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 22EE403
Transmission and
Distribution
(Lab Integrated)
Department EEE
Batch/Year 2022-26/II Year
Created by Mr. S.Balamurugan
Date 10.01.2024

4
 1. TABLE OF CONTENTS

S. No Topic Page No.

1 Table of contents 5

2 Course Objectives 6

3 Pre Requisites 7

4 Syllabus 8

5 Course outcomes 10

6 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 13

7 Lecture Plan 14

8 Activity based learning 16

9 Lecture Notes 19

10 Assignments 87

11 Part A with Answers 90

12 Part B & C Qs 96

13 Supportive online Certification courses 100

Real time Applications in day to day life and to

14 102
Industry

15 Additional Topics 104

16 Assessment Schedule 108

17 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 110

18 Mini Project suggestions 112

5
 2. COURSE OBJECTIVES

The student should be made to:

• To study the structure of Electric Power System, distribution systems, EHVAC,

HVDC, FACTS and Smart grid.

• To develop expressions for the computation of transmission line parameters

• To develop the equivalent circuits for the transmission lines based on

distance and to determine voltage regulation and efficiency.

• To analyze the voltage distribution in insulator strings to improve the

efficiency and types, construction of cable and also methods to improve the
efficiency.

• To understand the mechanical design of transmission lines, types of

substations, methods of grounding and load forecasting

6
3. PREREQUISITES

SEMESTER 1

SEMESTER 2

SEMESTER 1

7
 4. SYLLABUS
22EE403 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION LTPC
3024

UNIT I STRUCTURE OF POWER SYSTEM 9

Structure of Power System – Overhead and Underground systems – Kelvin’s Law – AC
and DC Distributors - Distributed and Concentrated loads- Interconnection Distributed
system - Trends in Transmission and Distribution: EHVAC, HVDC, FACTS and Smart Grid
(Qualitative treatment only).
List of Experiments:
1. Model the structure of the power system and calculate the parameters of the power
system components
2. Develop and simulate the distributed and concentrated distributor with and without
interconnected system.

UNIT II TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS 9

Parameters of single and three phase Transmission lines with Single and Double circuits
-Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance of Solid, Stranded and Bundled conductors,
Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical spacing and transposition – Application of self and
mutual GMD; Skin and Proximity effects - Effects of earth on the capacitance of the
Transmission line - Interference with neighbouring communication circuits- Formation of
Corona discharge, Critical Voltages and Factors affecting corona.
List of Experiments:
1. Calculate and simulate the inductance per phase for the different transmission lines.
2. Calculate and simulate the capacitance per phase for the different transmission lines.

UNIT III MODELLING AND PERFORMANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINES 9

Performance of Transmission lines - Short line, Medium line and Long line - phasor
diagram and Generalized circuits constant analysis - surge impedance, Real and
Reactive power flow in lines – Power Circle diagrams -Ferranti effect - Techniques of
Voltage Control and Power factor improvement.

8
List of Experiments:
1. Model and calculate the real, reactive power and power factor for the nominal
T transmission line
2. Calculate and simulate the real, reactive power and power factor of nominal T
transmission line.
3. Calculate and simulate efficiency and regulation of a short transmission line.

UNIT IV INSULATORS AND CABLES 9

Insulators-Types of Insulators-Insulator material and its properties- Voltage
distribution in insulator string, Improvement of string efficiency, testing of
insulators-Underground Cables-Types of cables- Construction of cable- Insulation
Resistance -Capacitance of Single core and 3-core belted cable-Grading of cables-
Testing of cable fault: Loop tests.
List of Experiments:
1. Determine capacitance and dielectric loss of an insulating material using
Schering Bridge
2. Study of overhead line insulators, cable and power capacitor.
3. Calculate and simulate string efficiency of a string insulators.

UNIT V MECHANICAL DESIGN OF LINES, GROUNDING AND LOAD

VARIATION 9
Mechanical design of OH lines -Stress and Sag Calculation – Effects of Wind and
Ice loading- Line Supports –Tower Spotting-Types of Towers- Substation layout -
Methods of Grounding- System load variation -Load curves and Load duration
curves -Load forecasting.
List of Experiments:
1. Forecasting the load and load curves using the AI
2. Calculate the grounding resistance for the different types of earth rods

9
 5. COURSE OUTCOMES

On completion of the course, the students will be able to

CO NO. COURSE OUTCOME K-LEVEL

Understand the structure of power system

CO403.1 K3
and various distribution systems
Discuss the Modelling of the transmission
CO403.2 K3
line parameters
Analyse the equivalent circuits for the
CO403.3 K3
transmission lines based on distance
Explain the different types, characteristics of
CO403.4 cables and design the performance K3

parameters of different line insulators

Interpret the significance of sag on overall
CO403.5 K3
design overhead lines
Explain the type of substation, grounding
CO403.6 K2
systems along with the load variation.

10
 PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POS)

On completion of the B.E (Electrical and Electronics Engineering) Degree

the Electrical Engineering graduates will be able to
Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,
engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified
needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the
cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based
knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid
conclusions.
Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques,
resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and
modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.
The Engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate
the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a
member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities
with the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make
effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply these to
one's own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in
multidisciplinary environments.
Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability
to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.

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 PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOS)

After successful completion of the B.E degree program, the

graduates will be able to
PSO 1: Analyze the performance of complex interconnected Power
system..
PSO 2: Implement latest technological developments in the field of
Control and Automation
PSO 3:Apply cutting edge technology to trouble shoot Electrical
equipment.
PSO4 : Develop managerial skills to establish Start-up Company in the
field of Engineering and Technology..

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 6. CO- PO/PSO MAPPING

Program
Course Out Comes

Program Outcomes Specific

Level of CO

Outcomes

K3,
K5,
K4
K3

K5

K5

K6

A3

A3
A3

A2

A3

A3

A2

PSO-2

PSO-4
PSO-1

PSO-3
PO-10

PO-11

PO-12
PO-2

PO-9
PO-1

PO-3

PO-4

PO-5

PO-6

PO-7

PO-8
CO1

K2 3 3 2 - - - - - - - - - 2 1 - -
CO2

K3 2 3 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 - -
CO3

K3 2 3 1 - - - - - - - - - 2 1 -
CO4

K2 2 3 2 - - - - - - - - - 2 1 2 -
CO5

K3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - - - 3 2 - -
CO6

K2 3 3 2 - - - - - - - - - 3 2 2 -
CO

3 3 2 - - - - - - - - - 3 2 2 -

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 7

LECTURE PLAN
UNIT I STRUCTURE OF POWER SYSTEM
Structure of Power System – Overhead and Underground systems – Kelvin’s
Law – AC and DC Distributors - Distributed and Concentrated loads-
Interconnection Distributed system - Trends in Transmission and Distribution:

EHVAC, HVDC, FACTS and Smart Grid (Qualitative treatment only).

14
 Lecture Plan

Mode
No. of Propo Actual Pertai Taxono
Sl. of
Topic period sed Lectur ning my
No. Deliver
s Date e Date CO Level
y
Structure of Power 4.1.24 Chalk
1 System – Overhead and 1 CO1 K3
and Talk
Underground systems
7.1.24 PPT
2 Kelvin’s Law 1 CO1 K2

AC and DC Distributors 8.1.24 Chalk

3 Distributed and 1 CO1 K3
and Talk
Concentrated loads
AC and DC Distributors 10.1.24 Chalk
4 Distributed and 1 CO1 K3
and Talk
Concentrated loads
AC and DC Distributors 11.1.24 Chalk
5 Distributed and 1 CO1 K3
and Talk
Concentrated loads
Interconnection 12.1.24 Chalk
6 1 CO1 K3
Distributed system and Talk
Interconnection 22.1.24 Chalk
7 1 CO1 K3
Distributed system and Talk
Trends in Transmission 23.1.24
8 and Distribution: EHVAC 1 CO1 K2 PPT
& HVDC
Trends in Transmission 24.1.24
9 and Distribution: FACTS 1 CO1 K2 PPT
and Smart Grid

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 8

ACTIVITY BASED
LEARNING
1 To install software: MATLAB and write code

2. Hands on : MATLAB Programming (Blooms Taxonomy Level : K4)

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8.Activity based learning-1
Title of activity : Hands on Programming
Topic :DC Distribution system
Time : 30 Minutes

Aim:
A DC 2-wire feeder supplies a constant load with a sending voltage of
220V. Write a Matlab Program to calculate the saving in copper if voltage is
doubled with power transmitted remains the same.

Requirement:

MATLAB software

RESULT: Percentage saving in Copper is=50.0%

Activity based learning-2
Title of activity : Hands on Programming
Topic :DC Distribution system
Time : 30 Minutes

A 2-wire d.c distributor AB is 300 metres long.It is fed at point A.The various
loads and their positions are given below.
# At point distance from A in metres concentrated load in A
# C 40 30
# D 100 40
# E 150 100
# F 250 50
#If the maximum permissible voltage drop is not to exceed 10V,find the cross-
sectional area of the distributor. Take resistivity = 1.78*10^(-8) ohm-m.

PROGRAM
#Given
resistivity = 1.78e-8 #ohm-m
drop_max = 10.0 #V
#loads and their positions
I1 = 30.0 #A
l1 = 40.0 #m
I2 = 40.0 #A
l2 = 100.0 #m
I3 = 100.0 #A
l3 = 150.0 #m
I4 = 50 #A
l4 = 250 #m
#We know that R = resistivity*length/Area
#Also max drop = I1*R1 + I2*R2 + I3*R3 + I4*R4 , using this
area = 2*(I1*l1 + I2*l2 + I3*l3 + I4*l4)*resistivity/drop_max #m^2
area = area*1000000 #cm^2
print 'Cross sectional area of distributor =',area,'cm^2'
 9

LECTURE NOTES

19
 Structure of Power System
The conveyance of electric power from a power station to consumers’ premises is known as
electric supply system.

The electric supply system can be broadly classified into (i) d.c. or a.c. system (ii) overhead or
underground system. Now-adays, 3-phase, 3-wire a.c. system is universally adopted for
generation and transmission of electric power as an economical proposition. However,
distribution of electric power is done by 3-phase, 4-wire a.c. system. The underground system
is more expensive than the overhead system. Therefore, in our country, overhead system is
mostly adopted for transmission and distribution of electric power.

The large network of conductors between the power station and the consumers can be broadly
divided into two parts viz., transmission system and distribution system. Each part can be
further sub-divided into two—primary transmission and secondary transmission and primary
distribution and secondary distribution. Figure shows the layout of a typical a.c. power supply
scheme by a single line diagram

(i) Generating station : In Fig G.S. represents the generating station

where electric power is produced by 3-phase alternators operating in
parallel. The usual generation voltage is 11 kV. For economy in the
transmission of electric power, the generation voltage (i.e., 11 kV) is
stepped upto 132 kV (or more) at the generating station with the help
of 3-phase transformers. The transmission of electric power at high
voltages has several advantages including the saving of conductor
Material and high transmission efficiency. It may appear advisable to
use the highest possible voltage for transmission of electric power to
save conductor material and have other advantages. But there is a
limit to which this voltage can be increased. It is because increase in
transmission voltage introduces insulation problems as well as the cost
of switchgear and transformer equipment is increased. Therefore, the
choice of proper transmission voltage is essentially a question of
economics. Generally the primary transmission is carried at 66 kV, 132
kV, 220 kV or 400 kV.

(ii) Primary transmission: The electric power at 132 kV is

transmitted by 3-phase, 3-wire overhead system to the outskirts of the
city. This forms the primary transmission.

(iii) Secondary transmission: The primary transmission line

terminates at the receiving station (RS) which usually lies at the
outskirts of the city. At the receiving station, the voltage is reduced to
33kV by step-down transformers. From this station, electric power is
transmitted at 33kV by 3-phase, 3-wire overhead system to various
sub-stations (SS) located at the strategic points in the city. This forms
the secondary transmission.
Fig 1 Structure of
Power System
(iv) Primary distribution. The secondary transmission line terminates at the sub-station (SS)
where voltage is reduced from 33 kV to 11kV, 3-phase, 3-wire. The 11 kV lines run along the
important road sides of the city. This forms the primary distribution. It may be noted that big
consumers (having demand more than 50 kW) are generally supplied power at 11 kV for further
handling with their own sub-stations.
(v) Secondary distribution. The electric power from primary distribution line (11 kV) is
delivered to distribution sub-stations (DS). These sub-stations are located near the consumers’
localities and step down the voltage to 400 V, 3-phase, 4-wire for secondary distribution. The
voltage between any two phases is 400 V and between any phase and neutral is 230 V. The
single-phase residential lighting load is connected between any one phase and neutral, whereas
3-phase, 400 V motor load is connected across 3-phase lines directly.

Comparison of D.C. and A.C. Transmission

1. D.C. transmission. For some years past, the transmission of electric power by d.c. has been
receiving the active consideration of engineers due to its numerous advantages.
Advantages.
The high voltage d.c. transmission has the following advantages over high voltage
a.c. transmission :
(i) It requires only two conductors as compared to three for a.c. transmission.
(ii) There is no inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge problems in d.c.
transmission.
(iii) Due to the absence of inductance, the voltage drop in a d.c. transmission line is less than the
a.c. line for the same load and sending end voltage. For this reason, a d.c. transmission line
has better voltage regulation.
(iv) There is no skin effect in a d.c. system. Therefore, entire cross-section of the line conductor
is utilised.
Disadvantages
(i) Electric power cannot be generated at high d.c. voltage due to commutation problems.
(ii) The d.c. voltage cannot be stepped up for transmission of power at high voltages.
(iii) The d.c. switches and circuit breakers have their own limitations.
2. A.C. transmission.
Now-a-days, electrical energy is almost exclusively generated, transmitted and distributed in the
form of a.c.
Advantages
(i) The power can be generated at high voltages.
(ii) The maintenance of a.c. sub-stations is easy and cheaper.
(iii) The a.c. voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by transformers with ease and
efficiency. This permits to transmit power at high voltages and distribute it at safe potentials.
Disadvantages
(i) An a.c. line requires more copper than a d.c. line.
(ii) The construction of a.c. transmission line is more complicated than a d.c. transmission line.
(iii) Due to skin effect in the a.c. system, the effective resistance of the line is increased.
(iv) An a.c. line has capacitance. Therefore, there is a continuous loss of power due to charging
current even when the line is open.
 Advantages of High Transmission Voltage
(i) Reduces volume of conductor material.
(ii) Increases transmission efficiency
(iii) Decreases percentage line drop
Limitations of high transmission voltage.
It might appear advisable to use the highest possible voltage for transmission of power in
a bid to save conductor material.
However, it must be realised that high transmission voltage results in
(i) the increased cost of insulating the conductors
(ii) the increased cost of transformers, switchgear and other terminal apparatus

Overhead and Underground systems

Content Overhead Line Underground Cable
For the overhead (transmission For underground (transmission and
Conductor and distribution) lines, the bare distribution) cable, the insulated
conductor is used. conductor is used.

The size of the conductor

Conductor The size of the conductor
is smaller as compared to the
Size is large due to the coated insulation.
conductor of the overhead cables.

The overhead line has a higher The underground cable has a lesser
Electric Current
current carrying capacity than the current carrying capacity as
Capacity
underground cable. compared to an overhead line.

Voltage It carries a high voltage (near It carries a limited voltage (not more
Capacity about the 400kV). than 66kV).

Overhead lines interfere with Underground cable does not

Interference
communication lines. interfere with communication lines.

Insulation It requires less insulation (only at

It requires more insulation (for
(Types of Insulations use) the contact point of the tower).
coating the whole conductor).

Outage
It requires low maintenance to It requires high maintenance to
Operation
identify the outage location. identify the outage location.

Cost The overhead line is cheaper. The underground cable is expensive.

Very easy to repair and clear the Very difficult to repair and clear the
Fault
fault. fault.

Maintenance The maintenance cost of the The maintenance cost of the

overhead system is high. underground system is low.
Kelvin’s Law
The cost of conductor material is generally a very considerable part of the total
cost of a transmission line. Therefore, the determination of proper size of conductor for
the line is of vital importance. The most economical area of conductor is that for which
the total annual cost of transmission line is minimum*. This is known as Kelvin’s Law after
Lord Kelvin who first stated it in 1881. The total annual cost of transmission line can be
divided broadly into two parts viz., annual charge on capital outlay and annual cost of
energy wasted in the conductor.
(i) Annual charge on capital outlay. This is on account of interest and depreciation on
the capital cost of complete installation of transmission line. In case of overhead system,
it will be the annual interest and depreciation on the capital cost of conductors, supports
and insulators and the cost of their erection. Now, for an overhead line, insulator cost is
constant, the conductor cost is proportional to the area of X-section and the cost of
supports and their erection is partly constant and partly proportional to area of X-section
of the conductor. Therefore, annual charge on an overhead transmission line can be
expressed as
Annual charge = P1 + P2 a (i)

where P1 and P2 are constants and a is the area of X-section of the conductor.
(ii) Annual cost of energy wasted. This is on account of energy lost mainly‡ in the
conductor due to I2R losses. Assuming a constant current in the conductor throughout
the year, the energy lost in the conductor is proportional to resistance. As resistance is
inversely proportional to the area of X section of the conductor, therefore, the energy lost
in the conductor is inversely proportional to area of X-section. Thus, the annual cost of
energy wasted in an overhead transmission line can be expressed as :

Annual cost of energy wasted = P3a (ii)

i.e. Variable part of annual charge = Annual cost of energy wasted Therefore Kelvin’s Law
can also be stated in an another way i.e. the most economical area of conductor is that for
which the variable part* of annual charge is equal to the cost of energy losses per year.

Graphical illustration of Kelvin’s law.

Kelvin’s law can also be illustrated graphically by plotting annual cost against X-sectional
area ‘a’ of the conductor as shown in Fig. In the diagram, the straight line (1) shows the
relation between the annual charge (i.e., P1 + P2a) and the area of X-section a of the
conductor. Similarly, the rectangular hyperbola (2) gives the relation between annual cost
of energy wasted and X-sectional area a. By adding the ordinates of curves (1) and (2),
the curve (3) is obtained. This latter curve shows the relation between total annual cost
(P1 + P2 a + P3a) of transmission line and area of X-section a. The lowest point on the
curve (i.e., point P) represents the most economical area of X-section.

Fig 2. Kelvins Law

Limitations of Kelvin’s law.
Although theoretically Kelvin’s law holds good, there is often considerable difficulty in
applying it to a proposed scheme of power transmission. In practice, the limitations of this
law are :
(i) It is not easy to estimate the energy loss in the line without actual load curves, which
are not
available at the time of estimation.
(ii) The assumption that annual cost on account of interest and depreciation on the capital
outlay is in the form P1 + P2a is strictly speaking not true. For instance, in cables neither
the cost of cable dielectric and sheath nor the cost of laying vary in this manner.
(iii) This law does not take into account several physical factors like safe current density,
mechanical strength, corona loss etc.
(iv) The conductor size determined by this law may not always be practicable one because
it may be too small for the safe carrying of necessary current.
(v) Interest and depreciation on the capital outlay cannot be determined accurately.
 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION:
Electrical distribution systems are an essential part of the electrical power
system. In order to transfer electrical power from an alternating-current or a direct-
current source to the place where it will be used, some type of distribution network
must be utilized. The method used to distribute power from where it is produced to
where it is used can be quite simple. More complex power distribution systems are
used, to transfer electrical power from the power plant to industries, homes, and
commercial buildings. Distribution systems usually employ such equipment as
transformers, circuit breakers, and protective devices. The original electrical
distribution system developed by Thomas Edison was an underground direct current
(DC) system.
In general, the distribution system is the electrical system between the sub-
station fed by the transmission system and the consumer end. It generally consists of
feeders, distributors. The single line diagram of a typical distribution system is shown
in Fig.-5.1. Basically we can say, that part of power system which distributes electric
power for local use is known as distribution system.
That part of power system which distributes electric power for local use is
known as distribution system. In general, the distribution system is the electrical
system between the sub-station fed by the distribution system and the consumer’s
meters. It generally consists of feeders, distributors and the service mains.
(i) Feeders.
A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub-station (or localized generating
station) to the area where power is to be distributed. Generally, no tappings are
taken from the feeder so that current in it remains the same throughout.
The main consideration in the design of a feeder is the current carrying capacity.

Fig 3. Distribution System

(ii) Distributor.
A distributor is a conductor from which tappings are taken for supply
to the consumers. In Fig. AB, BC, CD and DA are the distributors. The current
through a distributor is not constant because tappings are taken at various
places along its length. While designing a distributor, voltage drop along its
length is the main consideration since the statutory limit of voltage variations
is ± 6% of rated value at the consumers’ terminals.
(iii) Service mains.
A service mains is generally a small cable which connects the
distributor to the consumers’ terminals.

CLASSIFICATION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

A distribution system may be classified according to ;
(i) Nature of current.
According to nature of current, distribution system may be classified as
(a) D.C distribution system (b) A.C distribution system.
Now-a-days, A.C system is universally adopted for distribution of electric power as it
is simpler and more economical than direct current method.
(ii)Type of construction.
According to type of construction, distribution system may be classified as
(a) overhead system (b) underground system.
The overhead system is generally employed for distribution as it is 5 to 10 times
cheaper than the equivalent underground system.
In general, the underground system is used at places where overhead construction
is impractical or prohibited by the local laws.
(iii) Scheme of connection.
According to scheme of connection, the distribution system may be classified as (a)
Radial system (b) Ring main system (c) Inter-connected system.
Each scheme has its own advantages and disadvantages
A.C. Distribution
Now-a-days electrical energy is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of
alternating current.
Alternating current is preferred to direct current is the fact that alternating voltage
can be conveniently changed by current means of a transformer.
High distribution and distribution voltages have greatly reduced the current in the
conductors and the resulting line losses.
The A.C distribution system is the electrical system between the step down
substation fed by the distribution system and the consumers’ meters.
The A.C. distribution system is classified into
(i) Primary Distribution System and
(ii) Secondary Distribution System.
i) PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
It is that part of A.C. distribution system which operates at voltages somewhat
higher than general utilization than the average low-voltage consumer uses.
Most commonly used voltages are 11kV, 6.6kV, and 3.3kV.
Primary distribution is carried out by 3-phase, 3-wire system

Fig 4.Typical Primary distribution System

Electric power from the generating station is transmitted at high voltage to the
substation located in or near the city.
At this substation, voltage is stepped down to 11 kV with the help of stepdown
transformer. Power is supplied to various substations for distribution or to big
consumers at this voltage. This forms the high voltage distribution or primary
distribution.
ii) SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
It is that part of AC Distribution System which includes the range of voltages at
which the ultimate consumer utilizes the electrical energy delivered to him.
The secondary distribution employs 400/230 V, 3-phase, 4-wire system.
Fig. shows a typical secondary distribution system.
 Fig 5. Typical Secondary distribution System

The primary distribution circuit delivers power to various substations, called

distribution substations. The substations are situated near the consumers
localities and contain step-down transformers.
At each distribution substation, the voltage is stepped down to 400 V and power
is delivered by 3-phase,4-wire a.c. system. The voltage between any two phases
is 400 V and between any phase and neutral is 230 V.
The single phase domestic loads are connected between any one phase and the
neutral, whereas 3-phase 400 V motor loads are connected across 3- phase lines
directly.
It is a common knowledge that electric power is almost exclusively generated,
transmitted and distributed as A.C. However, for certain applications, D.C. supply is
absolutely necessary.
For instance, D.C. supply is required for the operation of variable speed machinery
(i.e., D.C. motors), for electrochemical work and for congested areas where storage
battery reserves are necessary. For this purpose, A.C. power is converted into D.C.
power at the substation by using converting machinery e.g., mercury arc rectifiers,
rotary converters and motor-generator sets.
The DC Distribution System from the substation may be obtained in the form of
i. Two Wire DC Distribution System
ii. Three Wire DC Distribution System
(i) Two Wire DC Distribution System:
As the name implies, this system of distribution consists of two wires.
One is the outgoing or positive wire and the other is the return or negative wire.
The loads such as lamps, motors etc. are connected in parallel between the two
wires as shown in Fig.
This system is never used for transmission purposes due to low efficiency but may
be employed for distribution of D.C. power.

Fig 6. 2-wire DC distribution System

ii) Three Wire DC Distribution System:

It consists of two outers and a middle or neutral wire which is earthed at the
substation. The voltage between the outers is twice the voltage between either
outer and neutral wire as shown in Fig.

Fig 7. 3-wire DC distribution System

The principal advantage of this system is that it makes available two voltages at the
consumer terminals viz., V between any outer and the neutral and 2V between the
outers.
Loads requiring high voltage (e.g., motors) are connected across the outers,
whereas lamps and heating circuits requiring less voltage are connected between
either outer and the neutral.
The methods of obtaining 3-wire system are discussed in the following
1. Two generator method:
In this method, two shunt wound d.c. generators G1 and G2 are connected in
series and the neutral is obtained from the common point between generators as
shown in Fig. (i).
Each generator supplies the load on its own side. Thus generator G1 supplies a
load current of I1, whereas generator G2 supplies a load current of I2.
The difference of load currents on the two sides, known as out of balance current
(I1 – I2) flows through the neutral wire.
The principal disadvantage of this method is that two separate generators are
required and becomes costly.

Fig 8. 3-wire DC distribution Systems

2. 3-wire D.C. Generator:

The above method is costly on account of the necessity of two gen For this
reason, 3-wire d.c. generator was developed as shown in Fig. (ii).
It consists of a standard 2-wire machine with one or two coils of high reactance
and low resistance, connected permanently to diametrically opposite points of the
armature winding. The neutral wire is obtained from the common point as shown
3. Balancer set:
The 3-wire system can be obtained from 2-wire d.c. system by the use of
balancer set as shown in Fig.
 Fig 9. 3-wire Balancer System
G is the main 2-wire d.c. generator and supplies power to the whole system.
The balancer set consists of two identical d.c shunt machines A and B coupled
mechanically with their armatures and field windings joined in series across the outers.
The junction of their armatures is earthed and neutral wire is taken out from here.
The balancer set has the additional advantage that it maintains the potential difference
on two sides of neutral equal to each other.
COMPARISON OF D.C. AND A.C. DISTRIBUTION
The electric power can be distributed either by means of D.C. or A.C. Each system has its
own merits and demerits
D.C DISTRIBUTION Advantages:
1. It requires only two conductors as compared to three for A.C. distribution.
2. There is no inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge problems in D.C.
distribution.
3. Due to the absence of inductance, the voltage drop in a D.C. distribution line is less
than the A.C. line for the same load and sending end voltage. For this reason, a D.C.
distribution line has better voltage regulation.
4. There is no skin effect in a D.C. system. Therefore, entire cross-section of the line
conductor is utilized.
5. For the same working voltage, the potential stress on the insulation is less in case of
D.C. system than that in A.C. system. Therefore, a D.C. line requires less insulation
6. A D.C. line has less corona loss and reduced interference with communication circuits.
7. The high voltage D.C. distribution is free from the dielectric losses, particularly in
8. In D.C distribution, there are no stability problems and synchronizing difficulties.
Disadvantages
1. Electric power cannot be generated at high D.C. voltage due to commutation
problems.
2. The D.C. voltage cannot be stepped up for distribution of power at high voltages.
3. The D.C. switches and circuit breakers have their own limitations.
A.C DISTRIBUTION
Advantages
The power can be generated at high voltages.
The maintenance of A.C. sub-stations is easy and cheaper.
The A.C. voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by transformers with ease and efficiency.
This permits to transmit power at high voltages and distribute it at safe potentials.
Disadvantages
The construction of A.C distribution line is more complicated than a D.C distribution line.
Due to skin effect in the A.C. system, the effective resistance of the line is increased.
An A.C. line has capacitance. Therefore, there is a continuous loss of power due to charging
current even when the line is open.
An A.C. line requires more copper than a D.C. line.

CONNECTION SCHEMES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

All distribution of electrical energy is done by constant voltage system. In practice, the following
distribution circuits are generally used :

i) RADIAL SYSTEM:
In this system, separate feeders radiate from a single substation and feed the distributors at one end
only. Fig.(i) shows a single line diagram of a radial system for D.C distribution where a feeder OC
supplies a distributor A B at point A

Fig 10 Radial (i) D.C Distribution System (ii) AC Distribution System

Obviously, the distributor is fed at one end only i.e., point A is this case.
Fig. (ii) shows a single line diagram of radial system for A.C distribution. The radial system is
employed only when power is generated at low voltage and the substation is located at the centre
of the load.
This is the simplest distribution circuit and has the lowest initial cost.
However, it suffers from the following drawbacks:
i. The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily loaded.
ii. The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and single distributor. Therefore, any fault on
the feeder or distributor cuts off supply to the consumers who are on the side of the fault away
from the substation.
iii. The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected to serious voltage
fluctuations when the load on the distributor changes. Due to these limitations, this system is
used for short distances only
ii) RING MAIN SYSTEM.
In this system, the primaries of distribution transformers form a loop. The loop
circuit starts from the substation bus-bars, makes a loop through the area to be
served, and returns to the substation.
Fig. shows the single line diagram of ring main system for a.c. distribution where
substation supplies to the closed feeder LMNOPQRS.

Fig 11 a.Ring Main distribution Fg 11b. Interconnected distribution System

System

The distributors are tapped from different points M, O and Q of the feeder
through distribution transformers.
The ring main system has the following advantages:
There are less voltage fluctuations at consumer’s terminals.
The system is very reliable as each distributor is fed via *two feeders. In the
event of fault on any section of the feeder, the continuity of supply is maintained.
For example, suppose that fault occurs at any point F of section SLM of the feeder.
Then section SLM of the feeder can be isolated for repairs and at the same time
continuity of supply is maintained to all the consumers via the feeder SRQPONM

iii) INTERCONNECTED SYSTEM:

When the feeder ring is energized by two or more than two generating stations or
substations, it is called inter-connected system.
Fig. shows the single line diagram of interconnected system where the closed
feeder ring ABCD is supplied by two substations S and S at points D and C
respectively.
Distributors are connected to points O, P, Q and R of the feeder ring through
distribution transformers.
The interconnected system has the following advantages:
i. It increases the service reliability.
ii. Any area fed from one generating station during peak load hours can be
fed from the other generating station. This reduces reserve power capacity
and increases efficiency of the system.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN DC DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
Good voltage regulation of a distribution network is probably the most
important factor responsible for delivering good service to the consumers. For this
purpose, design of feeders and distributors requires careful consideration.

( i) Feeders.

A feeder is designed from the point of view of its current carrying capacity while the
voltage drop consideration is relatively unimportant. It is because voltage drop in a
feeder can be compensated by means of voltage regulating equipment at the
substation.

( ii) Distributors.

A distributor is designed from the point of view of the voltage drop in it. It is
because a distributor supplies power to the consumers and there is a statutory limit
of voltage variations at the consumer’s terminals (± 6% of rated value). The size
and length of the distributor should be such that voltage at the consumer’s terminals
is within the permissible limits

DC DISTRIBUTION CALCULATION:
In DC Distribution Calculation, one important point of interest is the determination of
point of minimum potential on the distributor. The point where it occurs depends
upon the loading conditions and the method of feeding the distributor.
The different methods of feeding a distributor are
i. Feeding at one end
ii. Feeding at both ends with equal voltages
iii. Feeding at both ends with unequal voltages
iv. Feeding at some intermediate point
Nature of loading also varies as
a) Concentrated loading
b) Uniform loading
c) Combination of (a) and (b)

The concentrated loads are those which act on particular points of the
distributor. A common example of such loads is that tapped off for domestic use. On
the other hand, distributed loads are those which act uniformly on all points of the
distributor. Ideally, there are no distributed loads. However, a nearest example of
distributed load is a large number of loads of same wattage connected to the DC
Distribution Calculation at equal distances.
DC DISTRIBUTOR FED AT ONE END — CONCENTRATED
LOADING:

Fig. shows the single line diagram of a 2-wire D.C distributor AB fed at one end A
and having concentrated loads I1, 12, 13 and 14 tapped off at points C, D, E and F
respectively.

Fig 12. 2-wire D.C distributor AB fed at one end A and having concentrated loads

Let r1, r2, r3 and r4 be the resistances of both wires (go and return) of the sections
AC, CD, DE and EF of the distributor respectively.
( a) The current in the various sections of the distributor away from feeding point
goes on decreasing. Thus current in section AC is more than the current in section
CD is more than the current in section DE and current in section DE is more than the
current in section EF.
( b) The voltage across the loads away from the feeding point goes on decreasing.
Thus in Fig. the minimum voltage occurs at the load point E.
( c) In case a fault occurs on any section of the distributor, the whole distributor will
have to be disconnected from the supply mains. Therefore, continuity of supply is
interrupted.
It is easy to see that the minimum potential will occur at point F which is farthest
from the feeding point A.
Steps to Calculate Voltage drop
Fig. shows the single line diagram of a 2-wire D.C distributor AB fed at one end A
and having concentrated loads Ia, Ib, Ic Id and Ie tapped off at points A, B, C, D,
and E respectively.

Fig13. 2-wire D.C distributor AB fed at one end A and having concentrated loads
• The system have concentrated load Ia, Ib, Ic, Id and Ie at load point A,B,C,D
and E respectively.
• The resistance of different section has been shown in the Figure 5.11 above.
• The feeder is fed at point O.
• Let the voltages at different nodes are Va, Vb, Vc, Vd and Ve and the feeder is
fed at the voltage Vo . Hence the voltage drop is given by:
• VDTotal =VDOA + VDAB +VDBC + VDCD + VDDE
Current flowing in sections:
The current flowing in the section ‘OA’ is: Ioa = Ia + Ib + Ic + Id + Ie
The current flowing in the section ‘AB’ is: Iab = Ib + Ic + Id + Ie
The current flowing in the section ‘BC’ is: Ibc = Ic + Id + Ie
The current flowing in the section ‘CD’ is: Icd = Id + Ie
The current flowing in the section ‘DE’ is: Ide = Ie
The total voltage drop therefore, is given by:
VDTotal = IoaRoa + IabRab + IbcRbc + IcdRcd + IdeRde
( a) The current in the various sections of the distributor away from feeding point
goes on decreasing. Thus current in section AC is more than the current in section
CD is more than the current in section DE and current in section DE is more than the
current in section EF.
( b) The voltage across the loads away from the feeding point goes on decreasing.
Thus in Fig. the minimum voltage occurs at the load point E.
( c) In case a fault occurs on any section of the distributor, the whole distributor will
have to be disconnected from the supply mains. Therefore, continuity of supply is
interrupted.
It is easy to see that the minimum potential will occur at point F which is farthest
from the feeding point A.
EXAMPLE-1
What will be the pd at point B if a pd of 300 V is maintained at a point A, for a 2
wire dc distributor cable AB if 2 km long and supplies loads of 100A, 150A, 200A,
and 50A suited at 500m, 1000m, 1600m, and 2000m from the feeding point A. Each
conductor has a resistance of 0.01 Ω per 1000 m. (287.6 V)
Let the voltages at different nodes are Va, Vb, Vc, Vd and Ve and the feeder is fed at
the voltage Vo . Hence the voltage drop is given by:

VDTotal = VDAB +VDBC + VDCD + VDDE

Current flowing in sections:

The current flowing in the section ‘OA’ is: Ioa = Ia + Ib + Ic + Id + Ie =500A

The current flowing in the section ‘AB’ is: Iab = Ib + Ic + Id + Ie =500 A

The current flowing in the section ‘BC’ is: Ibc = Ic + Id + Ie =400 A

The current flowing in the section ‘CD’ is: Icd = Id + Ie =250 A

The current flowing in the section ‘DE’ is: Ide = Ie =50 A

Resistances of the sections:

The resistance of the section ‘AB’ is: Rab =2 x 0.005 Ω= 0.01 Ω

The resistance of the section ‘BC’ is: Rbc = 2 x 0.005 Ω= 0.01 Ω

The resistance of in the section ‘CD’ is: Rcd = 2 x 0.01 Ω x 0.6= 0.012 Ω

The resistance of the section ‘DE’ is: Rde = 2 x 0.01 Ω x 0.4= 0.008 Ω

Voltage Drops in the sections:

The voltage drop in the section ‘AB’ is: Vab = Iab Rab = 500 x 0.01=5 V

The voltage drop in the section ‘BC’ is: Vbc = Ibc Rbc = 400 x 0.01= 4 V

The voltage drop in the section ‘CD’ is: Vcd = Icd Rcd = 250 x 0.012=3 V

The voltage drop in the section ‘DE’ is: Vde = Ide Rde = 50 x 0.008= 0.4 V

The total voltage drop therefore, is given by:

VDTotal = IoaRoa + IabRab + IbcRbc + IcdRcd + IdeRde=

=12.4 V

Voltage at point B= 300V-(5+4+3+0.4)=287.6 V

DISTRIBUTOR FED AT BOTH ENDS — CONCENTRATED LOADING

Whenever possible, it is desirable that a long distributor should be fed at both

ends instead of at one end only, since total voltage drop can be considerably
reduced without increasing the cross-section of the conductor.
The two ends of the distributor may be supplied with
(i) equal voltages
(ii) unequal voltages.
1. TWO ENDS FED WITH EQUAL VOLTAGES:
Consider a distributor AB fed at both ends with equal voltages V volts and having
concentrated loads I1, I2, I3, I4 and I5 at points C, D, E, F and G respectively as
shown in Fig.

As we move away from one of the feeding points, say A, p.d. goes on decreasing till
it reaches the minimum value at some load point, say E, and then again starts rising
and becomes V volts as we reach the other feeding point B.

Fig 14. 2-wire D.C distributor AB fed at both ends having concentrated loads

All the currents tapped off between points A and E (minimum p.d.
point) will be supplied from the feeding point A while those tapped off
between B and E will be supplied from the feeding point B. The current
tapped off at point E itself will be partly supplied from A and partly from B. If
these currents are x and y respectively, then, 𝑰𝟑 = 𝒙 + 𝒚. Therefore, we arrive
at a very important conclusion that at the point of minimum potential, current
comes from both ends of the DC Distribution.
POINT OF MINIMUM POTENTIAL:
It is generally desired to locate the point of minimum potential. There is a
simple method for it. Consider a distributor AB having three concentrated loads I1,
I2 and I3 at points C, D and E respectively.
Suppose that current supplied by feeding end A is IA. Then current
distribution in the various sections of the distributor can be worked out as shown in
Fig.
EXAMPLE-2
A 2 wire dc street mains AB, 600 m long is fed from both ends at 220 V. Loads
of 20 A, 40 A, 50 A and 30 A are tapped at distances 100m, 250m, 400m and
500m from the end A. If the area of cross section of distributor is 1 cm2, what
will be the minimum consumer voltage? If r = 1.7 * 10-6 Ω cm.

The actual distribution of currents in the various sections of the distributor is shown
in Fig. It is clear that currents are coming to load point E from both sides i.e. from
point D and point F. Hence, E is the point of minimum potential.
( ii) Distributor fed at both ends with unequal voltages.
Consider a distributor AB of length l metres having resistance r ohms per metre run
and with a uniform loading of i amperes per metre run as shown in Fig. 5.

Fig 15. 2-wire D.C distributor uniformly loaded fed at both ends with unequal voltages

• Let the distributor be fed from feeding points A and B at voltages VA and VB
respectively.
• Suppose that the point of minimum potential C is situated at a distance x meters
from the feeding point A. Then current supplied by the feeding point A will be * i
x.
• As the distance of C from feeding point B is ( l − x), therefore, current fed from B
is i ( l − x).

As all the quantities on the right hand side of the equation are known, therefore, the
point on the distributor where minimum potential occurs can be calculated.
EXAMPLE-3
A 2-wire d.c. distributor AB is fed from both ends. At feeding point A, the voltage is
maintained as at 230 V and at B 235 V. The total length of the distributor is 200
meters and loads are tapped off as under : 25 A at 50 meters from A ; 50 A at 75
meters from A 30 A at 100 meters from A ; 40 A at 150 meters from A The
resistance per kilometer of one conductor is 0·3 Ω. Calculate (i) currents in various
sections of the distributor (ii) minimum voltage and the point at which it occurs
SOLUTION

The actual distribution of currents in the various sections of the distributor is shown in
Fig. above. It is clear that currents are coming to load point E from both sides i.e.
from point D and point F. Hence, E is the point of minimum potential.
∴ Minimum consumer voltage, VE = VA − [IAC RAC + ICD RCD + IDE RDE
= 220 − [61·7 × 0·034 + 41·7 × 0·051 + 1·7 × 0·051]
= 220 − 4·31 = 215·69 V
UNIFORMLY LOADED DISTRIBUTOR FED AT ONE END:

Fig (a) shows the single line diagram of a 2-wire d.c. distributor AB fed at one end A
and loaded uniformly with i amperes per meter length.

Fig 16. 2-wire D.C distributor uniformly loaded

It means that at every 1 m length of the distributor, the load tapped is i amperes.
Let l meters be the length of the distributor and r ohm be the resistance per meter
run.
Consider a point C on the distributor at a distance x meters from the feeding point A
as shown in Fig. 5.11 (b). Then current at point C is
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑙 − 𝑖𝑥 = 𝑖 𝑙 − 𝑥 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
Now, consider a small length dx near point C. Its resistance is r dx and the voltage
drop over length dx is
dv = 𝑖 𝑟 𝑙 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 volts
Total voltage drop in the distributor up 𝑥to point C is
𝒗 = න 𝑖 𝑟 𝑙 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑥2
𝑣 = 𝑖 𝑟 𝑙𝑥 − 2

The voltage drop up to point B (i.e. over the whole distributor) can be obtained by
putting x = l in the above expression.
Voltage drop over the distributor AB
𝑙2 𝑙2 1 1
= 𝑖 𝑟 𝑙2 − =𝑖𝑟 =2 𝑖𝑙 𝑟𝑙 = 2 𝐼𝑅
2 2
Where
I = 𝒊 𝒍 is the total current entering at point A and
𝑹 = 𝒓 𝒍 is the total resistance of the distributor
Thus, in a uniformly loaded distributor fed at one end, the total voltage drop is equal
to that produced by the whole of the load assumed to be concentrated at the middle
point.
EXAMPLE -4
A 2-wire d.c. distributor 200 meters long is uniformly loaded with 2A/meter. Resistance of
single wire is 0·3 Ω/km. If the distributor is fed at one end, calculate :
(i) the voltage drop up to a distance of 150 m from the feeding point
(ii) the maximum voltage drop
SOLUTION
Current loading, i = 2 A/m
Resistance of distributor per meter run, r = 2 × 0·3/1000 = 0·0006 Ω
Length of distributor, l = 200 m
𝒙𝟐
Voltage drop up to a distance x meters from feeding point 𝒗 = 𝒊 𝒓 𝒍𝒙 − 𝟐
Here, x = 150 m
1502
∴ Desired voltage drop = = 2 × 0.0006 200 × 150 − 2
= 22.5 V
1 1 1
Voltage drop over the distributor AB= 2
𝑖 𝑙 𝑟 𝑙 = 2 𝐼 𝑅= 2
𝐼𝑅
(ii) Total current entering the distributor, I = i × l = 2 × 200 = 400 A
Total resistance of the distributor, R = r × l = 0·0006 × 200 = 0·12 Ω
𝟏
∴ Total drop over the distributor = 𝟐
𝑰 𝑹 = 1/2 × 400 × 0·12 = 24 V

EXAMPLE-5
A 250 m , 2-wire d.c. distributor fed from one end is loaded uniformly at the rate of
1·6 A/metre. The resistance of each conductor is 0·0002 Ω per metre. Find the
voltage necessary at feed point to maintain 250 V (i) at the far end (ii) at the mid-
point of the distributor
SOLUTION.
Current loading, i = 1·6A/m
Current entering the distributor, I = i × l = 1·6 × 250 = 400 A
Resistance of the distributor per metre run r = 2 × 0·0002 = 0·0004 Ω
Total resistance of distributor, R = r × l = 0·0004 × 250 = 0·1 Ω
(i) Voltage drop over the entire distributor = 1/2 I R = 1/2 × 400 × 0·1 = 20 V
∴ Voltage at feeding point = 250 + 20 = 270 V
𝑥2
(ii) Voltage drop upto a distance of x metres from feeding point= 𝑣 = 𝑖 𝑟 𝑙𝑥 − 2
Here x = l/2 = 250/2 = 125 m
∴ Voltage drop = 1·6 × 0·0004 (250 × 125- 1252 /2) = 15 V
∴ Voltage at feeding point = 250 + 15 = 265 V
UNIFORMLY LOADED DISTRIBUTOR FED AT BOTH ENDS

We shall now determine the voltage drop in a uniformly loaded distributor fed at
both ends. There can be two cases viz. the distributor fed at both ends with
( i) equal voltages
( ii) unequal voltages.
The two cases shall be discussed separately.
( i) Distributor fed at both ends with equal voltages.
Consider a distributor A B of length l meters, having resistance r ohms per meter
run and with uniform loading of i amperes per meter run as shown in Fig. .

Fig17. 2-wire D.C distributor uniformly loaded fed at both ends

Let the distributor be fed at the feeding points A and B at equal voltages, say V
volts. The total current supplied to the distributor is i l. As the two end voltages are
equal, therefore, current supplied from each feeding point is i l/2 i.e. Current
supplied from each feeding point
𝒊𝒍
=
𝟐
Consider a point C at a distance x meters from the feeding point A. Then current at
point C is
𝒊𝒍 𝒍
( 𝟐 − 𝒊𝒙) = i (𝟐 − 𝒙)
Now, consider a small length dx near point C. Its resistance is r dx and the voltage
drop over length dx is

Obviously, the point of minimum potential will be the mid-point. Therefore,

maximum voltage drop will occur at mid-point i.e. where x = l/2.
( ii) Distributor fed at both ends with unequal voltages.
Consider a distributor AB of length l meters having resistance r ohms per meter run
and with a uniform loading of i amperes per meter run as shown in Fig.

Fig 18. 2-wire D.C distributor uniformly loaded fed at both ends with unequal voltages

Let the distributor be fed from feeding points A and B at voltages VA and VB
respectively. Suppose that the point of minimum potential C is situated at a distance
x meters from the feeding point A. Then current supplied by the feeding point A will
be ix.As the distance of C from feeding point B is (l − x), therefore, current fed from
B is i( l − x).

As all the quantities on the right hand side of the equation are known, therefore, the
point on the distributor where minimum potential occurs can be calculated.
EXAMPLE-6
A two-wire d.c. distributor cable 1000 metres long is loaded with 0·5 A/metre.
Resistance of each conductor is 0·05 Ω/km. Calculate the maximum voltage drop if
the distributor is fed from both ends with equal voltages of 220 V. What is the
minimum voltage and where it occurs ?

SOLUTION

Current loading, i = 0·5 A/m

Resistance of distributor/m, r = 2 × 0·05/1000 = 0·1 × 10−3 Ω

Length of distributor, l = 1000 m

Total current supplied by distributor, I = i l = 0·5 × 1000 = 500 A

Total resistance of the distributor, R = r l = 0·1 × 10−3 × 1000 = 0·1 Ω

Max. voltage drop = I R/ 8 =500 × 0.1 /8 = 6·25 V

Minimum voltage will occur at the mid-point of the distributor and its value is

= 220 − 6·25 = 213·75 V

Exercise Problem
A 2-wire d.c. distributor AB 500 meters long is fed from both ends and is loaded
uniformly at the rate of 1·0 A/meter. At feeding point A, the voltage is maintained at
255 V and at B at 250 V. If the resistance of each conductor is 0·1 Ω per kilometer,
determine : (i) the minimum voltage and the point where it occurs (ii) the currents
supplied from feeding points A and B
EXAMPLE-8

A 800 meters 2-wire d.c. distributor AB fed from both ends is uniformly loaded at
the rate of 1·25 A/meter run. Calculate the voltage at the feeding points A and B if
the minimum potential of 220 V occurs at point C at a distance of 450 meters from
the end A. Resistance of each conductor is 0·05 Ω/km
SOLUTION
Current loading, i = 1·25 A/m
Resistance of distributor/m, r = 2 × 0·05/1000
= 0·0001 Ω
Voltage at C, VC = 220 V
Length of distributor, l = 800 m
Distance of point C from A, x = 450 m
i r 𝑋 2 1.25𝑋0.0001(4502 )
Voltage drop in section AC = 2 = = 12·65 V
2
∴ Voltage at feeding point A, VA = 220 + 12·65 = 232·65 V
i r (𝑙−𝑥)2 1.25𝑋0.0001(800−450)2)
Voltage drop in section BC = = =7.65 V
2 2
Voltage at feeding point B, VB = 220 + 7·65 = 227·65 V
EXAMPLE -9
(i) A uniformly loaded distributor is fed at the center. Show that maximum voltage
drop = I R/8 where I is the total current fed to the distributor and R is the total
resistance of the distributor.
(ii) A 2-wire d.c. distributor 1000 meters long is fed at the center and is loaded
uniformly at the rate of 1·25 A/meter. If the resistance of each conductor is 0·05
Ω/km, find the maximum voltage drop in the distributor

Fig. above shows distributor AB fed at centre C and uniformly loaded with i amperes/metre.
Let l metres be the length of the distributor and r ohms be the resistance per metre run.
Obviously, maximum voltage drop will occur at either end.
∴ Max. voltage drop = Voltage drop in half distributor
1 𝑖𝑙 𝑟 𝑙 1 1
=2 2 2
= 8(i l) (r l) =8IR
Where i l = I, the total current fed to the distributor
r l = R, the total resistance of the distributor
(ii) Total current fed to the distributor is I = i l = 1·25 × 1000 = 1250 A
Total resistance of the distributor is R = r l = 2 × 0·05 × 1 = 0·1 Ω
1 1
Max. voltage drop = I R= × 1250 0 1 = 15.62 V
8 8

EXAMPLE-10 (Distributor with Both Concentrated and Uniform

Loading)
A 2-wire d.c. distributor AB, 900 meters long is fed at A at 400 V and loads of 50 A, 100 A
and 150 A are tapped off from C, D and E which are at a distance of 200 m, 500 m and 800 m
from point A respectively. The distributor is also loaded uniformly at the rate of 0.5 A/m. If
the resistance of distributor per meter (go and return) is 0.0001 Ω, calculate voltage (i) at
point B and (ii) at point D.

SOLUTION.
This problem can be solved in two stages.
First, the drop at any point due to concentrated loading is found. To this is added
the voltage drop due to uniform loading.
1. Drops due to concentrated loads.
Figure shows only the concentrated loads tapped off from the various points.
The currents in the various sections are :
IAC = 300 A ; ICD = 250 A ; IDE = 150 A
Drop in section AC = IAC RAC = 300 × (200 × 0·0001) = 6 V
Drop in section CD = 250 × (300 × 0·0001) = 7·5 V
Drop in section DE = 150 × (300 × 0·0001) = 4·5 V
Total drop over AB = 6 + 7·5 + 4·5 = 18 V
2. Drops due to uniform loading
𝑖 𝑟 𝑙2 0.5 𝑥 0.0001 𝑥 (900)2
Drop over AB = = =20.25 V
2 2
Drop over AD =
l = 900 m ; x = 500 m
∴ Drop over AD = 0·5 × 0·0001 (900 x 500- 500 2 /2) = 16·25 V
(i) Voltage at point B = VA − Drop over AB due to conc. and uniform loadings
= 400 − (18 + 20·25) = 361·75 V
(ii) Voltage at point D = VA − Drop over AD due to conc. and uniform loadings
= 400 − (6 + 7·5 + 16·25) = 370·25 V
EXAMPLE PROBLEM: 11

CONCENTRATED AND UNIFORM LOADING WITH DISTRIBUTOR

FED AT ONE END
Such cases are solved in two stages. First, the drop at any point due to concentrated
loading is found. To this add the voltage drop due to uniform loading as calculated from
the relation.
Example : A 2-wire distributor 500 meters long is fed at P at 250 V and loads of 40A,
20A, 60A, 30A are tapped off from points A, B, C and D which are at distances of 100
meters, 150 meters, 300 meters and 400 meters from P respectively. The distributor is
also uniformly loaded at the rate of 0.1 A/m. If the resistance of the distributor per
meter (go and return) is Ω, calculate the voltage at (i) point Q and (ii) point B.
Solution. First, consider drop due to concentrated load only.
Drop in PA = 150 × (100 × ) = 7.5 V
Drop in AB = 110 × (50 × ) = 2.75 V
Drop in BC = 90 × (150 × ) = 6.75 V
Drop in CD = 30 × (100 × ) = 1.5 V
∴ total drop due to this load = 18.5 V
Now, let us consider drop due to uniform load only.
RING DISTRIBUTOR
A distributor arranged to form a closed loop and fed at one or more points
is called a ring distributor. Such a distributor starts from one point, makes a loop
through the area to be served, and returns to the original point. For the purpose of
calculating voltage distribution, the distributor can be considered as consisting of a
series of open distributors fed at both ends. The principal advantage of ring
distributor is that by proper choice in the number of feeding points, great economy
in copper can be affected. The most simple case of a ring distributor is the one
having only one feeding point as shown in Fig.

Fig 19. Ring distributor

• The feeder in the ring fashion is divided into number of sections as AB, BC, CD,
DE and EA.
• The various distributors are connected at A, B, C, D and E. Each distributor is
supplied by the two feeders and hence the design is similar to the two feeders in
parallel on different paths.
• Hence if there is any fault on any part of the feeder, still the consumers will keep
on getting the continuous supply. For example, if the fault occurs at point P in the
section AB of the feeder can be isolated and repaired.
• The feeder can be fed at one or more feeding points.
• Thus the disadvantages of radial system are eliminated in this system.
• The great saving in copper is another major advantage of the ring main system.
RING DISTRIBUTOR-EXAMPLE 12

A 400-metre ring distributor has loads as shown in Fig. where distances are in
meters. The resistance of each conductor is 0.2 Ω per 1,000 meters and the
loads tapped off at points B, C and D are as shown. If the distributor is fed at A,
find voltages at B,C and D.

Solution. Let us assume a current of I in section AD [Fig. (a)] and then find the total
drop which should be equated to zero.
∴ 70 I + 90 (I − 50) + 80 (I − 120) + 60 (I − 220) = 0
∴ 300 I = 27,300 or I = 91 A.
The current distribution becomes as shown in Fig. (b) from where it is seen that C is
the point of minimum potential.
Drop in AD = 2(91 × 70 × 0.2/1,000) = 2.55 V
Drop in DC = 2(41 × 90 × 0.2/1,000) = 1.48 V
Drop in CB = 2(29 × 80 × 0.2/1,000) = 0.93 V
Drop in BA = 2(129 × 60 × 0.2/1,000) = 3.1 V
Voltage at D = 240 − 2.55 = V
Voltage at C = − 1.48 = V
Voltage at B = 240 − 3.1 = V
RING MAIN DISTRIBUTOR WITH INTERCONNECTOR

Sometimes a ring distributor has to serve a large area. In such a case, voltage drops
in the various sections of the distributor may become excessive. In order to reduce
voltage drops in various sections, distant points of the distributor are joined through
a conductor called interconnector.

Fig. shows the ring distributor ABCDEA

Fig 20 . Ring main Distribution with interconnector

The points B and D of the ring distributor are joined through an interconnector BD.

There are several methods for solving such a network. However, the solution of such
a network can be readily obtained by applying Thevenin’s theorem. The steps of
procedure are :

(i) Consider the interconnector BD to be disconnected [See Fig. (i)] and find
the potential difference between B and D. This gives Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit voltage E0.

(ii) Next, calculate the resistance viewed from points B and D of the network
composed of distribution lines only. This gives Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
series resistance R0.

(iii) If RBD is the resistance of the interconnector BD, then Thevenin’s

equivalent circuit will be as shown in Fig. (ii).

𝐸0
∴ Current in interconnector BD =
𝑅0 +𝑅𝐵𝐷

Therefore, current distribution in each section and the voltage of load points can be
calculated
A d.c. ring main ABCDA is fed from point A from a 250 V supply and the resistances
(including both lead and return) of various sections are as follows :
AB = 0·02 Ω ; BC = 0·018 Ω ; CD = 0·025 Ω and DA = 0·02 Ω.
The main supplies loads of 150 A at B ; 300 A at C and 250 A at D. Determine the
voltage at each load point. If the points A and C are linked through an
interconnector of resistance 0·02 Ω, determine the new voltage at each load point
SOLUTION
Without Interconnector. Fig. (i) shows the ring distributor without interconnector. Let
us suppose that a current I flows in section AB of the distributor. Then currents in
various sections of the distributor will be as shown in Fig (i)

According to Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the voltage drop in the closed loop ABCDA is
zero i.e.

or 0·02I + 0·018 (I − 150) + 0·025 (I − 450) + 0·02 (I − 700) = 0

or 0·083 I = 27·95
∴ I = 27·95/0·083 = 336·75 A
The actual distribution of currents is as shown in Fig. (ii).
Voltage drop in AB = 336·75 × 0·02 = 6·735 V
Voltage drop in BC = 186·75 × 0·018 = 3·361 V
Voltage drop in CD = 113·25 × 0·025 = 2·831 V
Voltage drop in DA = 363·25 × 0·02 = 7·265 V
∴ Voltage at point B = 250 − 6·735 = 243·265 V
Voltage at point C = 243·265 − 3·361 = 239·904 V
Voltage at point D = 239·904 + 2·831 = 242·735 V
With Interconnector. Fig. (i) shows the ring distributor with interconnector AC.

The current in the interconnector can be found by applying Thevenin’s

theorem. E0 = Voltage between points A and C = 250 − 239·904 = 10·096 V
R0 = Resistance viewed from points A and C

RAC = Resistance of interconnector = 0·02 Ω

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. (ii).
Current in interconnector AC

Let us suppose that current in section AB is I1.

Then current in section BC will be I1 − 150.
As the voltage drop round the closed mesh ABCA is zero,
∴ 0·02 I1 + 0·018 (I1 − 150) − 0·02 × 252·4 = 0
or 0·038 I1 = 7·748
∴ I1 = 7·748/0·038 = 203·15 A
The actual distribution of currents in the ring distributor with interconnector
will be as shown in Fig..
Drop in AB = 203·15 × 0·02 = 4·063 V
Drop in BC = 53·15 × 0·018 = 0·960 V
Drop in AD = 244·45 × 0·02 = 4·9 V
∴ Potential of B = 250 − 4·063 = 245·93 V
Potential of C = 245·93 − 0·96 = 244·97 V
Potential of D = 250 − 4·9 = 245·1 V
It may be seen that with the use of interconnector, the voltage drops in the
various sections of the distributor are reduced.
VOLTAGE DROP AND TRANSMISSION EFFICIENCY
For calculating the total voltage drop along the entire length of a distributor, following
information is necessary.
• value of current tapped at each load point
• the resistance of each section of the distributor between tapped points
Example :
A DC 2-wire feeder supplies a constant load with a sending-end voltage of 220 V. Calculate
the saving in copper if this voltage is doubled with power transmitted remaining the same.

Solution.
Let l = length of each conductor in meter
σ = current density in A/m2
P = power supplied in watts

EXERCISE PROBLEMS
Consider the case of a 2- wire feeder . AB is the sending end and CD the receiving end.
Obviously, the p.d. at AB is higher than at CD. The difference in potential at the two ends is
the potential drop or ‘drop’ in the cable
Suppose the transmitting voltage is 250 V , current in AC is 10 amperes and resistance of
each feeder conductor is 0.5 Ω, then drop in each feeder conductor is 10 × 0.5 = 5 volt and
drop in both feeder conductor is 5 × 2 = 10 V
P.d. at Receiving end CD is = 250 − 10 = 240 V
Input power at AB = 250 × 10 = 2,500 W
Output power at CD = 240 × 10 = 2,400 W
∴ power lost in two feeders = 2,500 − 2,400 = 100W
The above power loss could also be found by using the formula
Power loss = R = 2 × 102 × 0.5 = 100 W
efficiency of transmission =In the present case,
power delivered by the feeder is = 2500 W and
power received by it as 2400 W.
η= 2400 × 100/2500 = 96%
AC DISTRIBUTION CALCULATIONS:

AC Distribution Calculations differ from those of D.C. distribution in the following

respects:
• In case of D.C. system, the voltage drop is due to resistance alone.
However, in A.C. system, the voltage drops are due to the combined effects
of resistance, inductance and capacitance.
• In a D.C. system, additions and subtractions of currents or voltages are done
arithmetically but in case of A.C. system, these operations are done
vectorially.
• In an A.C. system, power factor (p.f.) has to be taken into account. Loads
tapped off form the distributor are generally at different power factors.
• There are two ways of referring power factor viz
• It may be referred to supply or receiving end voltage which is regarded as
the reference
• It may be referred to the voltage at the load point itself.

There are several ways of solving AC Distribution Calculations. However,

symbolic notation method has been found to be most convenient for this purpose. In
this method, voltages, currents and impedances are expressed in complex notation
and the calculations are made exactly as in D.C. distribution.

Methods of Solving AC Distribution Problems:

In AC Distribution Calculations, power factors of various load currents

have to be considered since currents in different sections of the distributor will be
the vector sum of load currents and not the arithmetic sum.

The power factors of load currents may be given

• (i) w.r t. receiving or sending end voltage or
• (ii) w.r.t. to load voltage itself. Each case shall be discussed separately.

(i) Power Factors Referred To Receiving End Voltage:

Consider an a.c. distributor AB with concentrated loads of I1 and I2

tapped off at points C and B as shown in Fig. 14.1. Taking the receiving end voltage
VB as the reference vector, let lagging power factors at C and B be cos Φ1 and cos
Φ2 w.r.t. VB. Let R1,X1 and R2,X2 be the resistance and reactance of sections AC
and CB of the distributor
 Fig 21. 2-wire A.C distributor uniformly loaded fed at one end

The vector diagram of the a.c. distributor under these conditions is shown in Fig. Here,
the receiving end voltage VB is taken as the reference vector. As power factors of
loads are given w.r.t. VB , therefore, I1 and I2 lag behind VB by φ1 and
φ2 respectively.

Fig 22. Vector diagram of A.C distributor uniformly loaded fed at one end
( ii) Power factors referred to respective load voltages.

Suppose the power factors of loads in the previous Fig. are referred to their
respective load voltages. Then φ1 is the phase angle between VC and I1and φ2 is
the phase angle between VB and I2 . The vector diagram under these conditions is
shown in Fig 5.20

Fig 23. Vector diagram of A.C distributor uniformly loaded fed at one end
EXAMPLE PROBLEM-14

A 2-wire a.c. feeder 1 km long supplies a load of 100 A at 0.8 p.f. lag 200
volts at its far end and a load of 60 A at 0.9 p.f. lag at its mid-point. The
resistance and reactance per km (lead and return) are 0.06 ohm and 0.08
ohm respectively. Calculate the voltage drop along the distributor from
sending end to mid-point and from mid-point to far end.
SOLUTION
Fig.shows the feeder AC 1 km long having B as its mid-point and A as
its sending-end point.

Let the voltage of point C be taken as reference voltage.

VC = 200 + j 0,
IC = 100(0.8 – j 0.6) = (80 – j 60) A

Loop impedance of feeder BC (lead and return) = (0.06 + j 0.08)/2 = (0.03 + j

0.04) ohm
Voltage drop in BC = (80 − j 60) (0.03 + j 0.04) = (4.8 + j1.4) V
∴ VB = 200 + 4.8 + j 1.4 = (204.8 + j 1.4) V

Current IB = 60 (0.9 − j 0.4357)

= (54 − j 26.14) A
Current in feeder AB i.e.

IAB = IC + IB = (80 − j 60) + (54 − j 26.14) = (134 − j 86.14) A

Drop in section AB = (134 − j 86.14) (0.03 + j 0.04)
= (7.46 + j 2.78) V

Voltage drop from point A to point B

= (7.46 + j 2.78) V
EXAMPLE PROBLEM-15

1. A single-phase a.c. distributor 500 m long has a total impedance of (0.02 + j

0.04) Ω and is fed from one end at 250V. It is loaded as under :
(i) 50 A at unity power factor 200 m from feeding point.
(ii) 100 A at 0.8 p.f. lagging 300 m from feeding point.
(iii) 50 A at 0.6 p.f. lagging at the far end.
Calculate the total voltage drop and voltage at the far end.
First Method
Current in section AD (Fig.) is the vector sum of the three load currents.
∴ current in AD = 50 + 100 (0.8 − j 0.6) + 50 (0.6 − j 0.8) = 160 − j100
Impedance of section AD = (200/500) (0.02 + j 0.04) = (0.008 + j 0.016) W
II) Second Method
We will split the currents into their active and reactive components as under
: 50 × 1 = 50 A ; 100 × 0.8 = 80 A;
50 × 0.6 = 30 A
These are shown in(a).
The reactive or wattless components are 50 × 0 = 0 ; 100 × 0.6 = 60 A ; 50 × 0.8 = 40 A
These are shown in Fig.(b).

The resistances and reactance's are shown in their respective figures.

Drops due to active components of currents are given by taking moments
= 50 × 0.008 + 80 × 0.012 + 30 × 0.02
= 1.96 V
Drops due to reactive components
= 60 × 0.024 + 40 × 0.04
= 3.04
Total drop = 1.96 + 3.04
=5V
This is approximately the same as before.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM-16
A single-phase distributor, one km long has resistance and reactance per conductor of 0.2 Ω
and 0.3 Ω respectively. At the far end, the voltage VB = 240 V and the current is 100 A at a
power factor of 0.8 lag. At the mid-point A of the distributor current of 100 A is tapped at a
power factor of 0.6 lag with reference to the voltage VA at the mid-point. Calculate the supply
voltage VS for the distributor and the phase angle between VS and VB.
SOLUTION
As shown in Fig.(a), let SB be the distributor with A as the mid point.

Total impedance of the distributor is = (0.4 + j 0.6) Ω.

Let the voltage VB at point B be taken as the reference voltage.
∴ VB = (240 + j 0)V ; IB = 100 (0.8 − j 0.6) = 80 − j 60
A Drop in section AB = (80 − j 60) (0.2 + j 0.3) = (34 + j12) V
VA = VB + drop over AB = (240 + j 0) + (34 + j12) = (274 + j12) V
The phase difference between VA and VB is = tan–1 (12/274) = 2°30′
The load current IA has lagging power factor of 0.6 with respect to VA. It lags VA by an angle
φ = cos –1(0.6) = 53°8′
Hence, it lags behind VB by an angle of (53°8′ − 2°30′) = 50°38′ as shown in the vector
diagram of Fig.(b).

IA = 100 (cos 50°38′ − jsin 50°38′) = (63.4 − j77.3) A

I = IA + IB = (80 − j 60) + (63.4 − j77.3) = (143.4 − j137.3)
A Drop in section SA = (143.4 − j137.3) (0.2 + j 0.3) = (69.87 + j 15.56)
VS = VA + drop in section SA = (274 + j12) + (69.87 + j15.56)
= 343.9 + j 27.6 = 345 ∠5°28′ V
Hence, supply voltage is 345 V and lead VB by 5°28′
EXAMPLE PROBLEM-17

A 1-phase ring distributor ABC is fed at A. The loads at B and C are 20 A at 0.8 p.f. lagging
and 15 A at 0.6 p.f. lagging respectively, both expressed with reference to voltage at A. The
total impedances of the sections AB, BC and CA are (1 + j1), (1 + j2) and (1 + j3) ohm
respectively. Find the total current fed at A and the current in each section.
SOLUTION
Thevenin’s theorem will be used to solve this problem. The ring distributor is shown in
Fig.(a). Imagine feeder BC to be removed [Fig. (b)].

Current in A B = 20(0.8 − j0.6) = (16 − j12) A

Current in section AC = 15(0.6 − j0.8) = (9 − j12)A
Drop over AB = (16 − j12)(1 + j1) = (28 + j 4) V
Drop over AC = (9 − j12)(1 + j 3) = (45 + j15)V
Obviously, point C is at a lower potential as compared to point B.
p.d. between B and C = (45 + j15) − (28 + j 4) = (17 + j11) V
Impedance of the network as looked into from points B and C is = (1 + j1) + (1 + j
3) = (2 + j4)Ω..
The equivalent Thevenin’s source is shown in Fig.(c) with feeder BC connected
across it.

Current in A B = (16 − j12) + (2.6 − j1.53) = 18.6 − j 13.53 = 23 ∠− 36° A

Current in BC = (9 − j12) − (2.6 − j1.53) = 6.4 − j11.5 = 13.2 ∠− 60.9° A
Total current fed at point A = (16 − j12) + (9 − j12) = 25 − j24 = 34.6 ∠− 43.8°
EXAMPLE PROBLEM-18

A 3-phase ring main ABCD, fed from end A, supplies balanced loads of 50 A at 0.8
p.f. lagging at B, 120 A at u.p.f. at C and 70 A at 0.866 p.f. lagging at D, the load
currents being referred to the voltage at point A. The impedance per phase of the
various line sections are :
section AB = (1 + j0.6) Ω ;
section BC = (1.2 + j0.9) Ω
section CD = (0.8 + j0.5) Ω ;
section DA = (3 + j2) Ω
Determine the currents in the various sections.
SOLUTION:
One phase of the ring main is shown in Fig. Let the current in section A B = (x + jy)

Current in BC = (x + jy) − 50(0.8 − j0.6) = (x − 40) + j(y + 30)

Current in CD = (x − 40) + j(y + 30) − (120 + j0) = (x − 160) + j(y + 30)
Current in DA = (x − 160) + j(y + 30) − 70(0.866 − j0.5) = (x − 220.6) + j(y + 65)
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the closed loop ABCDA, we have

Since the real (or active) and imaginary (or reactive) parts have to be separately
zero.
∴ 6x − 4y + 1009.8 = 0 and 4x + 6y − 302.2 = 0
Solving for x and y, we get x = 139.7 and y = −42.8
∴ Current in section AB = (139.7 − j42.8) A
Current in section BC = (139.7 − 40) + j(− 42.8 + 30) = (99.7 − j 12.8) A
Current in section CD = (139.7 − 160) + j(− 42.8 + 30) = (− 20.3 − j 12.8) A
Current in section DA = (139.7 − 220.6) + j(− 42.8 + 65) = (− 80.9 + j 22.2)
EXAMPLE PROBLEM-19
A total load of 12,000 kW at a power factor of 0.8 lagging is transmitted to a
substation by two overhead three-phase lines connected in parallel. One line has a
conductor resistance of 2 Ω per conductor and reactance (line to neutral) of 1.5 Ω,
the corresponding values for the other line being 1.5 and 1.2 Ω respectively.
Calculate the power transmitted by each overhead line.
SOLUTION
Let us assume a line voltage of 1000 kV for convenience. Z1 = (2 + j1.5); Z2 = (1.5
+ j1.2) Ω Total load current I = 12,000/√3 × 1000 × 0.8 = 8.66 A Taking voltage
along reference vector, we have I = 8.66 (0.8 − j0.6)

∴ power transmitted by 1st line IS

As a check, total power = 5,280 + 6,720 = 12,000 kW

Distribution Loss
Power generated in power stations pass through large and complex networks like transformers,
overhead lines, cables and other equipment and reaches at the end users.
It is fact that the unit of electric energy generated by Power Station does not match with the units
distributed to the consumers. Some percentage of the units is lost in the distribution network.
This difference in the generated and distributed units is known as Transmission and Distribution
loss. Transmission and Distribution loss are the amounts that are not paid for by users.
T&D Losses = (Energy Input to feeder (Kwh) – Billed Energy to Consumer (Kwh)) / Energy Input
kwh x 100
There are two types of Transmission and Distribution Losses:
1.Technical Losses
2.Non Technical Losses
1. Technical Losses
The technical losses are due to energy dissipated in the conductors, equipment used
for transmission line, transformer, subtransmission line and distribution line and magnetic losses in
transformers.
Technical losses are normally 22.5%, and directly depend on the network characteristics and the
mode of operation.
The major amount of losses in a power system is in primary and secondary distribution lines. While
transmission and sub-transmission lines account for only about 30% of the total losses. Therefore
the primary and secondary distribution systems must be properly planned to ensure within limits.
• The unexpected load increase was reflected in the increase of technical losses above the normal
level
• Losses are inherent to the distribution of electricity and cannot be eliminated

1. Permanent / Fixed Technical losses

• Fixed losses do not vary according to current. These losses take the form of heat and noise and
occur as long as a transformer is energized
• Between 1/4 and 1/3 of technical losses on distribution networks are fixed losses. Fixed losses on
a network can be influenced in the ways set out below
• Corona Losses
• Leakage Current Losses
• Dielectric Losses
• Open-circuit Losses
• Losses caused by continuous load of measuring elements
• Losses caused by continuous load of control elements
2. Variable Technical losses
Variable losses vary with the amount of electricity distributed and are, more precisely,
proportional to the square of the current. Consequently, a 1% increase in current leads to an
increase in losses of more than 1%.
• Between 2/3 and 3/4 of technical (or physical) losses on distribution networks are variable
Losses.
• By increasing the cross sectional area of lines and cables for a given load, losses will fall. This
leads to a direct trade-off between cost of losses and cost of capital expenditure. It has been
suggested that optimal average utilization rate on a distribution network that considers the cost
of losses in its design could be as low as 30 per cent.
• Joule losses in lines in each voltage level
• Impedance losses
• Losses caused by contact resistance.
Main Reasons for Technical Losses
1. Lengthy Distribution lines
2. Inadequate Size of Conductors of Distribution lines
3. Installation of Distribution transformers away from load centers
4. Low Power Factor of Primary and secondary distribution system
5. Bad Workmanship
6. Feeder Phase Current and Load Balancing>
7. Load Factor Effect on Losses
8. Transformer Sizing and Selection
9. Balancing 3 phase loads
10. Switching off transformers
11. Other Reasons for Technical Losses
• Unequal load distribution among three phases in L.T system causing high neutral
currents.
• leaking and loss of power
• Over loading of lines.
• Abnormal operating conditions at which power and distribution transformers are
operated
• Low voltages at consumer terminals causing higher drawl of currents by inductive
loads.
• Poor quality of equipment used in agricultural pumping in rural areas, cooler air-
conditioners and industrial loads in urban areas.
Trends in Transmission and Distribution:
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS)

The electric power supply systems of whole world are interconnected,

involving connections inside the utilities, own territories with external to inter-

utility, internationals to inter regional and then international connections. This is

done for economic reasons, to reduce the cost of electricity and to improve

reliability of power supply. We need the interconnections to pool power plants

and load centers in order to minimize the total power generation capacity and

fuel cost. Transmission lines interconnections enable to supply, electricity to the

loads at minimized cost with a required reliability. The FACTS Technology is

adopted in the transmissions to enhance grid reliability and to over come the

practical difficulties which occur in mechanical

The FACTS Technology has opened a new opportunity to the

transmission planner for controlling power and enhancing the useable capacity

presently, also to upgrade the transmission lines. The current through the line

can be controlled at a reasonable cost which enables a large potential of

increasing the capacity of existing lines with large conductors and by the use of

FACTS controllers the power flow through the lines is maintained stable. The

FACTS controllers control the parameters governing the operation of

transmission systems, such as series impedance, shunt impedance, current,

voltage, phase angle and damping of oscillations at various frequencies below

the rated frequency.

TYPES OF FACTS CONTROLLERS
In general FACTS controllers can be classified into four categories.
Series controllers
Shunt controllers
Combined series-series controllers
Combined series-shunt controllers

Fig 24. Types of Facts Controllers

 Fig (a) shows the general symbol for FACTS controller; with a thyristor
arrow inside a box. Fig (b) shows the series controller could be variable impedance,
such as capacitor, reactor etc. or it is a power electronics based variable source of
main frequency sub- synchronous frequency and harmonics frequencies or
combination of all to serve the desired need. The principle of series controller is to
inject the voltage in series with the line. Even variable impedance multiplied by the
current flow through it, represents an injected series voltage in the line. So long as
the voltage is in phase quadrature with the line current, the series controller supplies
or consumes variable reactive power. If any other phase relation involves it will handle
the real power also.
Fig (c) shows the shunt controllers. As series controller, the shunt controller
also has variable impedance, variable source, or a combination of all. The principle of
shunt controller is to inject current into the system at the point of connection. Even
variable shunt impedance connected to the line voltage causes a variable current flow
and hence represents injection of current into the line. As long as the injected current
is in phase quadrature with the line voltage. The shunt controller supplies or
consumes variable reactive power. If any other phase relationship involves, it will also
handle real power.
Fig (d) shows the combination of two separate series controllers, which are
controlled in a coordinated manner, in a multi line transmission system. Other wise it
could be unified controller. As shown in Fig (d) the series controllers provide
independent series reactive compensation for each line and also transfer the real
power among the lines via the unified series-series controller, referred to as inter-line
power flow controller, which makes it possible to balance both the real and reactive
power flow in the lines and thereby maximizing the utilization of transmission system.
Note that the term “unified” here means that the D.C terminals of all controller
converters are connected together for real power transfer.
Fig (e & f) shows the combined series-shunt controllers. This could be a
combination of separate shunt and series controllers, which are controlled in
coordinated manner in Fig (e) or a unified power flow controller with series and shunt
elements in Fig (f). The principle of combined shunt and series controllers is, it injects
current into the system with the shunt part of the controller and voltage through
series part. However, when the shunt and series controllers are unified, there can be a
real power exchange between the series and shunt controllers via the power link
BENEFITS FROM FACTS CONTROLLER
• Control of power flow is in order, meet the utilities, own needs, ensure optimum
power flow, and ride through emergency conditions or a combination of all.
• Increase the loading capability of lines to their thermal capabilities, including short
term and seasonal, this can be done by overcoming other limitations and sharing of
power among lines according to their capability
• Increase the system security through raising the transient stability limit, limiting
short circuit currents and over loads, managing cascading black-outs and damping
electro-mechanical oscillations of power systems and machines
• Provide secure tie-line connections to neighboring utilities and regions thereby
decreasing overall generation reserve requirements both sides.
• Provide greater flexibility in setting new generation.
• Provide upgrade of lines.
• Reduce the reactive power flow, thus allowing the lines to carry more active power.
• Reduce loop flows.
• Increase utilization of lowest cost generation.

HVDC Transmission
Definition: High voltage direct current (HVDC) power systems use D.C. for
transmission of bulk power over long distances. For long-distance power transmission,
HVDC lines are less expensive, and losses are less as compared to AC transmission. It
interconnects the networks that have different frequencies and characteristics.
In AC transmission, alternating waves of voltage and current travels in the line which
change its direction every millisecond; due to which losses occur in the form of heat.
Unlike AC lines, the voltage and current waves don’t change their direction in DC.
HVDC lines increase the efficiency of transmission lines due to which power is rapidly
transferred.
In a combined AC and DC system, generated AC voltage is converted into DC at the
sending end. Then, the DC voltage is inverted to AC at the receiving end, for
distribution purposes. Thus, the conversion and inversion equipment are also needed
at the two ends of the line. HVDC transmission is economical only for long distance
transmission lines having a length more than 600kms and for underground cables of
length more than 50kms

Working
In generating substation, AC power is generated which can be converted into DC by
using a rectifier. In HVDC substation or converter substation rectifiers and inverters
are placed at both the ends of a line. The rectifier terminal changes the AC to DC,
while the inverter terminal converts DC to AC.
The DC is flowing with the overhead lines and at the user end again DC is converted
into AC by using inverters, which are placed in converter substation. The power
remains the same at the sending and receiving ends of the line. DC is transmitted
over long distances because it decreases the losses and improves the efficiency.
A system having more than two converter stations and one transmission line is called
a ‘two terminal DC system’ or a ‘point-to-point system’. Similarly, if substation has
more than two converter stations and interconnecting DC terminal lines, it is called
multiterminal DC substation
 Fig 25

Economic Distance For HVDC transmission lines

DC lines are cheaper than the AC lines, but the cost of DC terminal equipment is very
high as compared to AC terminal cables (shown in the graph below). Thus, the initial
cost is high in HVDC transmission system, and it is low in the AC system
The point where two curves meet is called the breakeven distance. Above the
breakeven distance, the HVDC system becomes cheaper. Breakeven distance changes
from 500 to 900 km in overhead transmission lines.

Fig 26

Advantages of HVDC transmissions

1. A lesser number of conductors and insulators are required thereby reducing the
cost of the overall system.
2.It requires less phase to phase and ground to ground clearance.
3.Their towers are less costly and cheaper.
4.Lesser corona loss is less as compared to HVAC transmission lines of similar power.
5.Power loss is reduced with DC because fewer numbers of lines are required for
power transmission.
6.The HVDC system uses earth return. If any fault occurs in one pole, the other pole
with ‘earth returns’ behaves like an independent circuit. This results in a more flexible
system.
7.The HVDC has the asynchronous connection between two AC stations connected
through an HVDC link; i.e., the transmission of power is independent of sending
frequencies to receiving end frequencies. Hence, it interconnects two substations with
different frequencies.
8.Due to the absence of frequency in the HVDC line, losses like skin effect and
proximity effect does not occur in the system.
9.It does not generate or absorb any reactive power. So, there is no need for reactive
power compensation.
10.The very accurate and lossless power flows through DC link

Disadvantages of HVDC transmission

1.Converter substations are placed at both the sending and the receiving end of the
transmission lines, which result in increasing the cost.
2.Inverter and rectifier terminals generate harmonics which can be reduced by using
active filters which are also very expensive.
3.If a fault occurs in the AC substation, it may result in a power failure for the HVDC
substation placed near to it
4.Inverter used in Converter substations have limited overload capacity.
5.Circuit breakers are used in HVDC for circuit breaking, which is also very expensive.
6.It does not have transformers for changing the voltage levels.
7.Heat loss occurs in converter substation, which has to be reduced by using the
active cooling system.
8.HVDC link itself is also very complicated

Different types of HVDC links

For connecting two networks or system, various types of HVDC links are used. HVDC
links are classified into three types
Monopolar link – It has a single conductor of negative polarity and uses earth or sea
for the return path of current. Sometimes the metallic return is also used. In the
Monopolar link, two converters are placed at the end of each pole. Earthing of poles is
done by earth electrodes placed about 15 to 55 km away from the respective terminal
stations. But this link has several disadvantages because it uses earth as a return
path. The monopolar link is not much in use nowadays.

Fig 27
Bipolar link – The Bipolar link has two conductors one is positive, and the other one is
negative to the earth. The link has converter station at each end. The midpoints of the
converter stations are earthed through electrodes. The voltage of the earthed electrodes is
just half the voltage of the conductor used for transmission the HVDC.
The most significant advantage of the bipolar link is that if any of their links stop operating,
the link is converted into Monopolar mode because of the ground return system. The half of
the system continues supplies the power. Such types of links are commonly used in the HVDC
systems.

Fig 28

Homopolar link– It has two conductors of the same polarity usually negative polarity,
and always operates with earth or metallic return. In the homopolar link, poles are
operated in parallel, which reduces the insulation cost.

Fig 29

Component of an HVDC Transmission System

The HVDC system has the following main components.
•Converter Station
•Converter Unit
•Converter Valves
•Converter Transformers
•Filters
 • AC filter
• DC filter
• High-frequency filter
•Reactive Power Source
•Smoothing Reactor
•HVDC System Pole
Converter Station
The terminal substations which convert an AC to DC are called rectifier terminal while
the terminal substations which convert DC to AC are called inverter terminal. Every
terminal is designed to work in both the rectifier and inverter mode. Therefore, each
terminal is called converter terminal, or rectifier terminal. A two-terminal HVDC
system has only two terminals and one HVDC line.

Fig 30
Converter Unit
The conversion from AC to DC and vice versa is done in HVDC converter stations by using
three-phase bridge converters. This bridge circuit is also called Graetz circuit. In HVDC
transmission a 12-pulse bridge converter is used. The converter obtains by connecting two or
6-pulse bridge in series.

Fig 31

Converter Valves
The modern HVDC converters use 12-pulse converter units. The total number of a valve in
each unit is 12. The valve is made up of series connected thyristor modules. The number of
thyristor valve depends on the required voltage across the valve. The valves are installed in
valve halls, and they are cooled by air, oil, water or freon.
Converter Transformer
The converter transformer converts the AC networks to DC networks or vice versa. They have
two sets of three phase windings. The AC side winding is connected to the AC bus bar, and
the valve side winding is connected to valve bridge. These windings are connected in star for
one transformer and delta to another.
The AC side windings of the two, three phase transformer are connected in stars with their
neutrals grounded. The valve side transformer winding is designed to withstand alternating
voltage stress and direct voltage stress from valve bridge. There are increases in eddy current
losses due to the harmonics current. The magnetisation in the core of the converter
transformer is because of the following reasons.
• The alternating voltage from AC network containing fundamentals and several harmonics.
• The direct voltage from valve side terminal also has some harmonics.
Filters
• The AC and DC harmonics are generated in HVDC converters. The AC harmonics are
injected into the AC system, and the DC harmonics are injected into DC lines. The
harmonics have the following advantages.
• It causes the interference in telephone lines.
• Due to the harmonics, the power losses in machines and capacitors are connected in the
system.
• The harmonics produced resonance in an AC circuit resulting in over voltages.
• Instability of converter controls.
The harmonics are minimised by using the AC, DC and high-frequency filters. The
types of filter are explained below in details.
AC Filters – The AC filters are RLC circuit connected between phase and earth. They
offered low impedances to the harmonic frequencies. Thus, the AC harmonic currents
are passed to earth. Both tuned and damped filters are used. The AC harmonic filter
also provided a reactive power required for satisfactory operation of converters.
DC Filters – The DC filter is connected between the pole bus and neutral bus. It
diverts the DC harmonics to earth and prevents them from entering DC lines. Such a
filter does not require reactive power as DC line does not require DC power.
High-Frequency Filters – The HVDC converter may produce electrical noise in the
carrier frequency band from 20 kHz to 490 kHz. They also generate radio interference
noise in the megahertz range frequencies. High-frequency filters are used to minimise
noise and interference with power line carrier communication. Such filters are placed
between the converter transformer and the station AC bus.
Reactive Power Source
Reactive power is required for the operations of the converters. The AC harmonic
filters provide reactive power partly. The additional supply may also be obtained from
shunt capacitors synchronous phase modifiers and static var systems. The choice
depends on the speed of control desired.
Smoothing Reactor
Smoothing reactor is an oil filled oil cooled reactor having a large inductance. It is
connected in series with the converter before the DC filter. It can be located either on
the line side or on the neutral side. Smoothing reactors serve the following purposes.
1.They smooth the ripples in the direct current.
2.They decrease the harmonic voltage and current in the DC lines.
3.They limit the fault current in the DC line.
4.Consequent commutation failures in inverters are prevented by smoothing reactors
by reducing the rate of rising of the DC line in the bridge when the direct voltage of
another series connected voltage collapses.
5.Smoothing reactors reduce the steepness of voltage and current surges from the DC
line. Thus, the stresses on the converter valves and valve surge diverters are reduced.
HVDC System Pole
The HVDC system pole is the part of an HVDC system consisting of all the equipment
in the HVDC substation. It also interconnects the transmission lines which during
normal operating condition exhibit a common direct polarity with respect to earth.
Thus the word pole refers to the path of DC which has the same polarity with respect
to earth. The total pole includes substation pole and transmission line pole.
Types of an HVDC System
• Back-to-Back HVDC Station
• Two Terminal HVDC System
• Multiterminal DC (MTDC) System
EHVAC
Industrial-minded countries of the world require a vast amount of energy of which
electrical energy forms a major fraction. There are other types of energy such as oil for
transportation and industry, natural gas for domestic and industrial consumption, which form
a considerable proportion of the total energy consumption. Thus, electrical energy does not
represent the only form in which energy is consumed but an important part nevertheless. It is
only 150 years since the invention of the dynamo by Faraday and 120 years since the
installation of the first central station by Edison using dc. But the world has already consumed
major portion of its natural resources in this short period and is looking for sources of energy
other than hydro and thermal to cater for the rapid rate of consumption which is outpacing
the discovery of new resources.
This will not slow down with time and therefore there exists a need to reduce the
rate of annual increase in energy consumption by any intelligent society if resources have to
be preserved for posterity. After the end of the Second World War, countries all over the world
have become independent and are showing a tremendous rate of industrial development,
mostly on the lines of North-American and European countries, the U.S.S.R. and Japan.
Therefore, the need for energy is very urgent in these developing countries, and national
policies and their relation to other countries are sometimes based on energy requirements,
chiefly nuclear. Hydro-electric and coal or oil-fired stations are located very far from load
centres for various reasons which requires the transmission of the generated electric power
over very long distances.
This requires very high voltages for transmission. The very rapid strides taken by
development of dc transmission since 1950 is playing a major role in extra-long-distance
transmission, complementing or supplementing e.h.v. ac transmission. They have their roles
to play and a country must make intelligent assessment of both in order to decide which is
best suited for the country's economy.
NECESSITY OF EHVAC TRANSMISSION
• With the increase in transmission voltage, for same amount of power to be transmitted
current in the line decreases which reduces I2R losses. This will lead to increase in
transmission efficiency.
• With decrease in transmission current, size of conductor required reduces which decreases
the volume of conductor.
• The transmission capacity is proportional to square of operating voltages. Thus the
transmission capacity of line increases with increase in voltage.
• With increase in level of transmission voltage, the installation cost of the transmission line
per km decreases.
• It is economical with EHV transmission to interconnect the power systems on a large scale.

• The no. of circuits and the land requirement for transmission decreases with the use of
higher transmission voltages.
ADVANTAGES
• Reduction in the current.
• Reduction in the losses.
• Reduction in volume of conductor material required.
• Decrease in voltage drop & improvement of voltage regulation.
• Increase in Transmission Efficiency.
• Increased power handling capacity.
• The no. of circuits & the land requirement reduces as transmission voltage increases.
• The total line cost per MW per km decreases considerably with the increase in line
voltage.
 Smart Grid
The first official definition of Smart Grid was provided by the Energy Independence
and Security Act of 2007 (EISA-2007), which was approved by the US Congress in
January 2007, and signed to law by President George W. Bush in December 2007.
Title XIII of this bill provides a description, with ten characteristics, that can be
considered a definition for Smart Grid, as follows:
"It is the policy of the United States to support the modernization of the Nation's
electricity transmission and distribution system to maintain a reliable and secure
electricity infrastructure that can meet future demand growth‖
To achieve each of the following, which together characterize a Smart Grid:
(1) Increased use of digital information and controls technology to improve reliability,
security, and efficiency of the electric grid.
(2) Dynamic optimization of grid operations and resources, with full cyber-security.
(3) Deployment and integration of distributed resources and generation, including
renewable resources.
(4) Development and incorporation of demand response, demand-side resources, and
energy-efficiency resources.
(5) Deployment of `smart' technologies (real-time, automated, interactive technologies
that optimize the physical operation of appliances and consumer devices) for metering,
communications concerning grid operations and status, and distribution automation.
(6) Integration of `smart' appliances and consumer devices.
(7) Deployment and integration of advanced electricity storage and peak-shaving
technologies, including plug-in electric and hybrid electric vehicles, and thermal storage
air conditioning.
(8) Provision to consumers of timely information and control options.
(9) Development of standards for communication and interoperability of appliances and
equipment connected to the electric grid, including the infrastructure serving the grid.
(10) Identification and lowering of unreasonable or unnecessary barriers to adoption of
smart grid technologies, practices, and services."

Fig 32 Smart Grid Structure

Features Of The Smart Grid
• Reliability
• Flexibility in network topology
• Efficiency
• Load adjustment/Load balancing Fig 33 Service Provider
• Peak curtailment/levelling and time of use pricing
• Sustainability
• Market-enabling
• Demand response support
• Platform for advanced services

NEED FOR SMART GRID

With a population of over a billion people and a current GDP growth rate of about 8 percent,
India is certainly one of the fastest growing countries in the world. Despite its robust
economic growth, the country is still plagued by basic problems such as shortage of
electricity, with nearly 40 percent of its rural households having no access to electricity.
Although India has almost doubled its energy generation in the past decade by adding over
85 GW of capacity, its grid systems lose more than 30 GW of this generated power. This is
highly disturbing to people working in the power sector in India, who are concerned with the
efficiency of the distribution of electricity.
The World Resources Institute estimates electricity transmission and distribution losses in
India to be 27 percent – the highest in the world. This is a huge wastage of one of the most
environmentally unfriendly commodities to produce.
These insights lead Technavio to believe that India needs the help of new technology to
ensure better monitoring and control of electricity transmission and distribution.
A Smart Grid is a digital electrical grid that facilitates the gathering and distribution of
information with regard to the usage of power by suppliers and consumers. This will lead to
electricity services becoming more reliable, efficient, cost-effective, and environmentally
conscious.
Advantages of Smart Grid Technology
Help businesses reduce their carbon footprint
New opportunities for tech companies
Reduce cost of power cuts
Meet increasing demand for power supply in India
Why implement the Smart Grid now?
Since about 2005, there has been increasing interest in the Smart Grid. The
recognition that ICT offers significant opportunities to modernise the operation of
the electrical networks has coincided with an understanding that the power sector
can only be de-carbonized at a realistic cost if it is monitored and controlled
effectively. In addition, a number of more detailed reasons have now coincided to
stimulate interest in the Smart Grid.
1. Ageing assets and lack of circuit capacity
2. Thermal constraints
3. Operational constraints
4. Security of supply
5. National initiatives
LINKS TO ONLINE
LEARNING
MATERIALS
Links to Videos, e-book reference, PPTs, Quizzes,
etc.

84
 VIDEO LECTURES

Sl.N Topic Provider Link

o.
1 Electrical Distribution System NPTEL https://onlinecourses.nptel
Analysis By Prof.G. B. Kumbhar .ac.in/noc19_ee61/
IIT Roorkee
2 Electrical Distribution System NPTEL https://nptel.ac.in/courses
Analysis /108/107/108107112/

3 Power Quality in Power IIT Madras https://nptel.ac.in/courses

Distribution Systems /108/106/108106025/

E Books

S.No Name of the Book Link

1 Electric Power System by C L Wadhwa

2 Modern Power System Analysis by Nagrath

and Kothari

3 Power System Engineering by RK Rajput

https://drive.google.com/drive/f
olders/12TT8EJFgPpkg -
GGTvRybV8JKpvPRVJzt?usp=sha
4 Principles of Power System by V K Metha
ring

5 Electric Power System by Das

6 Power System Analysis by Hadi Sadat

 Quiz

1. While designing the distribution sub stations by the designer, it is required to use
the _______ for the discrete power tapping.
a) distributor
b) power transformer
c) distribution transformer
d) feeder
2. For a 2-wire ac single phase distribution system operating at ‘30’ MW and ‘315’
kV, operating at the power factor of 0.8 having 15Ω of resistance of each wire,
then the copper loss at the substation in kW will be ___________
a) 210.67
b) 105.33
c) 240.87
d) 108.27
3. Distributors fed at both ends has an advantage of ________________
a) continuous supply
b) fault isolation
c) being economical
d) all of the mentioned
4. A substation records a dip in the voltage received by 15%. To overcome this
issue, the booster employed at the substation is ___________
a) a series wound generator coupled to dc shunt motor
b) a series wound motor
c) a shunt motor operating at lagging power factor
d) a shunt motor coupled to differential motor
5. If a 2-wire ac single phase distribution system operating at ‘P’ MW and ‘V’ kV,
operating at the power factor of 0.8, then the current in the outer wire in kA is
______
a) 1/ (Vcos)^2
b) (Vcos)^2
c) (V)^2
d) None of the mentioned
 10

ASSIGNMENTS

87
 ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS (K3, CO4)

1. What will be the pd at point B if a pd of 300 V is maintained at a point A, for a 2

wire dc distributor cable AB if 2 km long and supplies loads of 100A, 150A, 200A,
and 50A suited at 500m, 1000m, 1600m, and 2000m from the feeding point A.
Each conductor has a resistance of 0.01 Ω per 1000 m.

[ANSWER: 287.6 V]

2. A 2 wire dc street mains AB, 600 m long is fed from both ends at 220 V. Loads of
20 A, 40 A, 50 A and 30 A are tapped at distances 100m, 250m, 400m and 500m
from the end A. If the area of cross section of distributor is 1 cm2, what will be the
minimum consumer voltage? If ? = 1.7 * 10-6 Ω cm.

[ANSWER: 215.69 V]

3. A distribution system is shown in figure with load currents as marked. The two
ends of the feeder are fed by voltage sources such that Vp = Vq = 3 V, the value of
the voltage Vp for a minimum voltage of 220 V at any point along the feeder is

[ANSWER: 225.89 V]
4. A 300m ring distributor has loads as shown in the fig. The distances
are in metres. The resistance of each conductor is 0.2 W per 1000
metres and loads are tapped off at B, C, D. If the distributor is fed at A
at 240 V, what will be the voltage at B?
[ANSWER: 236.9 V]

5. A single phase AC distributor supplies two single phase loads as

shown. What is the voltage drop from A to C?
[ANSWER: 31.5 V]
 11

PART A
2 MARKS QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

90
 UNIT-5
S.No Part A (Q & A) K Level COs

Define the terms feeders and Distributors

The feeders are the conductors which are of large current carrying
capacity. The feeders connect the substation to the area where power
1 is to be finally distributed to the consumers K1 CO1
Distributors are the conductors used to transfer power from
distribution centre to the consumers

What is ring main system?

In this system the feeders covers the whole area of the supply in the
ring fashion and finally terminates at the substations from where it is
2 started .the feeders is in closed loop form and looks like a ring hence K1 CO1
the name given to the system is ring main distribution system.

What is interconnected system?

When a ring main system is supplied by two or more than two
3 K1 CO1
generating stations then it is called interconnected system.

Why transmission lines are 3 phase 3 wire while the

distribution lines are 3 phase 4 wire circuit?
The transmission is at very high voltage level and such a balanced 3
phase system does not required neutral conductor.
4 For distribution it is necessary to supply single phase loads long with K1 CO1
the three phase loads. For single phase distribution a neutral
conductor is must.

What are the major equipment's of substation?

Transformers.
Circuit breakers.
Isolators.
Load break switch.
Instrument transformers.
Current transformers.
5 Potential or Voltage transformers K1 CO1
Busbars
Protective relays
Lightning arresters or surge arresters.
Earthing switch.
Shunt capacitors.
Earthing
Station battery and charging equipment
 K
S.No Part A (Q & A) COs
Level
Mention the need of going for EHV A.C transmission
• EHV transmissions provide more reliable and less constrained
electricity network capacity
• As the size of the generating unit increases due to increase in
voltage, the cost of the line decreases.
6 K1 CO1
• Transmission efficiency increases.
• Number of circuits and land requirements for transmission
decreases.
• Cost of the line decreases.
• Surge impedance loading increases
What is the effect of high voltage on volume of copper
7 Volume α 1/VL² cos²φ, As the voltage increases, volume of K1 CO1
conductor decreases. So the cost of the conductor decreases.
What are the limitations of EHV A.C transmission?
• More insulation is required for the conductors and towers.
• More clearance is required between the conductors. So the
8 length of cross arms used increases. K1 CO1
• The transformers, switchgears and other terminal equipment's
should be designed to handle such high voltage.
• Long distance bulk power transmission not possible.
What are the advantages of EHV A.C transmission?
• Reduction of current and losses.
• Reduction of volume of conductor material.
9 K1 CO1
• Improvement in voltage regulation.
• Increase in transmission efficiency.
• Reduction in % line drop.
What are various types of HVDC transmission systems?
• Monopolar HVDC transmission system.
10 • Bipolar HVDC transmission system. K1 CO1
• Homopolar HVDC transmission system.

What are the advantages of HVDC transmission system?

• HVDC can carry more power with two conductors.
• Corona loss and ratio interference is less.
11 • Dielectric loss is less. K1 CO1
• Absence of skin effect, reduce power losses.
• Ground can be used as return conductor.
• Economical for long distance transmission.
What are the disadvantages of HVDC transmission system?
• Terminal equipment cost is high due to presence of converters and
filters.
• Maintenance cost is high.
12 K1 CO1
• Cost of D.C breakers is high.
• Inability to use transformers to change voltage levels.
• Converters generate harmonics both on A.C and D.C sides. These
harmonics may interfere with communication systems.
 K
S.No Part A (Q & A) COs
Level
What are the objectives of FACTS?
Rapid control of reactive power flow and voltage profile using
series and shunt connected controllers.
13 K1 CO1
Secure loading of lines close to their thermal limits.
Improve power transferability, transient stability and dynamic
stability during any fault switching etc.
List out the basic types of FACTS controller
(a) Series controller
14 (b) Shunt controller K1 CO1
(c) Combined series-series controller
(d) Combined series-shunt controller
State the advantages of FACTS.
• It controls line impedance angle and voltage which helps in
controlling the power flow in transmission lines.
• The power flow in transmission lines can be made optimum.
• It helps in damping out the oscillations and prevent the
damage of equipment's
15 • It supports the power system security by increasing the K1 CO1
transient stability.
• It limits the overloads and short circuit currents
• The reserve requirements for generators are considerable
reduced.
• The loading capacity of the line is greatly increased up to their
thermal capabilities.
What is Ring main distributor?
In this system, various power stations or sub-stations are
interconnected alternate routes, thus forming a closed ring. In case
16 K1 CO1
of damage to any section of the ring, that section may be
disconnected for repairs and power will be supplied from both ends
of the ring. A radial system has a single simultaneous path of power
What is the function of isolators?
The function of isolators is to disconnect a part of power system for
17 K1 CO1
repair and maintenance and operated after switching off the load
by means of a circuit breaker.
What is the need of an earthing system?
In order to provide safety of personnel or human beings against
electrical shocks (include animals and plants), to reduce the
possibility of getting electrical shocks and avoiding accidents, to
18 K1 CO1
protect the equipment's, buildings, machinery/appliances against
lightning and voltage surges, to reduce stress on the lines along
with that on the equipment with respect to earth under abnormal
conditions earthing is required
 K
S.No Part A (Q & A) COs
Level
What are the objectives of earthing?
• It should provide adequate safety of operating
personnel/human being (including animals and plants) against
electrical shocks/hazards and avoid accidents
• It should provide an alternative path for the fault current to
flow so as to reduce danger of the user
• It should ensure that all the exposed conductive parts do not
19 K1 CO1
reach a dangerously high potential and should reduce the
stress on the lines along with that on the equipment with
respect to earth under abnormal conditions.
• It should be able to maintain the voltage at any part of an
electrical system at a known value so as to avoid excessive
voltage on the appliances or equipment or over current
situation.
What is interconnected system?
20 When a ring main system is supplied by two or more than two K1 CO1
generating stations then it is called interconnected system.
State the application of HVDC transmission.
• Long distance bulk power transmission, for connecting two
different areas for exchange of power.
21 • Power transmission through underground or submarine cables. K1 CO1
• Connect D.C. transmission with A.C. distribution systems.
• Control and stabilization of power flow in A.C. ties in an
integrated power system
Give any three HVDC lines in India.
Rihand – Delhi HVDC transmission system.
22 K1 CO1
Talcher – kolar HVDC transmission system.
Chandrapur – Padghe HVDC transmission system.
What is substation?
Substations are the point in the power network where transmission
23 lines and distribution feeders are connected together through circuit K1 CO1
breakers or switches namely busbars and transformers.
For the figure shown, having a 2-wire dc system where mid point is
earthed, having resistance of 20 ohms, with a power
transmitted of 5 MW at the voltage level of 440 kV. What is
the power loss of the distribution system
I = P/V
= 5000000/440000 = 11.36 A
24 Power loss = 2I2*R K2 CO1
= 2* 11.362*20 = 5165 W.
S.N K
Part A (Q & A) COs
o Level

What is a Feeder ?
A feeder id designed from the point of view of its current carrying
25 K1 CO1
capacity while the voltage drop consideration is relatively
unimportant .
What is a Distributor ?
26 A distributor supplies power to the consumers and there is a K1 CO1
statutory limit of voltage variations at the consumers terminals
What is a Radial system ?
Separate feeders radiate from a single substation and feed the
27 K1 CO1
distributor at one end only

What are the factors for comparison for OH lines with

Underground system ?
28 K1 CO1
Public safety, Voltage capacity, Maintenance , Fault detection,
Current carrying capacity, Initial cost, Useful Life, Interference
How do you classify the Distribution systems ?
29 Nature of current, Type of construction , Scheme of connection K1 CO1

What are the classification of Distribution system ?

1. Primary Distribution
30 K2 CO1
2. Secondary Distribution
 12
PART B
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

96
 PART B
K
S.No Questions COs
Level

1 What are distributors? Explain the various types of DC distributors? K2 CO1

2 Discuss the different connection schemes of DC distribution system K2 CO1

3 Explain the different types of loading in a distributor . K2 CO1

4 Explain the significance of Kelvin’s law K2 CO1

5 Explain the design considerations in a distributor with different loading. K2 CO1

What do you mean by distributor loss? How will you calculate the
6. K2 CO1
distributor efficiency?

7 Explain the basic components of HVDC converter station K2 CO1

8 Explain Extra High voltage AC transmission in detail K2 CO1

9 Explain Flexible AC Transmission System in detail K2 CO1

10. Explain Smart Grid in Detail K2 CO1

Two tram cars (A & B) 2 km and 6 km away from a sub-station return

40 A and 20 A respectively to the rails. The sub-station voltage is 600 CO1
11. K3
V d.c. The resistance of trolley wire is 0·25 Ω/km and that of track is
0·03 Ω/km. Calculate the voltage across each tram car
A 2-wire d.c. distributor AB 500 metres long is fed from both ends and
is loaded uniformly at the rate of 1·0 A/metre. At feeding point, A, the
voltage is maintained at 255 V and at B at 250 V. If the resistance of
12. K3 CO1
each conductor is 0·1 Ω per kilometre, determine: (i) the minimum
voltage and the point where it occurs (ii) the currents supplied from
feeding points A and B
S.N K
Questions COs
o Level
A uniform 2-wire d.c. distributor 500 metres long is loaded with 0.4
ampere/ metre and is fed at one end. If the maximum permissible
13 K2 CO1
voltage drop is not to exceed 10 V, find the cross-sectional area of the
distributor conductor. Take ρ = 1·7 × 10−6 Ω cm
Explain any two FACTS controller
14 K2 CO1

15 Explain the advantages of HVDC systems in detail K2 CO1

Explain the disadvantages of HVDC systems in detail

16 K2 CO1

A single phase AC distributor AB of 1km long has resistance and

reactance of the distributor are 0.5 and 0.15 ohm per km. At far end
voltage VB=220V and current is is 100A at 0.8 pf lagging. At the
17 K2 CO1
midpoint a current of 100A is tapped at a pf of 0.6 lagging with respect
to the voltage Vm at midpoint. Calcualte Voltage at midpoint Vm

18 Explain the advantages of smart Grid K2 CO1

A d.c. ring main ABCDA is fed from point A from a 250 V supply and
the resistances (including both lead and return) of various sections
are as follows : AB = 0·02 Ω ; BC = 0·018 Ω ; CD = 0·025 Ω and DA =
19 0·02 Ω. The main supplies loads of 150 A at B; 300 A at C and 250 A at K2 CO1
D. Determine the voltage at each load point. If the points A and C are
linked through an interconnector of resistance 0·02 Ω, determine the
new voltage at each load point
20 Explain the structure of power system in detail K2 CO1
 PART C
K
S.No Questions COs
Level

A 2-wire d.c. ring distributor is 300 m long and is fed at 240 V at

point A. At point B, 150 m from A, a load of 120 A is taken and at C,
100 m in the opposite direction, a load of 80 A is taken. If the
1 resistance per 100 m of single conductor is 0·03 Ω, find : K3 CO6
(i) current in each section of distributor
(ii) voltage at points B and C

A single phase AC distributor AB of 300m long is fed from end A and

is loaded as under:
100A at 0.707 pf lagging at 200m from point A
200A at 0.8 pf lagging at 300m from point A

2 K3 CO6

The resistance and reactance of the distributor are 0.2 and 0.3 ohm
per km. Calculate total voltage drop in the distributor

A single phase AC distributor AB of 1km long has resistance and

reactance of the distributor are 0.1 and 0.15 ohm per km. At far end
voltage VB=200V and current is is 100A at 0.8 pf lagging. At the
midpoint a current of 100A is tapped at a pf of 0.6 lagging wrt the
3 K3 CO6
voltage Vm at midpoint. Calcualte
i) Voltage at midpoint Vm
ii) Sending end voltage
 13
SUPPORTIVE ONLINE
CERTIFICATION
COURSES

100
 ONLINE COURSES

S.N Name of the course Source Link

o
1 Electric Power Systems Coursera https://www.coursera.org/learn/electri
c-power-systems/home/welcome

2 Power System Engineering NPTEL https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/105/10

8105104/

3 Power System Generation, NPTEL https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/102/

Transmission and Distribution 108102047/

4 Power Engineering: Power System Udemy https://www.udemy.com/course/po

Analysis - Part 2 wer-system-analysis-part-2-
equipment-models/
5 Transmission Power Engineering Udemy https://www.udemy.com/course/tra
Fundamentals nsmission-power-engineering-
fundamentals/

101
 14
REAL TIME
APPLICATIONS IN DAY
TO DAY LIFE AND TO
INDUSTRY

102
 HVDC Systems in India
• Introduction
• HVDC Systems presently in operation
Main Data/Salient Features
• Upcoming Projects
• Future Challenges

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1wB4pDV27sBvZ0eTr8qxBYPpol0BxKwz/vie
w?usp=sharing

103
 15

Additional Topics

104
DISTRIBUTION LINES –CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS

Introduction :
Before construction of any new sub-transmission and distribution lines is taken
up, one should get acquaint himself with Indian Electricity Rules. 1956 as
amended from time to time. As per Rule No. 29, all electric lines and
apparatus shall be sufficient in size and of sufficient mechanical
strength for the work they may be required to do, and shall be constructed,
installed, protected, worked and maintained in such a manner as to prevent
break down in supply or accidents.
Sub-transmission and Distribution Line Voltages :
REC has standardized the following voltages
(1)240-415 volts Low and Medium Voltages
(2)11,000 volts Primary Feeders
(3)33,000 voplts Sub-transmission Lines.
Survey of Lines :
The area is to be surveyed to determine the route along which the line is to
be laid. The survey of the line should be carried out accurately. The
proposed route of the line should be the shortest practicable distance.
• The first thing to do is to select the route and plot it on a map.
• The second step is to conduct a walkout survey to determine the
topography of the area and identify places where right of way is
difficult.
• This is followed by a detailed survey from which the quantity of material
required for the construction of line is determined.
Choice of Route :
The proposed route shall be of the shortest practicable distance. However,
attention should be kept on the possibility of taking the line as close as
possible to the roads for easy approach and maintenance during emergency.
The following locations should be avoided as far as possible.
(a)Rough and difficult countryside
(b)Urban where right of way is a problem areas.
(c)Restricted access for transport vehicles to move
(d)Abrupt changes in the line route.
(e)Difficult crossing like Rivers, Railway Crossing etc.
(f)Proximity to aerodromes
(g)Prone to natural hazards like proximity of Nalls, tanks etc.
Survey for Low and Medium Voltage Lines :
The low and medium voltage lines are directly tapped for consumer services in
towns, cities and villages. As such they are confined within the limits of the towns
and cities and within small distances say 2 to 3 KM. in rural areas.
The Steps in survey work are
1. To locate the position of agricultural consumers and mark the route of the
distribution line.
2.In case of villages mark the position of the distribution line along the lanes of
the villages.
3.In case of cities and towns, the position of the distribution lines are marked
along with streets.
After marking the route of the line on the map as above, the lines and poles are
plotted to scale on the map by carrying out the walk-in-survey of the route, i.e. the
survey party walks along the route of the line as marked on the map and finalizes
the position of the poles by making physical measurements using survey charts or
tapes. Also obstructions to right of way are to be eliminated.
Lines in Rural Areas :
For conducting a survey of distribution lines in villages, a scaled map of the
village is taken and following are marked on the map.
1. The nearest HT lines from which the tapping will be taken for the distribution
transformer.
2. The location of distribution transformer after taking into consideration the
distribution of load.
3. The layout of the LT lines network with locations of angle poles and road
crossings.
Lines in Urban Areas :
The power lines should be pointed on the map of city of town after a consultation
with the municipal authorities. Proposed road widening works in the near future are
to be kept in mind.
The following should be taken into consideration.
1. Road crossings.
2. Private lands
3. Railway crossings
4. Telephone line crossings
5. Crossing over buildings.
Agricultural Field Area :
While surveying for laying power lines for agricultural loads it should be borne in
mind that the transformer should be at the load centre; so as to reduce the length
of LT lines and consequently voltage drop.
Survey for HT Lines (11 & 33 KV) :
The survey of HT lines is done in two stages viz.
(a) preliminary survey and
(b) detailed survey.
the steps to be followed for the preliminary survey of the route of HT lines is
the same as described for the LT distribution lines.
Having marked the position of the line on the map, on the basis of the walk in
survey, a detailed survey is carried out to mark the exact position of the poles.
Right of Way :
Before taking up the erection of lines both HT/LT along the roads the concerned
authorities should be contracted and approval obtained for location of all poles,
crossings, tree cuttings, or trimming and guy locations.
In some cases, it may be necessary-also to contact local town planning
authorities for approval if the lines are to be drawn in the urban areas. Telephone
line crossings etc are to be planned and it may be better to carry out the survey in
consultation with telephone authorities.
Tree Clearances :
The following minimum clearances may be adhered to
 16
ASSESSMENT
SCHEDULE

108
 Assessment Schedule
Assessment Name Assessment Date

Internal Assessment I 14.02.2024

Internal Assessment II
03-04-2024

Model Examination 25.04.2024

 17

PRESCRIBED TEXT
BOOKS &
REFERENCE BOOKS

110
 TEXT BOOKS AND REFERENCE BOOKS

TEXT BOOKS:
1. D.P.Kothari, I.J. Nagarath, ‘Power System Engineering’, Mc Graw-Hill
Publishing Company limited, New Delhi, Third Edition, 2019.
2. C.L.Wadhwa, ‘Electrical Power Systems’,New Academic Science Ltd,
seventh Edition 2016.
3. S.N. Singh, ‘Electric Power Generation, Transmission and
Distribution’, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, Second
Edition, 2008.
4. V K Metha,” Principles of power system”, S .Chand and company
limited

REFERENCES:
1. B.R.Gupta, ‘Power System Analysis and Design’ S. Chand, New
Delhi, Fifth Edition, 2011.
2. Luces M.Fualken berry, Walter Coffer, ‘Electrical Power Distribution
and Transmission’, Pearson Education, 2007.
3. Arun Ingole, "power transmission and distribution" Pearson
Education, 2017
4. J.Brian, Hardy and Colin R.Bayliss ‘Transmission and Distribution in
Electrical Engineering’, Newnes; Fourth Edition, 2012.
5. G.Ramamurthy, “Handbook of Electrical power Distribution

111
 18

MINI PROJECT
SUGGESTIONS

112
1. Consider a Home Having 16 Fluorescent Lamps of 40 w, 6 Induction
Motor Fan of 60 W Ratings ,1 ton Air conditioner with a three star rating
of 900 w, One water heater with a rating of 2000W, One washing
machine with a temperature of 850 deg Temperature.
You need to consider the above cases and develop a energy efficient
calculation for the above loads by replacing with a energy efficient Loads
under each category and give the cost of saving by operation each
loads based on the timing given below and do the calculation under two
different cases (i) Saving of cost over a Month (ii) Saving of cost over a
Year

Batch Load Name Operating Hours

Fluorescent Lamp 10
Induction Motor 12
1 1 ton Air conditioner with a three star rating 6
water heater with a rating of 2000W 2
washing machine with 850 deg temperature 2
Fluorescent Lamp 8
Induction Motor 8
2 1 ton Air conditioner with a three star rating 4
water heater with a rating of 2000W 2
washing machine with 850 deg temperature 2
Fluorescent Lamp 6
Induction Motor 6
3 1 ton Air conditioner with a three star rating 6
water heater with a rating of 2000W 2
washing machine with 850 deg temperature 2
Fluorescent Lamp 4
Induction Motor 4
4 1 ton Air conditioner with a three star rating 2
water heater with a rating of 2000W 1
washing machine with 850 deg temperature 1
Fluorescent Lamp 7
Induction Motor 7
5 1 ton Air conditioner with a three star rating 7
water heater with a rating of 2000W 2
washing machine with 850 deg temperature 2
Fluorescent Lamp 9
Induction Motor 9
6 1 ton Air conditioner with a three star rating 2
water heater with a rating of 2000W 2
washing machine with 850 deg temperature 2
2.Reveal that the ring type distribution system is more reliable
compare to that of the radial distribution system.

3. Use MATLAB/Simulink to simulate and verify a simple AC Distribution system and

to be able to understand how AC Distribution works.
4. Use Theories, learned in the AC Distribution class to calculate voltage drop along
the distributing loads. Parameters are given below

5.Verify the answer using MATLAB/Simulink simulations by showing the current flow
through loads B and C
6.Simulate and calculate if there is an open circuit fault and Short circuit fault
between Points B and C
 THANK YOU

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115