager. This document contains proprietary information and is intended only to the
respective group / learning community as intended. If you are not the addressee you should not
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1

S. No Topic Page No.

6 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 12

8 Activity based learning 15

13 Supportive online Certification courses 66

Real time Applications in day to day life and to 68

15 Contents beyond the Syllabus 69

17 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 74

18 Mini Project suggestions 76

The student should be made to:

• To study the structure of Electric Power System, distribution systems, EHVAC,

• To develop expressions for the computation of transmission line parameters

• To develop the equivalent circuits for the transmission lines based on

• To analyze the voltage distribution in insulator strings to improve the

• To understand the mechanical design of transmission lines, types of

UNIT I STRUCTURE OF POWER SYSTEM 9

On completion of the course, the students will be able to

CO NO. COURSE OUTCOME K-LEVEL

Understand the structure of power system

parameters of different line insulators

On completion of the B.E (Electrical and Electronics Engineering) Degree

Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

After successful completion of the B.E degree program, the

Program Outcomes Specific

Insulators-Types of Insulators-Insulator material and its properties- Voltage

5 Cables-Types of cables 1 CO4 K3 PPT

2. Hands on : simulation experiments (Blooms Taxonomy Level : K4)

3. Quiz(Blooms Taxonomy Level : K2)

MATLAB Simulink software

The ratio between shunt capacitance to self capacitance

Fig 1 Pin Type Insulator

2 Suspension type insulators.

Fig 3 Strain and Shackle Insulator

A string of suspension insulators consists of a number of porcelain discs connected

Fig 4 Potential Distribution

Fig 5 String Efficiency

(i) By using longer cross-arms:

Fig 6 Longer Cross Arm

ii) By grading the insulators.

Fig 7 Guard Ring

= 1·11V1 + (V1 + 1·11 V1) 0·11

V = V1 + V2 + V3 = V1 + 1·11 V1 + 1·342 V1 = 3·452 V1

∴ Voltage across top unit, V1 = 19·05/3·452 = 5·52 kV

Voltage across middle unit, V2 = 1·11 V1 = 1·11 × 5·52 = 6.13 kV

Voltage across bottom unit, V3 = 1·342 V1 = 1·342 × 5·52 = 7.4 Kv

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 19.05

= 1·125V1 + (V1 + 1·125 V1) 0·125

Voltage across top unit, V1 = V3/1·39 = 17·5/1·39= 12·59 kV

Voltage across middle unit,

V2 = 1·125 V1 = 1·125 × 12·59 = 14·16 kV

∴ Voltage between line and earth (i.e., line to neutral)

= V1 + V2 + V3 = 12·59 + 14·16 + 17·5 = 44.25 kV

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 44.25

Voltage across 4th from top, V4= 0·228 × 57·7 = 13·16 kV

Voltage across 5th from top,V5 = 0·3 × 57·7 = 17·3 kV

V2 ω C + (V2 + V3) ω × 0·1 C

V3 ω C + V3 × 0·3 C × ω =V2 ω C + (V1 + V2) ω × 0·2 C

or 1·3 V3 = 1·2 V2 + 0·2 V1 ...(ii)