682 CHAPTER 10 | Systems of Equations and Inequalities

10.6 D ETERMINANTS AND C RAMER ’ S R ULE

Determinant of a 2  2 Matrix  Determinant of an n  n Matrix  Row
and Column Transformations  Cramer’s Rule  Areas of Triangles Using
Determinants
If a matrix is square (that is, if it has the same number of rows as columns), then we can
assign to it a number called its determinant. Determinants can be used to solve systems
of linear equations, as we will see later in this section. They are also useful in determin-
ing whether a matrix has an inverse.

▼ Determinant of a 2  2 Matrix
We denote the determinant of a square matrix A by the symbol det1A2 or A . We first de-
fine det1A2 for the simplest cases. If A  ”a’ is a 1  1 matrix, then det1A2  a. The fol-
lowing box gives the definition of a 2  2 determinant.

DETERMINANT OF A 2  2 MATRIX
We will use both notations, det1A2 and a b
 A , for the determinant of A. Although
The determinant of the 2  2 matrix A  c d is
c d
the symbol  A  looks like the absolute
value symbol, it will be clear from the a b
context which meaning is intended. det 1A2  ƒ A ƒ  ` `  ad  bc
c d

E X A M P L E 1 | Determinant of a 2  2 Matrix

6 3
Evaluate A  for A  c d.
2 3
To evaluate a 2  2 determinant, we SOLUTION
take the product of the diagonal from
⎯ `  6 # 3  1322  18  162  24
top left to bottom right and subtract the 6 ⎯ 3
` →
product from top right to bottom left, 2← 3
as indicated by the arrows.
NOW TRY EXERCISE 5 ■

▼ Determinant of an n  n Matrix
To define the concept of determinant for an arbitrary n  n matrix, we need the follow-
ing terminology.

MINORS AND COFACTORS

Let A be an n  n matrix.
1. The minor Mij of the element aij is the determinant of the matrix obtained by
deleting the ith row and jth column of A.
2. The cofactor Aij of the element aij is

Aij  112 ijMij

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 SECTION 10.6 | Determinants and Cramer’s Rule 683

For example, if A is the matrix

2 3 1
£ 0 2 4§
2 5 6
Katherine C. Ward/CORBIS

then the minor M12 is the determinant of the matrix obtained by deleting the first row and
© Baldwin H. Ward &

second column from A. Thus

2 3 1
0 4
M12  3 0 2 4 3 ` `  0162  4122  8
DAVID HILBERT (1862–1943) was 2 6
born in Königsberg, Germany, and be- 2 5 6
came a professor at Göttingen Univer-
sity. He is considered by many to be the
greatest mathematician of the 20th cen- So the cofactor A12  112 12M 12  8. Similarly,
tury. At the International Congress of
Mathematicians held in Paris in 1900,
Hilbert set the direction of mathematics 2 3 1
` 2#23#04
for the about-to-dawn 20th century by 2 3
M33  3 0 2 4 3 `
posing 23 problems that he believed to 0 2
be of crucial importance. He said that 2 5 6
“these are problems whose solutions we
expect from the future.” Most of
Hilbert’s problems have now been
So A33  112 33M 33  4.
solved (see Julia Robinson, page 663, Note that the cofactor of aij is simply the minor of aij multiplied by either 1 or 1,
and Alan Turing, page 100), and their so- depending on whether i  j is even or odd. Thus in a 3  3 matrix we obtain the cofac-
lutions have led to important new areas tor of any element by prefixing its minor with the sign obtained from the following
of mathematical research.Yet as we pro- checkerboard pattern.
ceed into the new millennium, some of
his problems remain unsolved. In his
work, Hilbert emphasized structure,   
logic, and the foundations of mathemat- £  §
ics. Part of his genius lay in his ability to
see the most general possible state-
  
ment of a problem. For instance, Euler
proved that every whole number is the We are now ready to define the determinant of any square matrix.
sum of four squares; Hilbert proved a
similar statement for all powers of posi-
tive integers.
THE DETERMINANT OF A SQUARE MATRIX
If A is an n  n matrix, then the determinant of A is obtained by multiplying
each element of the first row by its cofactor and then adding the results. In
symbols,

a11 a12 p a1n

a21 a22 p a2n
det1A2  0 A 0  4 4  a11 A11  a12 A12  . . .  a1n A1n
o o ∞ o
an1 an2 p ann

E X A M P L E 2 | Determinant of a 3  3 Matrix
Evaluate the determinant of the matrix.

2 3 1
A C 0 2 4S
2 5 6

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684 CHAPTER 10 | Systems of Equations and Inequalities

SOLUTION

2 3 1
2 4 0 4 0 2
det1A2  3 0 2 4 3 22 2 32 2  11 2 2 2
5 6 2 6 2 5
2 5 6

 212 # 6  4 # 52  330 # 6  4122 4  30 # 5  2122 4

 16  24  4
 44

NOW TRY EXERCISE 19 ■

In our definition of the determinant we used the cofactors of elements in the first row
only. This is called expanding the determinant by the first row. In fact, we can expand
the determinant by any row or column in the same way and obtain the same result in each
case (although we won’t prove this). The next example illustrates this principle.

EXAMPLE 3 Expanding a Determinant

About a Row and a Column
Let A be the matrix of Example 2. Evaluate the determinant of A by expanding
(a) by the second row
(b) by the third column
Verify that each expansion gives the same value.

SOLUTION
(a) Expanding by the second row, we get

2 3 1
3 1 2 1 2 3
det1A2  3 0 2 4 3  0 2 2 22 2 42 2
5 6 2 6 2 5
2 5 6

 0  232 # 6  112 122 4  432 # 5  3122 4

 0  20  64  44

(b) Expanding by the third column gives

Graphing calculators are capable of 2 3 1
computing determinants. Here is the det1A2  3 0 2 4 3
output when the TI-83 is used to calcu-
late the determinant in Example 3: 2 5 6

0 2 2 3 2 3
[A]  12 2 42 2 62 2
[[2 3 -1] 2 5 2 5 0 2
[0 2 4 ]
[ - 2 5 6 ]]  30 # 5  2122 4  432 # 5  3122 4  612 # 2  3 # 02
det([A])
-44
 4  64  24  44
In both cases we obtain the same value for the determinant as when we expanded by the
first row in Example 2.

NOW TRY EXERCISE 31 ■

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 SECTION 10.6 | Determinants and Cramer’s Rule 685

The following criterion allows us to determine whether a square matrix has an inverse
without actually calculating the inverse. This is one of the most important uses of the
determinant in matrix algebra, and it is the reason for the name determinant.

INVERTIBILIT Y CRITERION
If A is a square matrix, then A has an inverse if and only if det1A2  0.

We will not prove this fact, but from the formula for the inverse of a 2  2 matrix
(page 674) you can see why it is true in the 2  2 case.

EXAMPLE 4 Using the Determinant to Show That a Matrix Is

Not Invertible
Show that the matrix A has no inverse.

1 2 0 4
0 0 0 3
AD T
5 6 2 6
2 4 0 9

S O L U T I O N We begin by calculating the determinant of A. Since all but one of the

elements of the second row is zero, we expand the determinant by the second row. If we
do this, we see from the following equation that only the cofactor A24 will have to be
calculated.
1 2 0 4
0 0 0 3
det1A2  4 4
5 6 2 6
2 4 0 9

 0 # A21  0 # A22  0 # A23  3 # A24  3A24

1 2 0
33 5 6 2 3 Expand this by column 3
2 4 0

1 2
 31222 2
2 4

 3122 11 # 4  2 # 22  0
Since the determinant of A is zero, A cannot have an inverse, by the Invertibility Criterion.
NOW TRY EXERCISE 23 ■

▼ Row and Column Transformations

The preceding example shows that if we expand a determinant about a row or column
that contains many zeros, our work is reduced considerably because we don’t have to eval-
uate the cofactors of the elements that are zero. The following principle often simplifies
the process of finding a determinant by introducing zeros into the matrix without chang-
ing the value of the determinant.

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686 CHAPTER 10 | Systems of Equations and Inequalities

ROW AND COLUMN TRANSFORMATIONS OF A DETERMINANT

If A is a square matrix and if the matrix B is obtained from A by adding a
multiple of one row to another or a multiple of one column to another, then
The Granger Collection, New York

det1A2  detÓBÔ.

EXAMPLE 5 Using Row and Column Transformations

to Calculate a Determinant
EMMY NOETHER (1882–1935) was Find the determinant of the matrix A. Does it have an inverse?
one of the foremost mathematicians of
the early 20th century. Her ground-
breaking work in abstract algebra pro- 8 2 1 4
vided much of the foundation for this
3 5 3 11
field, and her work in invariant theory AD T
was essential in the development of 24 6 1 12
Einstein’s theory of general relativity. 2 2 7 1
Although women weren’t allowed to
study at German universities at that
time, she audited courses unofficially SOLUTION If we add 3 times row 1 to row 3, we change all but one element of row
and went on to receive a doctorate at 3 to zeros:
Erlangen summa cum laude, despite
the opposition of the academic senate, 8 2 1 4
which declared that women students 3 5 3 11
would “overthrow all academic order.” D T
She subsequently taught mathematics 0 0 4 0
at Göttingen, Moscow, and Frankfurt. In 2 2 7 1
1933 she left Germany to escape Nazi
persecution, accepting a position at This new matrix has the same determinant as A, and if we expand its determinant by the
Bryn Mawr College in suburban
third row, we get
Philadelphia. She lectured there and at
the Institute for Advanced Study in 8 2 4
Princeton, New Jersey, until her un-
timely death in 1935. det1A2  4 3 3 5 11 3
2 2 1

Now, adding 2 times column 3 to column 1 in this determinant gives us

0 2 4
det1A2  4 3 25 5 11 3 Expand this by column 1
0 2 1

2 4
 412522 2
2 1

 41252 32112  14224  600

Since the determinant of A is not zero, A does have an inverse.

NOW TRY EXERCISE 27 ■

▼ Cramer’s Rule
The solutions of linear equations can sometimes be expressed by using determinants. To il-
lustrate, let’s solve the following pair of linear equations for the variable x.
ax  by  r
e
cx  dy  s

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 SECTION 10.6 | Determinants and Cramer’s Rule 687

To eliminate the variable y, we multiply the first equation by d and the second by b and
subtract.

adx  bdy  rd
bcx  bdy  bs
adx  bcx  rd  bs

Factoring the left-hand side, we get 1ad  bc2x  rd  bs. Assuming that ad  bc Z 0,
we can now solve this equation for x:

rd  bs
x
ad  bc

Similarly, we find

as  cr
y
ad  bc

The numerator and denominator of the fractions for x and y are determinants of 2  2
matrices. So we can express the solution of the system using determinants as follows.

CRAMER’S RULE FOR SYSTEMS IN TWO VARIABLES

The linear system
ax  by  r
e
cx  dy  s
has the solution

r b a r
2 2 2 2
s d c s
x y
a b a b
2 2 2 2
c d c d

provided that a b
2 2  0.
c d

Using the notation

a b r b a r
D c d Dx  c d Dy  c d
c d s d c s

Coefficient Replace first Replace second

matrix column of D by column of D by
r and s r and s

we can write the solution of the system as

0 Dx 0 0 Dy 0
x and y
0D0 0D0

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688 CHAPTER 10 | Systems of Equations and Inequalities

EXAMPLE 6 Using Cramer’s Rule to Solve

a System with Two Variables
Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the system.

2x  6y  1
e
x  8y  2

SOLUTION For this system we have

2  2 # 8  6 # 1  10
2 6
0D0  2
1 8

2  1128  6 # 2  20
1 6
0 Dx 0  2
2 8

2  2 # 2  1121  5
2 1
0 Dy 0  2
1 2

The solution is
0 Dx 0 20
x   2
0D0 10

0 Dy 0 5 1
y  
0D0 10 2

NOW TRY EXERCISE 33 ■

Cramer’s Rule can be extended to apply to any system of n linear equations in

n variables in which the determinant of the coefficient matrix is not zero. As we saw in
the preceding section, any such system can be written in matrix form as

a11 a12 p a1n x1 b1

a21 a22 p a2n x2 b2
≥ ¥ ≥ ¥  ≥ ¥
o o ∞ o o o
an1 an2 p ann xn bn

By analogy with our derivation of Cramer’s Rule in the case of two equations in two un-
knowns, we let D be the coefficient matrix in this system, and Dx i be the matrix obtained
by replacing the ith column of D by the numbers b1, b2, . . . , bn that appear to the right of
the equal sign. The solution of the system is then given by the following rule.

CRAMER’S RULE
If a system of n linear equations in the n variables x 1, x 2, . . . , x n is equivalent to
the matrix equation DX  B, and if D   0, then its solutions are

0 Dx1 0 0 Dx2 0 0 Dxn 0

x1  x2  p xn 
0D0 0D0 0D0

where Dx i is the matrix obtained by replacing the ith column of D by the n  1

matrix B.

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 SECTION 10.6 | Determinants and Cramer’s Rule 689

EXAMPLE 7 Using Cramer’s Rule to Solve a System

with Three Variables
Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the system.
2x  3y  4z  1
c x  6z  0
3x  2y 5
S O L U T I O N First, we evaluate the determinants that appear in Cramer’s Rule. Note that
D is the coefficient matrix and that Dx, Dy, and Dz are obtained by replacing the first, sec-
ond, and third columns of D by the constant terms.
2 3 4 1 3 4
0D0  3 1 0 6 3  38 0 Dx 0  3 0 0 6 3  78
3 2 0 5 2 0
2 1 4 2 3 1
0 Dy 0  3 1 0 6 3  22 0 Dz 0  3 1 0 0 3  13
3 5 0 3 2 5

Now we use Cramer’s Rule to get the solution:

0 Dx 0 78 39 0 Dy 0 22 11
x   y  
0D0 38 19 0D0 38 19
0 Dz 0 13 13
z  
0D0 38 38

NOW TRY EXERCISE 39 ■

Solving the system in Example 7 using Gaussian elimination would involve matrices
whose elements are fractions with fairly large denominators. Thus in cases like Exam-
ples 6 and 7, Cramer’s Rule gives us an efficient way to solve systems of linear equations.
But in systems with more than three equations, evaluating the various determinants that
are involved is usually a long and tedious task (unless you are using a graphing calcula-
tor). Moreover, the rule doesn’t apply if D   0 or if D is not a square matrix. So
Cramer’s Rule is a useful alternative to Gaussian elimination, but only in some situations.

▼ Areas of Triangles Using Determinants

Determinants provide a simple way to calculate the area of a triangle in the coordinate plane.

AREA OF A TRIANGLE
If a triangle in the coordinate plane has vertices 1a1, b12, 1a2, b22, and 1a3, b32, then
its area is
y

(a‹, b‹)
a1 b1 1 (a⁄, b⁄)
 12 3 a2 b2 1 3
a3 b3 1 0 x
(a¤, b¤)

where the sign is chosen to make the area positive.

You are asked to prove this formula in Exercise 63.

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690 CHAPTER 10 | Systems of Equations and Inequalities

E X A M P L E 8 | Area of a Triangle
Find the area of the triangle shown in Figure 1.

0 1 3 x

FIGURE 1

We can calculate the determinant by S O L U T I O N The vertices are 11, 22, 13, 62, and 11, 42. Using the formula in the preced-
hand or by using a graphing calculator. ing box, we get
[A]
[[ -1 4 1] 1 4 1
[3 6 1]  12 3 3 6 1 3  12 1122
[1 2 1]]
det([A]) 1 2 1
-12

To make the area positive, we choose the negative sign in the formula. Thus, the area of
the triangle is
 12 1122  6

NOW TRY EXERCISE 55 ■

10.6 EXERCISES

CONCEPTS SKILLS
1. True or false? det1A2 is defined only for a square matrix A. 5–12 ■ Find the determinant of the matrix, if it exists.

2. True or false? det1A2 is a number, not a matrix. 2 0 0 1

5. c d 6. c d
0 3 2 0
3. True or false? If det1A2  0, then A is not invertible.
4 5 2 1
7. c d 8. c d
4. Fill in the blanks with appropriate numbers to calculate the 0 1 3 2
determinant. Where there is “”, choose the appropriate sign
3
1 or 2. 9. 32 54 10. c d
0
2 1 1 1
2.2
(a) 2 2      11. c 2 8 12. c
1.4
3 4 1d d
1 2 0.5 1.0
1 0 2
13–18 ■ Evaluate the minor and cofactor using the matrix A.
(b) 3 3 2 1 3  1  2  1   2
1
0 3 4 1 0 2
A  C 3 5 2S
 1  2  0 0 4
13. M11, A11 14. M33, A33 15. M12, A12
16. M13, A13 17. M23, A23 18. M32, A32

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 SECTION 10.6 | Determinants and Cramer’s Rule 691

19–26 ■ Find the determinant of the matrix. Determine whether x  6y  3 1

x  13 y  1
the matrix has an inverse, but don’t calculate the inverse. 35. e 36. e 21 1 3
3x  2y  1 4 x  6 y  2

2 1 0 1 2 5 0.4x  1.2y  0.4 10x  17y  21

19. C 0 20. C 2 37. e 38. e
2 4S 3 2S 1.2x  1.6y  3.2 20x  31y  39
0 1 3 3 5 3
x  2y  2z  10 5x  03y  z  06
30 0 20 2 32 1
2 39. • 3x  2y  2z  11 40. • 0 4y  6z  22
21. C 0 10 20 S 22. C 2 4 0S x  2y  2z  10 7x  10y  13
1
40 0 10 2 2 1
2x1  3x2  5x3  1 2a  2b  2c  02
1 3 7 0 1 0
41. • x1  x2  x3  2 42. • a  2b  2c  09
23. C 2 0 8S 24. C 2 6 4S
2x2  x3  8 3a  5b  2c  22
0 2 2 1 0 3
1
3x  15 y  12 z  107 2x  y  5
1 2 0 2
1 3 3 0 43. • 23 x  25 y  32 z  11
10 44. • 5x  3z  19
3 4 0 4
25. D 0 2 0 1 26. D T x  45 y  12 z  951 4y  7z  17
T 0 1 6 0
1 0 0 2
1 6 4 1 1 0 2 0 2x  3y  5z  04 2x  5y  5z  4
45. • 2x  7y  5z  10 46. • x  5y  0z  8
27–30 ■ Evaluate the determinant, using row or column opera- 4x  7y  5z  00 3x  5y  5z  0
tions whenever possible to simplify your work.
2x  y  2z  „  0 xy1
0 0 4 6 2 3 1 7 2x  y  2z  „  0 yz 2
2 1 1 3 4 6 2 3 47. μ 48. μ
27. 4 4 28. 4 4 2x  y  2z  „  0 z  „ 3
2 1 2 3 7 7 0 5 2x  y  2z  „  1 „  x 4
3 0 1 7 3 12 4 0

1 2 3 4 5
2 1 6 4 49–50 ■ Evaluate the determinants.
0 2 4 6 8
7 2 2 5
29. 5 0 0 3 6 9 5 30. 4 4 a 0 0 0 0 a a a a a
4 2 10 8
0 0 0 4 8 0 b 0 0 0 0 a a a a
6 1 1 4
0 0 0 0 5 49. 5 0 0 c 0 0 5 50. 5 0 0 a a a 5
0 0 0 d 0 0 0 0 a a
31. Let 0 0 0 0 e 0 0 0 0 a
4 1 0
B  C 2 1 1S
4 0 3 51–54 ■ Solve for x.
(a) Evaluate det1B 2 by expanding by the second row. x 12 13 x 1 1
(b) Evaluate det1B 2 by expanding by the third column. 51. 3 0 x1 23 3  0 52. 3 1 1 x 30
(c) Do your results in parts (a) and (b) agree? 0 0 x2 x 1 x
32. Consider the system
1 0 x a b xa
x  2y  6z  5 53. 3 x2 1 0 30 54. 3 x xb x 30
c3x  6y  5z  8 x 0 1 0 1 1
2x  6y  9z  7
(a) Verify that x  1, y  0, z  1 is a solution of the system.
(b) Find the determinant of the coefficient matrix. 55–58 ■ Sketch the triangle with the given vertices, and use a de-
(c) Without solving the system, determine whether there are terminant to find its area.
any other solutions.
(d) Can Cramer’s Rule be used to solve this system? Why or 55. 10, 0 2 , 16, 2 2 , 13, 8 2 56. 11, 0 2 , 13, 5 2 , 12, 2 2
why not? 57. 11, 3 2 , 12, 9 2 , 15, 6 2 58. 12, 5 2 , 17, 22 , 13, 4 2
2
33–48 ■ Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the system. 1 x x
59. Show that 3 1 y y2 3  1x  y 2 1y  z 2 1z  x 2
2x  y  9 6x  12y  33
33. e 34. e 1 z z2
x  2y  8 4x  17y  20

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692 CHAPTER 10 | Systems of Equations and Inequalities

(a) Find the coordinates of the vertices of the surrounding

A P P L I C AT I O N S rectangle, and find its area.
60. Buying Fruit A roadside fruit stand sells apples at 75¢ a (b) Find the area of the red triangle by subtracting the
pound, peaches at 90¢ a pound, and pears at 60¢ a pound. areas of the three blue triangles from the area of the
Muriel buys 18 pounds of fruit at a total cost of $13.80. rectangle.
Her peaches and pears together cost $1.80 more than her (c ) Use your answer to part (b) to show that the area of the
apples. red triangle is given by
(a) Set up a linear system for the number of pounds of ap-
ples, peaches, and pears that she bought. a1 b1 1
(b) Solve the system using Cramer’s Rule. area  12 3 a2 b2 1 3
a3 b3 1
61. The Arch of a Bridge The opening of a railway bridge
over a roadway is in the shape of a parabola. A surveyor mea-
sures the heights of three points on the bridge, as shown in the y
figure. He wishes to find an equation of the form (a‹, b‹)

y  ax2  bx  c
to model the shape of the arch. (a¤, b¤)
(a) Use the surveyed points to set up a system of linear equa-
tions for the unknown coefficients a, b, and c.
(b) Solve the system using Cramer’s Rule. (a⁄, b⁄)

0 x

y (ft)

64. Collinear Points and Determinants

(a) If three points lie on a line, what is the area of the
“triangle” that they determine? Use the answer to this
question, together with the determinant formula for the
area of a triangle, to explain why the points 1a1, b12,
1a2, b22, and 1a3, b32 are collinear if and only if
33 43 ft 40 ft
25 ft a1 b1 1
3 a2 b2 1 30
10 15 40 a3 b3 1

(b) Use a determinant to check whether each set of points is

62. A Triangular Plot of Land An outdoors club is purchasing collinear. Graph them to verify your answer.
land to set up a conservation area. The last remaining piece they i(i) 16, 4 2 , 12, 10 2 , 16, 13 2
need to buy is the triangular plot shown in the figure. Use the de- (ii) 15, 10 2 , 12, 6 2 , 115, 2 2
terminant formula for the area of a triangle to find the area of the
65. Determinant Form for the Equation of a Line
plot.
(a) Use the result of Exercise 64(a) to show that the equation
of the line containing the points 1x1, y12 and 1x2, y22 is
6000
x y 1
N-S baseline (ft)

3 x1 y1 1 30
4000
x2 y2 1

2000 (b) Use the result of part (a) to find an equation for the line
containing the points 120, 502 and 110, 252.
66. Matrices with Determinant Zero Use the definition
0 2000 4000 6000 of determinant and the elementary row and column operations
E-W baseline (ft) to explain why matrices of the following types have
determinant 0.
(a) A matrix with a row or column consisting entirely
of zeros
DISCOVERY ■ DISCUSSION ■ WRITING (b) A matrix with two rows the same or two columns
63. Determinant Formula for the Area of a Triangle the same
The figure shows a triangle in the plane with vertices 1a1, b12, (c) A matrix in which one row is a multiple of another row,
1a2, b22, and 1a3, b32. or one column is a multiple of another column

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