U1

Definition
Scalar：A scalar quantity only has magnitude, not direction.E.g.: distance, speed, mass, volume, energy, power.
Vector：A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. E.g.: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force.
Newton’s first law：If the forces acting on a body are in equilibrium, its velocity will remain constant.
Newton’s second law：If there is a resultant force, then there will be a change in velocity.∑F = ma p.s.If the resultant force is
zero, then acceleration will be zero. So Newton’s first law is just a special case of the second law
Newton’s third law：If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts a force of the same type on body A that is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction. P.S. the pair of force should be the same type and on different bodies.
Center of gravity：The single point through which the object’s weight can be said to act.
Terminal velocity：the highest velocity attained by an object falling through a fluid When there is no resultant force acting on it.
the principle of conservation of linear momentum：The total linear momentum of a system before an event must be equal to
the total linear momentum of the system after the event, assuming no external forces act.
the principle of moments：For a system to be in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about a point must be equal to the
sum of the anticlockwise moments (about the same point).
Equilibrium：For an object to be equilibrium, both the resultant force and resultant moment acting on the object must be equal
to zero .
the principle of conservation of energy: Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but it can be transferred. This means that,
in any process, total energy at the start = total energy at the end.
Archimedes principle: upthrust is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
laminar flow：A state of flow where layers of fluid move together in parallel with little or no mixing between layers.
Turbulent flow: A state of flow where layers of fluid mix together unpredictably causing a chaotic state.
Stokes’ Law condition： small spherical objects moving at low speeds with laminar flow
Hooke’s law：The extension of an elastic object will be directly proportional to the force
applied to it up to the object’s limit of proportionality.
limit of proportionality：The point at which the stress on an object is so great that Hooke’s law no longer applies to an object.
elastic limit：It’s the force beyond which the object does not return to its original length
when the force is removed.
yield point: Stress (or strain) value at/beyond which a material/object undergoes a sudden or large plastic deformation.
elastic deformation：If a material deforms with elastic behaviour, it will return to its original shape when the deforming forces
are removed.
plastic deformation：If a material deforms with plastic behaviour, it will not return to its
original shape when the deforming forces are removed.
breaking stress：The maximum stress a material can withstand without fracturing.
Young Modulus: The ratio of stress to strain for a given material.
Viscosity is temperature-dependent: Liquids are less viscous as temperature increases. Gases get more viscous as temperature
increases.
Graph
Displacement-time graph：gradient = velocity
Velocity-time graph：gradient = acceleration ；Area under the graph = displacement
Acceleration-time graph：Area under the graph = velocity
Force-extension graph：gradient = spring constant（stiffness） ；
Area under the graph = work done by the tensile force/
elastic strain energy (before limit of proportionality)
Stress-strain graph: gradient = Young Modulus ；
Area under the graph = work done per unit volume/
elastic strain energy per unit volume(before limit of proportionality)
Extra formula:
m1×u1+m2×u2=m1×v1+m2×v2
P=ρgh

Derive the equation

 U2
Definition
Amplitude: A wave’s maximum displacement from its equilibrium position.
longitudinal waves:A wave with oscillations that are parallel to the direction of energy
propagation.
transverse waves:A wave with oscillations that are perpendicular to the direction of energy propagation.
Wavefront:The surface made up of all the points of the wave that are in phase with each
other.
Coherence: Waves with the same frequency and constant phase difference.
path difference:A measure of how far ahead a wave is compared to another wave, usually expressed in terms of the
wavelength.
Superposition:When two waves meet at the same point in space their displacements
combine and the total displacement at that point becomes the sum of the individual
displacements at that point.
Interference:The superposition of the amplitudes of waves when they meet.
Phase:A measure of how far through the wave’s cycle a given point on the wave is.
phase difference: The difference in phase between two points on a wave. It is usually
expressed in radians.
standing/stationary wave formation:
1. wave meeting its reflection
2.Superposition takes place
3. Nodes are points of zero amplitude and antinodes are points of maximum amplitude
4. Nodes linked to destructive interference and antinodes linked to constructive interference
Critical Angle: The angle of incidence that results in an angle of refraction of exactly 90 . It
。

is when the refracted ray travels along the boundary line.

total internal reflection:An effect that occurs in optical fibres, where full reflection occursat the inside boundary of the fibre,
meaning no radiation passes out. The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle for this to occur.
plane polarisation:The restriction of a wave so that it can only oscillate in a single plane which including the direction of wave
travel. This can only occur for transverse waves.
Unpolarised light :oscillates in all planes
Plane polarised light :oscillates in one plane Including the direction of wave travel.
Diffraction: Waves spread out as they pass through the gap. Each point on the wavefront acts as a source of secondary wavelets.
Refraction: When wave enter different medium, there is a decrease in velocity. Part of the wavefront meets the boundary
before the rest and the wave change direction.
threshold frequency:The minimum frequency of photons required for photoelectrons to be emitted from the surface of a metal
plate through the photoelectric effect.
work function:The minimum energy required to just liberate an electron from the surface
of a metal.
electromotive force (e.m.f.):The energy supplied by a source per unit charge passing through the source, measured in volts.
resistor in potential divider:A method of splitting a potential difference, by connecting two resistors in series. The total
potential difference is split in the ratio of their resistances.
 internal resistance:The resistance to the flow of charge within a source. Internal resistance results in energy being dissipated
within the source.
potential difference:The difference in electrical potential between two points in a circuit. It is also the work done per coulomb
to move a charge from the lower potential point to the higher potential point. It is measured in Volts.
terminal potential difference:The potential difference across the terminals of a power
source. It is equal to the source’s emf minus any voltage drop over the source’s internal resistance.
Describe
High frequency ultrasound
1. higher fequency gives smaller wavelength
2.Smaller wavelength leads to high level of detail
3. Smaller wavelength can detect smaller objects
pulse-echo technique: Ultrasound is reflected from boundaries
· This reflection is caused by) change in density
· Time taken between pulse being sent and received measured
Speed of ultrasound is known
· distance= 1/2Speed×time can be used( to calculate the distance to boundary)
the behaviour of electromagnetic radiation:
interference
1. waves interfere
2. Sound canceled(dark point) when destructive interference takes
place
3.louder (light point)when constructive interference takes place
4.Destructive interference is where waves are in anti-phase and path
difference of (n + 1/2) λ
5. Constructive interference is where waves are in phase and path
difference is n λ
stationary wave
1. wave meeting its reflection
2.Superposition takes place
3. Nodes are points of zero amplitude and antinodes are points of
maximum amplitude
4. Nodes linked to destructive interference and antinodes linked to
constructive interference
sound speed
1. measure the distance from the microphone from the speaker
2. move the microphone gradually until the crest on the lower traces lines up with the trough of the top trace and measure the
position
3. Calculate the distance moved by the microphone which is the wavelength
4. A method to determine the time period T from the oscilloscope
5. Multiply wavelength by 1/T

the photoelectric effect:

1.One photon releases one electron Photons transfer all of their energy to the electrons
2.Photon energy is related to frequency E=hf
3.A minimum energy/frequency (work function) is required for electron release.
4.Release of electrons is instantaneous but In the wave model energy is built up over time
5. Frequency affects the kinetic energy of the released electrons
6.Intensity is proportional to the number of electrons (per second)
atomic line spectra:1.Energy levels in atoms are discrete/specific
2.Energy makes electrons move up energy levels
3.Electrons move back down energy levels, releasing photons
4.Energy difference between levels is proportional to frequency of
photon resulting in line spectrum being produced.Only certain
transitions are possible.
5.Different atoms/elements have different energy levels
changes of resistance with temperature:
metal resistance
1.As p.d increases, current increases
2.As current increases,temperature increases
3.lattice have greater vibrations
4.Increased rate of collisions between electrons and ion
5.f P = V^2/ R to explain that power output falls
For a thermistor,
1.resistance decreases as p.d. increases
2.Increased e.m.f. leads to greater current
3.Increased current leads togreater temperature
4.Increased number of conduction electrons
5.I = nAqv, so current increases.
changes of resistance with illumination: same as thermistor
resistor in potential divider
To avoid overheating/melting in the circuit.
Charge & energy conservation：
1Current is the rate of flow of charge
2.Current is the same at all points in a series circuit
3.total current going into a junction = total current out of junction
1.p.d. is energy transferred per unit charge
2.p.d is shared between components in series
3.p.d. is the same across components in parallel