Ch1 Functions & Graphs

TOPIC 1
Functions and graphs

1.1 Overview
1.1.1 Introduction
Solving algebraic problems is one of the oldest
processes in mathematics; however, it wasn’t until the
fifteenth century that the practical notation we use today
was created. Before this, all equations were written out
in words. As far back as ancient Egypt and Babylon,
people were solving linear and quadratic equations, and
the current solving processes are similar to the origi-
nal methods. It took until the sixteenth century for a
group of Italian mathematicians to solve the general
cubic equation.
The root word for algebra, al-jabru, came from the
Arabic word for ‘restoration’. It was Arab mathemati-
cian al-Kwharizmi who, in the ninth century, wrote one of the first books on Arabic algebra containing many
of the basic proofs of algebra that we know and use today. The equals sign was first used and documented in
1557, and the use of pronumerals and + and – signs a decade earlier. Rene Descartes, a French mathematician,
introduced the concept of a graph of a polynomial equation in 1637. He was also the one to suggest that letters
at the start of the alphabet represent constants, and letters at the end of the alphabet represent variables.
The word ‘polynomial’ coming from the Greek ‘poly’ and the Latin ‘nomen’ (name) was first used in the
seventeenth century. Polynomials have many applications in a range of industries: in engineering, a polyno-
mial might be used to model the curves of rollercoasters or bridges; in economics, a combination of polynomial
functions might be used to do cost analyses; and in physics, polynomials are used to describe energy, inertia
and voltage difference, as well as the trajectory of objects.
LEARNING SEQUENCE
1.1 Overview
1.2 Linear functions
1.3 Solving systems of equations
1.4 Quadratic functions
1.5 Cubic functions
1.6 Higher degree polynomials
1.7 Other algebraic functions
1.8 Combinations of functions
1.9 Modelling and applications
1.10 Review: exam practice
Fully worked solutions for this topic are available in the Resources section of your eBookPLUS at
www.jacplus.com.au.
TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 1

1.1.2 Kick off with CAS
Simultaneous equations
1. a. Using the calculator application, solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations.
i. 3x − 2y = 10 ii. 2x − y = 8 iii. x+y=3
x + 5y = 2 8x − 4y = 1 4x + 4y = 12
b. Interpret and explain the CAS results for each pair of equations.
2. a. Using the calculator application, solve the following sets of simultaneous equations.
i. 2x − 3y + z = 12 ii. 2x − 3y + z = 12
x + y − 3z = −13 4x − 6y + 2z = 3
−x + 2y − z = −9
b. An equation involving three variables defines a plane. Using the graph application in CAS, sketch
each set of equations from part a on a different set of axes. Interpret the solutions found in part a after
sketching the graphs.
Graph sketching
3. a. Using the graph application on CAS, sketch
y = x4 − x3 − 23x2 + 3x + 60, x ∈ [−5, 5].
b. Determine the x- and y-intercepts.
c. Find the coordinates of the turning points.
d. Find the coordinates of the end points.
e. Determine the solution(s) to the equation
−40 = x4 − x3 − 23x2 + 3x + 60, x ∈ [−5, 5].
f. Hence, solve −40 < x4 − x3 − 23x2 + 3x + 60, x ∈ [−5, 5].
g. For what values of k does the equation k = x4 − x3 − 23x2 + 3x + 60, x ∈ [−5, 5] have:
i. 1 solution ii. 2 solutions iii. 3 solutions iv. 4 solutions?
4. a. Using CAS, sketch
⎧x2 − 2, x≤1
⎪
f (x) = ⎨2, 2 < x < 3.
⎪
⎩−2x + 8, x ≥ 3
b. Determine f (−1), f (1), f (2) and f (5).
c. Solve f (x) = 1.
Please refer to the Resources section in the Prelims of your eBookPLUS for a comprehensive step-by-step guide on how
to use your CAS technology.
2 Jacaranda Maths Quest 12 Mathematical Methods VCE Units 3 & 4 Second Edition
1.2 Linear functions
1.2.1 Functions
A function is a set of ordered pairs in which each x-value is paired to a unique y-value. A vertical line will
intersect the graph of a function at most once. This is known as the vertical line test for a function.
A horizontal line may intersect the graph of a function once, in which case the function has a one-to-one
correspondence, or the horizontal line may intersect the graph more than once, in which case the function has
a many-to-one correspondence.
The domain of a function is the set of x-values in the ordered pairs, and the range is the set of the y-values
of the ordered pairs.
As a mapping, a function is written f : D → R, f (x) = …, where the ordered pairs of the function f are
formed using each of the x-values in the domain D and pairing them with a unique y-value drawn from the
co-domain set R according to the function rule f (x) = … Not all of the available y-values may be required
for a particular mapping; this is dependent on the function rule.
For any polynomial function, the implied or maximal domain is R. For example, the mapping or function
notation for the straight line y = 2x is f : R → R, f (x) = 2x.
Under this mapping, the image of 3, or the value of f at 3, is f (3) = 2 × 3 = 6, and the ordered pair (3, 6)
lies on the line of the function.
If only that part of the line y = 2x where the x-values are positive was required, then this straight line
function would be defined on a restricted domain, a subset of the maximal domain, and this would be written
as g : R+ → R, g(x) = 2x.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Part of the graph of the parabola y = x2 is shown in the y

diagram.
a. Explain why the graph is a function and state the (3, 9)
type of correspondence.
b. State the domain and range.
c. Express the given parabola using function notation.
√
d. Calculate the value of y when x = − 2 . (–2, 4)
y = x2
(0, 0) x
THINK WRITE
a. 1.Use the vertical line test to explain a. This is a function because any vertical line that
why the graph is of a function. intersects the graph does so in exactly one place.
2. State the type of correspondence. A horizontal line could cut the graph in up to two
places. The correspondence is many-to-one.

b. 1. State the domain. b. Reading from left to right horizontally in the x-axis
direction, the domain is (−2, 3].
2. State the range. Reading from bottom to top vertically in the y-axis
direction, the range is [0, 9].
c. Use the domain and the function rule to c. Let the function be f. As a mapping, it is
form the mapping. f :(−2, 3] → R, f (x) = x2 .
d. Calculate the required value. d. f (x) = x2
√
Let √x = − 2 .√
f (− 2 ) = (− 2 )2
=2
Interactivity: Vertical and horizontal line tests (int-2570)
1.2.2 The linear polynomial function

Two points are needed in order to determine the equation of a line. When sketching an oblique line by hand,
usually the two points used are the x- and y-intercepts. If the line passes through the origin, then one other
point needs to be determined from its equation.
Gradient
y2 − y1 y
The gradient, or slope, of a line may be calculated from m = . This
x2 − x1 (x1, y1)
remains constant between any pair of points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) on the line.
A
The linear function either increases or decreases steadily.
Parallel lines have the same gradient, and the product of the gradients of
(x2, y2)
perpendicular lines is equal to −1. That is, B
0 x
m1 = m2 for parallel lines
and m1 m2 = −1 for perpendicular lines.
The angle of inclination of an oblique line with the positive direction of the x-axis can be calculated from
the gradient by the relationship m = tan(𝜃). The angle 𝜃 is acute if the gradient is positive and obtuse if the
gradient is negative.
Equation of a line
The equation of a straight line can be expressed in the form y = mx + c, where m is the gradient of the line
and c is the y-value of the intercept the line makes with the y-axis.
If a point (x1 , y1 ) and the gradient m are known, the equation of a line can be calculated from the point–
gradient form y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).
Oblique lines are one-to-one functions.
Horizontal lines run parallel to the x-axis and have the equation y = c. These are many-to-one functions.
Vertical lines rise parallel to the y-axis and have the equation x = k. These lines are not functions.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Consider the line L where L = {(x, y) : 2x + 3y = 12}.

a. Sketch the line. b. Calculate the gradient of the line.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Calculate the x- and y-intercepts. a. 2x + 3y = 12
y-intercept: Let x = 0.
3y = 12
y=4
The y-intercept is (0, 4).
x-intercept: Let y = 0.
2x = 12
x=6
The x-intercept is (6, 0).
2. Sketch the graph. y
2x + 3y = 12
(0, 4)
(6, 0)
0 x
b. Rearrange the equation in the form y = mx + c and b. 2x + 3y = 12

state the gradient. 3y = −2x + 12
Note: The gradient could also be calculated using −2x
y= +4
rise 3
m= from the diagram.
run 2
The gradient is m = − .
3
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Find the equation, in the form ax + by + c = 0, for the line:

a. passing through the point (2, 3) and parallel to the line with equation y − 3x + 5 = 0
b. passing through the point (−1, 6) and perpendicular to the line with equation 2y + 4x = −10.
THINK WRITE
a. Convert the equation into the form y = mx + c and a. y − 3x + 5 = 0
state the gradient of the parallel line. This is also the y = 3x − 5
gradient of the desired line. ∴ m=3
2. State the gradient-point form of a straight line y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
equation.

3. Substitute the given point (2, 3) and the gradient y − 3 = 3(x − 2)
and simplify. y − 3 = 3x + 6
y = 3x + 9
4. Rearrange the formula into the required form, y = 3x + 9
ax + by + c = 0. y − 3x − 9 = 0
b. 1. Convert the equation into the form y = mx + c and b. 2y + 4x = −10
state the gradient of the perpendicular line. 2y = −4x − 10
y = −2x − 5
∴ m = −2
2. Calculate the gradient of the desired line. m1 × m2 = −1
−2 × m2 = −1
1
∴ m2 =
2
equation.
1
4. Substitute the given point (−1, 6) and the gradient y − 6 = (x + 1)
2
and simplify.
1 1
y−6= x+
2 2
1 13
y= x+
2 2
1 13
5. Rearrange the formula into the required form, y= x+
2 2
ax + by + c = 0. 2y = x + 13
2y − x − 13 = 0
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
a. Calculate,correct to 1 decimal place, the angle made with the positive direction of the x-axis
by the line that passes through the points (−3, −2) and (4, 1).
b. Determine the equation of the line that passes through the point (5, 2) at an angle of 45°.
THINK WRITE
y2 − y1
a. 1. Determine the gradient of the line passing between a. m=
x2 − x1
the given points.
1+2
=
4+3
3
=
7
2. State the relationship between the angle and the tan(𝜃) = m
gradient 3
tan(𝜃) =
7
3
3. Calculate 𝜃, correct to 1 decimal place. 𝜃 = tan−1
(7)
= 23.2°
b. 1. Determine the gradient from the given angle. b. tan(𝜃) = m

m = tan(45°)
=1
equation.
3. Substitute the given point (5, 2) and the gradient y − 2 = 1(x − 5)
and simplify. y−2=x−5
y=x−3
Midpoint between two points

y
The midpoint, M, of a line cuts the line exactly in half, so M is B (x2, y2)
equidistant from point A and point B.
The coordinates of M are found by averaging the x- and
y-coordinates of points A and B. M
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
M= , A (x1, y1)
( 2 2 )
0 x
Distance between two points

The distance between two points is the length of that line segment. y
Essentially a right-angled triangle can be constructed, with the
vertical height y2 − y1 and the horizontal length x2 − x1 . Apply- B (x2, y2)
ing Pythagoras’ theorem, the formula for the distance between two
points becomes: y2 – y1
A x 2 – x1
√ (x1, y1)
d= (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 x
0

WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Given the points (−3, 5) and (4, −6) calculate:

a. the midpoint, M, between the two points b. the distance between the two points.
THINK WRITE
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
a. 1. Write the formula for finding the midpoint between a. M = ( ,
2 2 )
two points.
−3 + 4 5 − 6
Substitute the x- and y-coordinates and simplify. M= ,
( 2 2 )
Note: It doesn’t matter which is point 1 and which is
point 2. 1 1
= ,−
(2 2)
√
b. 1. Write the distance formula. b. d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
√
2. Substitute the two points into the equation and d = (4 + 3)2 + (−6 − 5)2
simplify. √
= 72 + (−11)2
Note: It doesn’t matter which is point 1 and which is √
point 2. = 49 + 121
√
= 170
√
3. State the final answer. The distance is 170 units.
Interactivity: Equations from point–gradient and gradient–y-intercept (int-2551)

Interactivity: Midpoint of a line segment and the perpendicular bisector (int-2553)
Interactivity: Roots, zeros and factors (int-2557)
Exercise 1.2 Linear functions
Technology free
1. For each of the following, state:
i. the type of correspondence
ii. the domain and the range
iii. whether or not the relation is a function.
a.
(––32 , 7( y b. y
(–3, 5) (0, 4)
(1, 0)
0 x
(0, 0) x
(6, –6)
(–92 , –9(
c. y d. y
(0, 2)
(0, 2)
(–2, 0)
(2, 0) x (3, 0)
0
0 x
(0, –2)
e. y f. y
(2, 8)
(0, 2)
0 x
0 x
(–2, –8)
2. WE1Part of the graph of the parabola y = x2 is shown in the y

diagram.
a. Explain why the graph shows a function and state the type (–4, 16)
of correspondence.
b. State the domain and range. y = x2
c. Express the given parabola using function notation.
√
d. Calculate the value of y when x = −2 3 . (2, 4)
3. WE2 Consider the line L where L = {(x, y) : 3x − 4y = 12}.
a. Sketch the line. x

0
b. Calculate the gradient of the line.
4. Sketch the following linear functions and state the range of each.
a. f : R → R, f (x) = 9 − 4x
3x
b. g : (−3, 5] → R, g(x) =
5
c. 2x + y = 4, x ∈ [−2, 4)
2x
d. y = + 5, x ∈ [−1, 5]
3
5. Find the equation of the line:
a. with a gradient of −3 and passing through the point (2, 6)
b. passing through the points (−2, −4) and (1, 5).
6. WE3 Find the equation, in the form ax + by + c = 0 for the line:
a. passing through the point (−1, 4) and parallel to the line with equation y + 2x − 3 = 0
b. passing through the point (2, 3) and perpendicular to the line with equation 3y − 6x = 4.

7. a. WE4 Calculate, correct to 1 decimal place, the angle made with the positive direction of the x-axis
by the line that passes through the points (2, 1) and (8, −4).
b. Determine the equation of the line that passes through the point (−2, 4) at an angle of 45°.
8. a. WE5 Given the points (2, 0) and (6, −4) calculate:
i. the midpoint, M, between the two points
ii. the distance between the two points.
b. Given the points (−3, −2) and (4, 3) calculate:
i. the midpoint, M, between the two points
ii. the distance between the two points.
9. Find the value of a when:
a. the midpoint of (a, 4) and (10, −2) is (8, 1)
3 5
b. the midpoint of (6, a) and (−3, −2) is ,
(2 2)
√
c. the distance between (1, a) and (4, 6) is 73
√
d. the distance between (a, 4) and (−2, −2) is 45 .
10. Consider the three points A (5, −3), B (7, 8) and C (−2, p). The line through A and C is parallel to
9x + 7y = 24.
a. Calculate the value of p.
b. Determine the equation of the line through B that is perpendicular to AC.
c. Calculate the shortest distance from B to AC, expressing the value to 1 decimal place.
1.3 Solving systems of equations

1.3.1 Solving simultaneous equations with two variables
Three possible scenarios exist when we are dealing with two linear simultaneous equations. There may be
one solution only, there may be no solutions, or there may be infinitely many solutions.
If the two straight lines intersect each other at only one place, we have one y
solution. This indicates that the gradients of the two equations are different.
0 x
If the two straight lines have the same gradient, they are parallel lines, so y
they never meet. Therefore, there are no solutions to the simultaneous equa-
tions. Although the gradients of the lines are the same, the y-intercepts are
different.
0 x
If the two straight lines have the same equation, one line lies on top of y
the other and there are infinitely many solutions. Both the gradients and the
y-intercepts are identical.
0 x
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Find the value of k for which the following simultaneous equations have a unique solution.
kx + 3y = 1
4x + 3ky = 0
THINK WRITE
1. Label the equations. kx + 3y = 1 [1]

4x + 3ky = 0 [2]
2. There will be a unique solution for all values of k, [1] ⇒ kx + 3y = 1
except when the gradients of the two lines are the 3y = 1 − kx
same. To find the gradient, write the equations in the 1 − kx k
y= ∴m=−
general form, y = mx + c. 3 3
[2] ⇒ 4x + 3ky = 0
3ky = −4x
−4x 4
y= ∴m=−
3k 3k
k 4
3. Equate the gradients and solve for k. − =−
3 3k
3k2 = 12
k2 = 4
k = ±2
4. Write the solution. k ∈ R \{−2, 2}
This solution tells us that if k = ±2, the equations
will have the same gradient, so for any other value
of k, there will be a unique solution.
5. Note: In this example, we weren’t required to k = 2
further analyse the values of k and work out if the [1] ⇒ 2x + 3y = 1
equations were identical or were parallel lines. To [2] ⇒ 4x + 6y = 0
do this, we would substitute the values of k into the [2] ÷ 2 ⇒ 2x + 3y = 0
equations and interpret the results, as shown here.
The gradients are the same but the
y-intercepts are not, so these lines are
parallel.

k = −2
[1] ⇒ −2x + 3y = 1
[2] ⇒ 4x − 6y = 0
[2] ÷ − 2 ⇒ 2x + 3y = 0
The gradients are the same but the
y-intercepts are not, so these lines are
also parallel.
Alternative method
An alternative method to the one shown in Worked example 6 is to use matrices, and in particular the
determinant, to find the value of k.
kx + 3y = 1
4x + 3ky = 0
Step 1. Construct a coefficient matrix.
Note: It is important to ensure that the first term in both equations contains the same pronumeral.
k 3
[ 4 3k ]
Step 2. Equate the determinant to zero.

If the determinant is zero a matrix cannot be solved, which in this case means that a unique solution cannot
be found to the simultaneous equations.
a b
Remember, if the matrix is , then the determinant is ad − bc.
[c d]
So, in this case:
k × 3k − 4 × 3 = 0
3k2 − 12 = 0
3k2 = 12
k2 = 4
k = ±2
Step 3. Interpret the result.
If k ∈ R \ {−2, 2}, this means that a unique solution exists for the simultaneous linear equations.
If k = ±2 there is no unique solution — the lines are either parallel (no solution) or the same line (infinitely
many solutions). As with Step 5 in Worked example 6, in order to further analyse the values of k, both –2
and 2 would need to be substituted into the equations. Please refer to the worked example for this working.
Interactivity: Solving systems of equations (int-2549)

Interactivity: Intersecting, parallel and identical lines (int-2552)
Units 3 & 4 AOS 2 Topic 4 Concept 1
Simultaneous equations with two variables Summary screen and practice questions
1.3.2 Simultaneous equations with three variables
An equation with two variables defines a line. An equation with three variables defines a plane. If an equation
has three variables, there needs to be three different equations for us to be able to solve for the point at which
the three planes intersect (if in fact they do intersect at a single point).
There are a number of different possible outcomes when planes intersect.
No solution One unique solution Infinitely many solutions
Planes are parallel to one another. The planes are identical.
There is no common point of There is a single point at which The planes intersect along a line.
intersection. all three planes intersect.
When solving three simultaneous equations without technology, the strategy is to eliminate one of the
variables and reduce the three equations with three unknowns to two equations with two unknowns.
Solving simultaneous equations with technology becomes a straightforward problem in CAS by using the
inbuilt functions.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Solve the following system of simultaneous equations.

2x − 3y + 2z = −5
x − 5y + z = 1
2x + 3y + z = −2
THINK WRITE
1. Label the equations and determine which of the 2x − 3y + 2z = −5 [1]

three pronumerals you are going to eliminate. x − 5y + z = 1 [2]
Either x or z would be appropriate choices as the 2x + 3y + z = −2 [3]
coefficients in all three equations are either the same
or a multiple of the other. Let us eliminate z.

2. Subtract equation [2] from [3] to eliminate z and [3] − [2] ⇒ x + 8y = −3 [4]
label this equation [4].
3. We need another equation without z. In order to [3] × 2 ⇒ 4x + 6y + 2z = −4 [5]
subtract equation [1] from [3], multiply equation [3]
by 2. Label this equation [5].
4. Subtract equation [1] from the newly formed [5] to [5] − [1] ⇒ 2x + 9y = 1 [6]
eliminate z and label this equation [6].
5. We now have two equations with only x and y. x + 8y = −3 [4]
2x + 9y = 1 [6]
6. The standard elimination method will be used to [4] × 2 ⇒ 2x + 16y = −6 [7]
solve this pair of simultaneous equations. Multiply
equation [4] by 2 so that the coefficients of x are the
same. Label this equation [7].
7. Subtract equation [6] from [7] and solve for y. [7] − [6] ⇒ 7y = −7
y = −1
8. Substitute y = −1 back into the system of equations Substitute y = −1 into [4]:
in order to find x. Choose one of the equations x − 8 = −3
containing only x and y. x=5
9. Substitute the values for x and y into one of the Substitute y = −1 and x = 5 into [2]:
original equations and solve for z. 5+5+z=1
10 + z = 1
z = −9
10. Write the final solution. Alternatively, CAS can be x = 5, y = −1, z = −9
used to solve the three simultaneous equations if the
question is technology active.
TI | THINK WRITE CASIO | THINK WRITE

1. On a Calculator screen, press 1. On the Main screen, complete
MENU then select the entry line as
3: Algebra solve ({2x − 3y + 2z = −5,
7: Solve System of Equations x − 5y + z = 1,
1: Solve System of Equations … 2x + 3y + z = −2},
Complete the entry line as {x, y, z})
⎛⎧
⎪2x − 3y + 2z = −5 ⎞ then press EXE.
solve ⎜⎜⎨x − 5y + z = 1 , {x, y, z}⎟⎟
⎝⎪
⎩2x + 3y + z = −2 ⎠
then press ENTER.
2. The answer appears on the screen. x = 5, y = −1, z = −9 2. The answer appears on the x = 5, y = −1, z = −9
screen.
Interactivity: Equations in 3 variables (int-2550)
Simultaneous equations involving parameters
When there are infinitely many solutions to a system of equations, such as when planes intersect along a line,
we can describe the set of solutions through the use of a parameter. Conventionally, the parameter chosen is 𝜆.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
The simultaneous equations shown have infinitely many solutions.

2x + y − 4z = 2
x + y + 3z = −1
a. Eliminatey by subtracting the second equation from the first equation.
b. Letz = 𝜆 and solve the equations in terms of 𝜆.
c. Explain what this solution represents.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Label the equations. a. 2x + y − 4z = 2 [1]
x + y + 3z = −1 [2]
2. Subtract equation [2] from equation [1]. [2] − [1] ⇒ x − 7z = 3
b. 1. Substitute z = 𝜆 and solve for x. b. z=𝜆
x − 7𝜆 = 3
x = 3 + 7𝜆
2. Substitute z = 𝜆 and x = 3 + 7𝜆 into equation Substitute z = 𝜆 and x = 3 + 7𝜆 into [2]:
[2] and solve for y. 3 + 7𝜆 + y + 3𝜆 = −1
Note: Equation [1] could also have been y + 10𝜆 + 3 = −1
chosen. y = −4 − 10𝜆
3. Write the solution. x = 3 + 7𝜆, y = −4 − 10𝜆, z = 𝜆
c. Interpret the solution. c. This solution describes the line along
which the two planes intersect.

b. 1. On a Calculator screen, press b. 1. On the Main screen,
MENU then select complete the entry line as
3: Algebra solve ({2x + y − 4z = 2,
7: Solve System of Equations x + y + 3z = −11,
1: Solve System of Equations … z = 𝜆}, {x, y, z})
Complete the entry line as then press EXE.
⎛⎧
⎪2x + y − 4z = 2 ⎞ Note: the 𝜆 symbol can be
solve ⎜⎜⎨x + y + 3z = −1 , {x, y, z}⎟⎟ found in Keyboard menu
⎝⎪
⎩z = 𝜆 ⎠ by selecting abc then
then press ENTER. selecting 𝛼𝛽𝛾.
Note: the 𝜆 symbol can be found
by pressing / then k.
2. The answer appears on the screen. x = 7𝜆+3, y = −2(5𝜆+2), z = 𝜆 2. The answer appears on the x = 7𝜆 + 3,
screen. y = −10𝜆 − 4,
z=𝜆
Simultaneous equations with three variables Summary screen and practice questions

Exercise 1.3 Solving systems of equations
Technology free
1. WE5 Find the value of k for which the following simultaneous equations have a unique solution.
2x + ky = 4
(k − 3) x + 2y = 0
2. Find the value of m for which the following simultaneous equations have infinitely many solutions.
mx − 2y = 4
x + (m − 3) y = m
3. Find the value of m for which the following simultaneous equations have no solution.
x + my = 3
4mx + y = 0
4. Find the value of k for which the following simultaneous equations have a unique solution.
x + 3ky = 2
(k − 1) x − 1 = −6y
5. Find the value of m for which the following simultaneous equations have:
a. a unique solution
b. no solution
c. an infinite number of solutions.
−2x + my = 1
(m + 3) x − 2y = −2m
6. WE6 Solve the following system of simultaneous equations.
2m − 4n − p = 1
4m + n + p = 5
3m + 3n − 2p = 22
Technology active
7. Solve the following system of simultaneous equations.
2d − e − f = −2
3d + 2e − f = 5
d + 3e + 2f = 11
8. Solve the following systems of simultaneous equations.

a. 2x + y − z = 12 b. m+n−p=6
−x − 3y + z = −13 3m + 5n − 2p = 13
−4x + 3y − z = −2 5m + 4n − 7p = 34
c. u + 2v − 4w = 23 d. a+b+c=4
3u + 4v − 2w = 37 2a − b + 2c = 17
3u + v − 2w = 19 −a − 3b + c = 3
9. The measure of the largest angle of a triangle is 20° more than the smallest angle, and the sum of the
largest and smallest angles is 60° more than the third angle. Find the angle sizes of the triangle using
simultaneous equations.
w − 2x + 3y − z = 10
2w + x + y + z = 4
−w + x + 2y − z = −3
3w − 2x + y = 11
11. Solve the following system of simultaneous equations in terms of a.
2x − y + az = 4
(a + 2) x + y − z = 2
6x + (a + 1) y − 2z = 4
12. WE7 The simultaneous equations shown have infinitely many solutions.
x + 2y + 2z = 1
2x − 2y + z = 2
Eliminate y by adding the second equation to the first equation.
a.
b. Let z = 𝜆 and solve the equations in terms of 𝜆.
c. Explain what this solution represents.
13. Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations through the use of the parameter 𝜆.
x + 2y + 4z = 2
x − y − 3z = 4
14. Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations through the use of the parameter 𝜆.
x + y − 2z = 5
x − 2y + 4z = 1
15. Solve the pair of simultaneous equations through the use of the parameter 𝜆.
−2x + y + z = −2
x − 3z = 0
16. Find the values of m and n for which the equations below have:
a. a unique solution
b. an infinite number of solutions
c. no solution.
3x + 2y = −1
mx + 4y = n
1.4 Quadratic functions

1.4.1 Factorisation
Review of quadratic expressions
The following techniques are used to factorise quadratic expressions.
• Perfect squares: a2 ± 2ab + b2 = (a ± b)2
• Difference of perfect squares: a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b)
• Trial and error (trinomials): To factorise x2 − x − 6, we look for the factors of x2 and −6 that, when
combined, form the middle term of −x.
x–3
x+2
x2 − x − 6 = (x − 3) (x + 2)
• Completing the square: The method of completing the square will work for any quadratic that can be
factorised.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Use an appropriate technique to factorise each of the following quadratic expressions.

a. 9a2 − 24ab + 16b2 b. 6x2 − 17x + 7 c. 2t2 + 8t − 14
THINK WRITE
a. The first and last terms are perfect a. 9a2 − 24ab + 16b2 = (3a)2 − 2(3a)(4b) + (4b)2
squares, so check if the expression fits = (3a − 4b)2
the perfect square formula.
b. 1. Always try to factorise by the trial and b. 6x2 − 17x + 7
error method before applying the Possible factors are:
method of completing the square. 3x – 7
2x – 1
Write the answer.

2. 6x2 − 17x + 7 = (3x − 7)(2x − 1)
c. 1. Take out the common factor of 2. c. 2t2 + 8t − 14 = 2(t2 + 4t − 7)
2. Trial and error is not an appropriate = 2(t2 + 4t + (2)2 − (2)2 − 7)
method here, as the only factors of 7 = 2((t + 2)2 − 4 − 7)
are 1 and 7, and these cannot be
= 2((t + 2)2 − 11)
combined to give a middle coefficient √ √
of 4. Thus, the completion of the = 2(t + 2 − 11 ) (t + 2 + 11 )
square method is required.
Interactivity: Perfect square form of a quadratic (int-2558)

Interactivity: Completing the square (int-2559)
1.4.2 Solving quadratic equations

Polynomial equations, whether they be quadratics, cubic polynomials, quartic polynomials or polynomials
of a higher degree, can be solved using the Null Factor Law.
For example
0 = x2 − 5x + 6.
Factorising gives
0 = ax2 + bx + c
Applying the Null Factor Law, x = 3 or x = 2.
The quadratic formula

Quadratic equations of the form 0 = ax2 + bx + c can also be solved by using the quadratic formula:
√
−b ±
b2 − 4ac If Δ > 0, there are two real solutions to the equation.
x= If Δ = 0, there is one real solution to the equation.
2a
The discriminant = Δ If Δ < 0, there are no real solutions to the equation.
= b2 − 4ac
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Solve the following equations for x.

a. 6x2 − 7x − 3 = 0 b. x2 + 8x + 1 = 0
THINK WRITE
a. 1. First try to factorise by two brackets. a. 6x2 − 7x − 3 = 0
(3x + 1)(2x − 3) = 0
1 3
2. Apply the Null Factor Law to solve for x. x=− ,
3 2
b. 1. First try to factorise by two brackets. If this doesn’t b. Δ = b2 − 4ac
work, check the discriminant. = 82 − 4 × 1 × 1
As the discriminant is not a perfect square, the
= 60
quadratic formula must be used to solve the
Δ > 0, ∴ 2 solutions
equation.
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
2. Apply the quadratic formula. x=
2a
√
−8 ± 60
=
2
√
−8 ± 2 15
=
2
√
3. Write the answer x = −4 ± 15

b. 1. On a Calculator screen, b. 1. On the Main screen,
press MENU then select complete the entry line as
3: Algebra solve(x2 + 8x + 1 = 0, x)
1: Solve then press EXE.
Complete the entry line
as
solve(x2 + 8x + 1 = 0, x)
then press ENTER.
√ √ √ √
2. The answer appears on x = − 15 − 4, x = 15 − 4 2. The answer appears on the x = − 15 − 4, x = 15 − 4
the screen. screen.
Interactivity: The discriminant (int-2560)

Interactivity: The quadratic formula (int-2561)

1.4.3 Graphing quadratic functions
The function f : R → R, f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, c ∈ R and a ≠ 0, is the quadratic polynomial
function. If a > 0, its graph is a concave-up parabola with a minimum turning point; if a < 0, its graph is a
concave-down parabola with a maximum turning point.
General form, y = ax2 + bx + c

As the x-intercepts of the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c are the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0,
there may be zero, one or two x-intercepts as determined by the discriminant Δ = b2 − 4ac.
Δ<0 Δ=0 Δ>0

a>0 y y y
0 x 0 x 0 x
a<0 y y y
0 x 0 x 0 x
If Δ < 0, there are no x-intercepts; the quadratic function is either positive or negative,
depending whether a > 0 or a < 0 respectively.
If Δ = 0, there is one x-intercept, a turning point where the graph touches the x axis.
If Δ > 0, there are two distinct x-intercepts and the graph crosses the x-axis at these places.
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
As the roots of the quadratic equation are given by x = , the axis of symmetry of the
2a
−b
parabola has the equation x = . This is also the x-coordinate of the turning point, so by substituting this
2a
value into the parabola’s equation, the y-coordinate of the turning point can be calculated.
Turning point form, y = a(x − h)2 + k
The simplest parabola has the equation y = x2 . Its turning point is the origin, (0, 0), which is unaltered by
a dilation from the x-axis in the y-direction. However, if the graph of this parabola undergoes a horizontal
translation of h units and a vertical translation of k units, the turning point moves to the point (h, k).
Thus, y = a(x − h)2 + k is the equation of a parabola with turning point (h, k) and axis of symmetry x = h.
If y = a(x − h)2 + k is expanded, then the general form y = ax2 + bx + c is obtained. Conversely, when
the technique of completing the square is applied to the equation y = ax2 + bx + c, the turning point form is
obtained.
x-intercept form, y = a(x − x1 ) (x − x2 )

When the equation of a quadratic function is expressed as the product of its two linear factors, the x-intercepts
at x = x1 and x = x2 can be obtained by inspection. The axis of symmetry lies midway between the intercepts,
x1 + x2
so the equation for this axis must be x = , and this gives the x-coordinate of the turning point. The
2
y-coordinate of the turning point can be calculated from the equation once the x-coordinate is known.
Expanding the equation y = a(x − x1 ) (x − x2 ) will return it to general form, and factorising the general
equation y = ax2 + bx + c will convert it to x-intercept form.
Key features of the graph of a quadratic function
When sketching the graph of a parabola by hand, identify:

• the y-intercept
• any x-intercepts
• the turning point
• the axis of symmetry, if it is helpful to the sketch
• any end point coordinates if the function is given on a restricted domain.
The methods used to identify these features will depend on the form in which the equation of the graph is
expressed.
Similarly, when determining the equation of a parabola given a key feature, you should select the form of
the equation that emphasises that key feature.
• If the turning point is given, use the y = a(x − h)2 + k form.
• If the x-intercepts are given, use the y = a(x − x1 ) (x − x2 ) form.
• Otherwise, use the y = ax2 + bx + c form.
Three pieces of information are always required to determine the equation, as each form involves 3 constants
or parameters.

WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Sketch the graph of y = 9 − (2x + 1)2 and state its domain and range.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Rewrite the equation so it is in a standard form. y = 9 − (2x + 1)2

y = −(2x + 1)2 + 9
or 2
1
y=− 2 x+ +9
(( 2 ))
2
1
y = −4 x + +9
( 2)
2. State the coordinates and type of turning point. The graph has a maximum turning
1
point at − , 9 .
( 2 )
3. Calculate the y-intercept. y-intercept: Let x = 0.
y = 9 − (1)2
y=8
4. Calculate any x-intercepts. As the graph has a maximum turning
point with a positive y-value, there
will be x-intercepts.
Let y = 0.
9 − (2x + 1)2 = 0
(2x + 1)2 = 9
2x + 1 = ±3
2x = −4 or 2
x = −2 or 1
The x-intercepts are (−2, 0) and (1, 0).
5. Sketch the graph.
)–1–2, 9)y
(0, 8)
y = 9 – (2x + 1)2
(–2, 0) (1, 0)
0 x
6 State the domain and range. The domain is R and the range is
(−∞, 9].
1. On a Graphs page, 1. On a Graph & Table
complete the entry line for screen, complete the
function 1 as entry line for y1 as
f1(x) = 9 − (2x + 1)2 y1 = 9 − (2x + 1)2
then press ENTER. then press EXE.
Select the Graph icon
to draw the graph.
2. To find the x-intercepts, 2. To find the x-intercepts,

press MENU then select select
6: Analyze Graph • Analysis
1: Zero • G-Solve
Move the cursor to the left • Root
of the x-intercept when With the cursor on the
prompted for the lower first x-intercept, press
bound, then press ENTER. EXE.
Move the cursor to the right Use the left/right
of the x-intercept when arrows to move to the
prompted for the upper other x-intercept, then
bound, then press ENTER. press EXE.
Repeat this step to find the
other x-intercept.
3. To find the y-intercept, 3. To find the y-intercept,
5: Trace • Analysis
1: Graph Trace • G-Solve
Type “0” then press • Y-Intercept
ENTER twice. then press EXE.
4. To find the maximum, 4. To find the maximum,

6: Analyze Graph • Analysis
3: Maximum • G-Solve
Move the cursor to the left • Max
of the maximum when then press EXE.
prompted for the lower
bound, then press ENTER.
Move the cursor to the right
of the maximum when
prompted for the upper
bound, then press ENTER.
5. The domain and range can The domain is R and the range is 5. The domain and The domain is R and the
be read from the graph. (−∞, 9]. range can be read range is (−∞, 9].
from the graph.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Determine the equation of the given graph and hence obtain the y
coordinates of the turning point.
(–5, 0) 0 (8, 0) x
(0, –4)
THINK WRITE
1. Select a form of the equation. As the two x-intercepts are known, the
x-intercept form of the equation will be used.
2. Use the key features to partially determine There is an x-intercept at x = −5.
the equation. ⇒ (x + 5) is a factor.
There is an x-intercept at x = 8.
⇒ (x − 8) is a factor.
The equation is y = a(x + 5) (x − 8).
3. Use the third piece of information to fully The point (0, −4) lies on the graph. Substitute
determine the equation. this point in y = a(x + 5) (x − 8).
−4 = a(5)(−8)
−4 = −40a
1
a=
10
1
The equation is y = (x + 5) (x − 8).
10
4. Determine the equation of the axis of The axis of symmetry lies midway between
symmetry. the x-intercepts.
−5 +8
∴ x=
2
3
=
2
3
5. Calculate the coordinates of the turning The turning point has x = .
2
point. 3
Substitute x = in the equation of the graph.
2
1 3 3
y= +5 −8
10 ( 2 )( 2 )
1 13 −13
y= × ×
10 2 2
169
y=−
40
3 169
The turning point is ,− .
(2 40 )
Interactivity: Quadratic functions (int-2562)
Quadratic functions Summary screen and practice questions
Exercise 1.4 Quadratic functions
Technology free
1. Use an appropriate method to factorise each of the following quadratic expressions.
WE9
15u2 − u − 2
a. b. 6d 2 − 28d + 16 c. 3j2 + 12j − 6
2. Use an appropriate method to factorise each of the following quadratic expressions.
a. f 2 − 12f − 28 b. g2 + 3g − 4 c. b2 − 1
3. WE10 Solve the following equations for x.
a. 8x2 + 2x − 3 = 0 b. 2x2 − 4x + 1 = 0
4. Fully factorise and solve the following quadratic equations over R.
a. 81y2 = 1 b. 4z2 + 28z + 49 = 0 c. 5m2 + 3 = 10m d. x2 − 4x = −3
e. 48p = 24p2 + 18 f. 39k = 4k2 + 77 g. m2 + 3m = 4 h. 4n2 = 8 − 5n
Technology active
5. WE11Sketch the graph of y = 2(3x − 2)2 − 8 and state its domain and range.
6. a. f : (−2, 2] → R, f (x) = 3(1 − x)2 + 2. What is the range of the graph?
b. Sketch the graphs of the following quadratic functions. State the range for each one.
i. y = (x − 2)(2x + 3), x ∈ [−2, 3]
ii. y = −x2 + 4x + 2, x ∈ R
iii. y = −2(x + 1)2 − 3, x ∈ (−3, 0]
iv. y = 21 (2x − 3)2 − 1, x ∈ R
7. Consider the quadratic function f:R+ ∪ {0} → R, f (x) = 4x2 − 8x + 7.
a. Determine the number of intercepts the graph of y = f (x) makes with the x-axis.
b. Express the equation of the function in the form f (x) = a(x + b)2 + c.
c. Sketch the graph of y = f (x) and state its domain and range.
8. WE12 Determine the equation of the given graph and hence obtain the coordinates of the turning point.
y
(0, 2)
(4, 0)
0 x
(1, 0
––
2 (

9. Determine the equations of the following quadratic functions.
a. The turning point has coordinates (−6, 12) and the graph of the function passes through the point
(4, −3).
1
b. The points (−7, 0), (0, −20) and −2 , 0 lie on the graph.
( 2 )
c. The minimum value of the function is −5 and it contains the points (−8, 11) and (8, 11)
10. a. Express −x2 + 2x − 5 in the form a(x + b)2 + c.
b. Hence, state the coordinates of the turning point of the graph of y = −x2 + 2x − 5.
c. Sketch the graph of y = −x2 + 2x − 5 and state its range.
d. Use a graphical method to show that the graphs of y = x + 3 and y = −x2 + 2x − 5 never intersect.
e. Determine the value of k so that the graphs of y = x + k and y = −x2 + 2x − 5 will touch exactly once.
11. What are the possible values of k such that the graphs of y = 2x2 and y = kx − 2 do not intersect?
12. Find the values of m for which the line y = − 3 − 2mx intersects the parabola y = x2 − 1 twice.
13. Show that y = 2x − 3 is a tangent to the graph y = x2 − 2.
14. a. For what values of k does the equation kx2 − 3x + k = 0 have no solutions?
b. If kx2 + 4x − k + 2 = 0, show that the equation has a solution for all values of k.
5 − 2m
15. A quadratic equation has the rule (m − 1)x2 + x + 2m = 0. Find the value(s) of m for which
( 2 )
the quadratic equation has two solutions.
1.5 Cubic functions

1.5.1 Factorisation
For polynomials of degree 3, it is necessary to remember the perfect cube patterns as well as the sum and
difference of two cubes.
Perfect cube:
a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 = (a + b)3
a3 − 3a2 b + 3ab2 − b3 = (a − b)3
Sum and difference of two cubes:

a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 − ab + b2 )
a3 − b3 = (a − b) (a2 + ab + b2 )
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Use an appropriate technique to factorise each of the following cubic expressions.

a. 27y3 − 27y2 + 9y − 1 b. x3 + 8
3
c. 3y − 81 d. 8m3 + 60m2 + 150m + 125
THINK WRITE
a. This is a perfect cube pattern. a. 27y3 − 27y2 + 9y − 1

Check to see that it has the pattern of = (3y)3 − 3 (3y)2 (1) + 3 (3y) (1)2 − (1)3
a3 − 3a2 b + 3ab2 − b3 = (a − b)3 .
= (3y − 1)3
b. This is a sum of two cubes pattern. b. x3 + 8 = x3 + 2 3
= (x + 2)(x2 − 2x + 22 )
= (x + 2)(x2 − 2x + 4)
c. 1. Remember to take out a common c. 3y3 − 81 = 3( y3 − 27)
factor first.
2. Now factorise using the difference of = 3(y3 − 33 )
two cubes pattern. = 3(y − 3)(y2 + 3y + 32 )
= 3(y − 3)(y2 + 3y + 9)
d. This is a perfect cube pattern. d. 8m + 60m2 + 150m + 125
3
Check to see that it has the pattern of = (2m)3 + 3(2m)2 (5) + 3(2m)(5)2 + (5)3
a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 = (a + b)3 .
= (2m + 5)3
Factorising cubics using the technique of grouping

To factorise x3 − 3x2 + 4x − 12, start by grouping two and two in the following manner.
x3 – 3x2 + 4x – 12
TWO TWO
x2
= (x – 3) + 4 (x – 3)
= (x – 3)(x2 + 4)
The other possible method is to group three and one. For example, to factorise x2 − z2 + 4x + 4, rearrange
the expression to become
x2 + 4x + 4 – z2
x2 + 4x + 4 – z2
THREE ONE
= (x + 2)2– z2
= (x + 2 – z)(x + 2 + z)
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
Factorise the following polynomials.

a. m2− n2 − 36 − 12n b. p3 + 2p2 − 4p − 8
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Group the polynomial one and three and rearrange, a. m2 − n2 − 36 − 12n

taking out −1 as a common factor. = m2 − n2 − 12n − 36
= m2 − (n2 + 12n + 36)
2. Factorise the group of three terms as a perfect = m2 − (n + 6)2
square.
3. Apply the difference of perfect squares method. = (m − (n + 6))(n + (n + 6))
= (m − n − 6)(n + m + 6)

b. 1. Group the polynomial two and two. b. p3 + 2p2 – 4p – 8
TWO TWO
3 2
2. Factorise each pair. p + 2p − 4p − 8
= p2 (p + 2) − 4(p + 2)
= (p + 2)(p2 − 4)
3. Finish the factorisation by applying the difference = (p + 2) (p − 2) (p + 2)
of perfect squares method. = (p + 2)2 (p − 2)
Factor theorem
When the previous methods are not appropriate for a third degree polynomial or a higher degree polynomial,
then knowledge of the factor theorem is essential. The factor theorem is an algebraic theorem that links the
zeros of a polynomial. It states the following:
A polynomial, P(x), has a factor (x − a) if and only if P(a) = 0;

that is, if a is a root of the polynomial.
Consider the factorisation of x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 15.

Let P(x) = x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 15.
By substituting integer values of x that are factors of the constant term, we aim to achieve a zero remainder,
that is, to achieve P(x) = 0. If this is so, we have found one linear factor of the cubic polynomial.
P (1) = 13 + 3(1)2 − 13 (1) − 15
= 1 + 3 − 13 − 15
≠0
P (−1) = (−1)3 + 3(−1)2 − 13 (−1) − 15
= −1 + 3 + 13 − 15
=0
Thus, (x + 1) is a factor. The quadratic factor can then be found by long division or by inspection.
x2 + 2x − 15
)
x + 1 x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 15
− (x3 + x2)
2x2 − 13x − 15
− (2x2 + 2x)
− 15x − 15
− (−15x − 15)
0
–15x + 2x
or x3 + 3x2 – 13x – 15 = (x+1) (x2 + 2x – 15)
2x2 + x2
Completing the factorisation gives:
x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 15 = (x + 1) (x2 + 2x − 15)
= (x + 1) (x + 5) (x − 3)
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
Fully factorise 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3.
THINK WRITE
1. Let P (x) equal the cubic polynomial. P(x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3

2. Try P (1), P (−1), P (2) and so on to get a zero P(1) = 2 − 3 − 8 − 3 ≠ 0
remainder. P(−1) = −2 − 3 + 8 − 3 = 0
Therefore x + 1 is a factor.
3. Use long division to obtain a quadratic factor. 2x2 − 5x − 3
)
x + 1 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3
− (2x3 + 2x2)
− 5x − 8x
− (− 5x − 5x)
− 3x − 3
− (3x − 3)
0
4. Complete the cubic factorisation by factorising the P(x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3
quadratic factor into its two linear factors. = (x + 1)(2x2 − 5x − 3)
= (x + 1)(2x + 1)(x − 3)

1. On a Calculator page, 1. On the Main screen, select
press MENU then select • Action
3: Algebra • Transformation
2: Factor • factor
Complete the entry line • factor
as Complete the entry line as
factor (2x3 −3x2 −8x−3) factor (2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3)
2. The answer appears on 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3 = 3 2

2. The answer appears on the screen. 2x − 3x − 8x − 3 =
the screen. (x − 3)(x + 1)(2x + 1) (x + 1)(x − 3)(2x + 1)
Interactivity: Long division of polynomials (int-2564)

Interactivity: The remainder and factor theorems (int-2565)
The remainder and factor theorems Summary screen and practice questions

1.5.2 Solving polynomial equations
Consider again the cubic polynomial x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 15.
x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 15 = (x + 1) (x2 + 2x − 15)

= (x + 1) (x + 5) (x − 3)
We will equate it to zero so that we have a cubic equation to solve.
x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 15 = 0
(x + 1) (x2 + 2x − 15) = 0
(x + 1) (x + 5) (x − 3) = 0
Applying the Null Factor Law, x = −1, x = −5 or x = 3.
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
Solve 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3 = 0.
THINK WRITE
1. Thecubic expression was factorised in Worked 0 = 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3

example 16. = (x + 1)(2x2 − 5x − 3)
= (x + 1)(2x + 1)(x − 3)
1
2. Usethe Null Factor Law to solve the cubic x = −1, − , 3
2
equation for x.
Equality of polynomials
Two polynomials P(x) and Q(x) are such that
P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + ... + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 and
Q (x) = bn xn + bn−1 xn−1 + bn−2 xn−2 + ... + b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 .

P(x) is identically equal to Q(x) for all values of x (that is, P(x) ≡ Q(x)) if and only if
an = bn , an−1 = bn−1 , an−2 = bn−2 ...a2 = b2 , a1 = b1 and a0 = b0 .
For instance, 3x3 + (m − 2)x2 + (m + n)x ≡ kx3 + x2 . You are required to find the values of m, n and k. As
the polynomials are equal to each other, we can equate coefficients to give:
k=3 m−2=1 m+n=0

m=3 3+n=0
n = −3
WORKED EXAMPLE 17
If (n − 3)x3 + (2n + p)x2 + (p + q)x ≡ −2x3 + x2 , find the values of n, p and q.
THINK WRITE
1. Equate the coefficients of the x3 terms and solve for n. n − 3 = −2

n=1
2. Equate the coefficients of the x2 terms and solve for p. 2n + p = 1
2+p=1
p = −1
3. Equate the coefficients of the x terms and solve for q. p+q=0
Note: as there is no x term on the right-hand side, the −1 + q = 0
coefficient is zero. q=1
4. Write the answer. n = 1, p = −1, q = 1
Equating coefficients Summary screen and practice questions
1.5.3 Graphing cubic functions

The function f : R → R, f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, a, b, c, d ∈ R, a ≠ 0 is the cubic polynomial function.
Although the shape of its graph may take several forms, for its maximal domain the function has a range of
R. Its long-term behaviour is dependent on the sign of the coefficient of the x3 term.
If a > 0, then as x → ∞, y → ∞ and as x → −∞, y → −∞.
If a < 0, then as x → ∞, y → −∞ and as x → −∞, y → ∞.
This behaviour is illustrated in the graph of y = x3 , the simplest cubic function, and that of y = −x3 .
y y
y = x3 y = –x3
(1, 1) (–1, 1)
x 0 x
(–1, –1) 0 (1, –1)
Cubic functions of the form y = a(x − h)3 + k

A significant feature of both of the graphs of y = x3 and y = −x3 is the stationary point of inflection at the
origin. This point is constant under a dilation but becomes the point (h, k) following a horizontal and vertical
translation of h and k units respectively.

Cubic functions with equations of the form y = a(x − h)3 + k have:
• a stationary point of inflection at (h, k)
• one x-intercept
• long-term behaviour dependent on the sign of a.
The coordinates of the stationary point of inflection are read from the equation in exactly the same way the
turning points of a parabola are read from its equation in turning point form.
Cubic functions expressed in factorised form

A cubic function may have one, two or three x-intercepts, and hence its equation may have up to three linear
factors. Where the equation can be expressed as the product of linear factors, we can readily deduce the
behaviour of the function and sketch its graph without finding the positions of any turning points. Unlike the
quadratic function, the turning points are not symmetrically placed between pairs of x-intercepts.
• If there are three linear factors, that is y = (x − m) (x − n) (x − p),

the graph cuts the x-axis at x = m, x = n and x = p.
• If there is one factor of multiplicity 2 and one other linear factor,
that is y = (x − m)2 (x − n), the graph touches the x-axis at a
turning point at x = m and cuts the x-axis at x = n.
y = (x − m)(x − n)(x − p)
m 0 n p x
y = (x − m)2(x − n)
If the equation of the cubic function has one linear factor and one irreducible quadratic factor, it is difficult
to deduce its behaviour without either technology or calculus. For example, the diagram shows the graphs of
y = (x + 3) (x2 + 1) and y = (x2 + 3) (x − 1).
The intercepts made with the coordinate axes can be y
located and the long-term behaviour is known. However,
at this stage we could not predict that y = (x2 + 3) (x − 1) y = (x2 + 3)(x – 1)
has no turning points or stationary point of inflection (it (0, 3)
has a non-stationary point of inflection). Nor could we y = (x2 + 3)(x + 1)
predict, without numerical calculations, that there is a
(–3, 0) (1, 0)
maximum and a minimum turning point on the graph of
0 x
y = (x + 3) (x2 + 1).
(0, –3)
Determining the equation of a cubic function from its graph
Depending on the information given, one form of the cubic equation may be preferable over another.
• If there is a stationary point of inflection given, use the y = a(x − h)3 + k form.
• If the x-intercepts are given, use the y = a(x − m) (x − n) (x − p) form, or the repeated factor form
y = a(x − m)2 (x − n) if there is a turning point at one of the x-intercepts.
b b
• If an x-intercept occurs at x = , then x − is a factor. Alternatively, the rational root theorem
c ( c)
allows this factor to be expressed as (cx − b).
• Use the general form y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d if, for example, neither x-intercepts nor a stationary point
of inflection are given.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
Sketch the graph of y = 2(x − 1)3 + 8, labelling the intercepts with the coordinate axes with their
exact coordinates.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. State the key feature that can be deduced from the y = 2(x − 1)3 + 8
equation. This equation shows there is a
stationary point of inflection at (1, 8).
y = 2(−1)3 + 8
y=6
3. Calculate the x-intercept in exact form. x-intercept: Let y = 0.
2(x − 1)3 + 8 = 0
(x − 1)3 = −4
√3
x − 1 = −4
√3
x = 1 + −4
√3
x=1− 4
√
3
The x-intercept is (1 − 4 , 0).
4. Sketch the graph and label the intercepts with the y
coordinate axes. y =2(x – 1)3 + 8
(1, 8)
(0, 6)
(1 – 4, 0)
3
0 x

WORKED EXAMPLE 19
Determine the function f whose graph is shown in the diagram, expressing its rule as the product
of linear factors with integer coefficients.
y
y = f (x)
(2, 0)
(–0.75, 0) 0 x
(0, –0.5)
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Obtain a linear factor of the equation of the graph The graph has an x-intercept at
that has integer coefficients. x = −0.75.
3
In fraction form, this is x = − .
4
∴ (4x + 3) is a factor.
2. State a second factor. The graph has a turning point on the
x-axis at x = 2. This means (x − 2)2 is
a factor.
3. State the form of the equation. The equation is of the form
y = a(4x + 3) (x − 2)2 .
1
4. Determine the equation fully. The point (0, −0.5) or 0, − lies
( 2)
on the graph.
Substitute this point into
y = a(4x + 3) (x − 2)2 .
1
− = a(3)(−2)2
2
1
− = 12a
2
1
a=−
24
The graph has the equation
1
y = − (4x + 3) (x − 2)2 .
24
5. State the required function. The domain of the graph is R. Hence,
the function f is given by f : R → R,
1
f (x) = − (4x + 3)(x − 2)2 .
24
Interactivity: Cubic polynomials (int-2566)
Interactivity: x-intercepts of cubic graphs (int-2567)
Cubic functions Summary screen and practice questions
Exercise 1.5 Cubic functions
Technology free
1. WE13 Use an appropriate method to factorise each of the following cubic expressions.
a. 125a3 − 27b3 b. 2c3 + 6c2 d + 6cd 2 + 2d 3
c. 40p3 − 5
2. Use an appropriate method to factorise each of the following cubic expressions.
a. 27z3 − 54z2 + 36z − 8 b. m3 n3 + 64
3. WE14 Fully factorise the following polynomials.
a. 3x2 − xy − 3x + y b. 3y3 + 3y2 z2 − 2zy − 2z3

4. Fully factorise the following polynomials.
a. 9a2 − 16b2 − 12a + 4 b. n2 p2 − 4m2 − 4m − 1
3 2
WE15 Fully factorise x − 2x − 21x − 18.
5.
6. Factorise the following expressions.
a. 7r3 − 49r2 + r − 7 b. 36v3 + 6v2 + 30v + 5
c. 2m3 + 3m2 − 98m − 147 d. 2z3 − z2 + 2z − 1
e. 4x2 − 28x + 49 − 25y2 f. 16a2 − 4b2 − 12b − 9
g. v2 − 4 − w2 + 4w h. 4p2 − 1 + 4pq + q2
3 2
WE16 Solve 2x − x − 10x + 5 = 0 for x.
7.
Technology active
8. Solve each of the following equations over R.
a. b3 + 5b2 + 2b − 8 = 0 b. −2m3 + 9m2 − m − 12 = 0
c. 2x3 − x2 − 6x + 3 = 0 d. 2x3 + 7x2 + 2x − 3 = 0
3 2
9. a. Show that 3t + 22t + 37t + 10 is divisible by (t + 5) and hence solve the equation
3t3 + 22t2 + 37t + 10 = 0.
b. Show that 3d3 − 16d2 + 12d + 16 is divisible by (d − 2) and hence solve the equation
3d3 − 16d2 + 12d + 16 = 0.
10. WE17 If Ax3 + (B − 1)x2 + (B + C )x + D ≡ 3x3 − x2 + 2x − 7, find the values of A, B, C and D.
11. If x3 + 9x2 − 2x + 1 ≡ x3 + (dx + e)2 + 98 , find the values of d and e.

12. a. Given that P(z) = 5z3 − 3z2 + 4z − 1 and Q(z) = az3 + bz2 + cz + d, find the values of a, b, c and d if
P(z) ≡ Q(z).
2
b. Given that P(x) = x3 − 6x2 + 9x − 1 and Q(x) = x (x + a) − b, find the values of a and b if
P(x) ≡ Q(x).
13. If 2x3 − 5x2 + 5x − 5 ≡ a(x − 1)3 + b(x − 1)2 + c(x − 1) + d, find the values of a, b, c and d and hence
express 2x3 − 5x2 + 5x − 5 in the form a(x − 1)3 + b(x − 1)2 + c(x − 1) + d.
14. Given (x + 3) and (x − 1) are factors of ax3 + bx2 − 4x − 3, find the values of a and b.

15. WE18 Sketch the graph of y = −4(x + 2)3 + 16, labelling the intercepts with the coordinate axes with
their exact coordinates.
16. Consider the function f : [−2, 4] → R, f (x) = 4x3 − 8x2 − 16x + 32.
a. Factorise 4x3 − 8x2 − 16x + 32.
b. Sketch the graph of y = f (x).
c. State the maximum and minimum values of the function f.
17. Sketch the graphs of the following cubic functions without attempting to locate y
any turning points that do not lie on the coordinate axes.
a. y = x3 − x2 − 6x (2, 24)
1 3
b. y = 1 − 8 (x + 1) , x ∈ [−3, 2) y = f(x)
2 3
c. y = 12(x + 1) − 3(x + 1)
18. WE19 Determine the function f whose graph is shown in the diagram at right,
expressing its rule as the product of linear factors with integer coefficients. (0, 0) x
(0.8, 0) (1.5, 0)
19. Form a possible equation for the cubic graph shown.
y
(0, 10)
(–4, 0)
0 x
( 5–4 , 0)
20. a. Show that the graph of y = f (x) where f (x) = −2x3 + 9x2 − 24x + 17 has exactly one x-intercept.
b. Show that there is no stationary point of inflection on the graph.
c. State the long-term behaviour of the function.
d. Given the function has a one-to-one correspondence, draw a sketch of the graph.
1.6 Higher degree polynomials

1.6.1 Factorisation and solving
Many of the factorising resolving techniques covered in subtopics 1.4 and 1.5 also apply to polynomials of
degree 4 or higher.
WORKED EXAMPLE 20
Fully factorise x4 − 4x3 − x2 + 16x − 12.
THINK WRITE
1. Let P(x) equal the quartic polynomial. P(x) = x4 − 4x3 − x2 + 16x − 12
2. Try P(1), P(−1), P(2),P(−2) etc. to get a zero P(1) = 14 − 4(1)3 − (1)2 + 16(1) − 12
remainder. = 17 − 17
=0
Thus (x − 1) is a factor.
3. Use long division to obtain the cubic factor. x3 − 3x2 − 4x + 12
x−1 − 4x3 − x2 + 16x − 12
x4
− (x4 − x3 )
−3x3 − x2 + 16x − 12
− (−3x3 + 3x2)
−4x2 + 16x − 12
− (−4x2 + 4x)
12x − 12
− (12x − 12)
0
3 2
4. Let H(x) equal the cubic polynomial. Apply the H(x) = x − 3x − 4x + 12
factor theorem again to find a linear factor of the H(1) = 13 − 3(1)2 − 4(1) + 12
cubic.
= 13 − 7
≠0
H(2) = 23 − 3(2)2 − 4(2) + 12
= 20 − 20
=0
Thus (x − 2) is a factor.
5. Use long division to obtain the quadratic factor. x2 − x − 6
x − 2 x − 3x − 4x + 12
3 2
− (x3 − 2x2)
−x2 − 4x + 12
− (−x2 + 2x)
−6x + 12
− (−6x + 12)
0
6. Complete the quartic factorisation by factorising P(x) = x4 − 4x3 − x2 + 16x − 12
the quadratic factor into its two linear factors. = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x2 − x − 6)
= (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)(x + 2)
WORKED EXAMPLE 21
a. Solve x4− 4x3 − x2 + 16x − 12 = 0.

b. Solve 2a − 5a2 − 3 = 0.
4
THINK WRITE
a. 1. The quartic expression was factorised in Worked a. x4 − 4x3 − x2 + 16x − 12 = 0
example 20. (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)(x + 2) = 0

2. Use the Null Factor Law to solve the quartic (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)(x + 2) = 0
polynomial for x. x = 1, 2, 3, − 2
b. 1. The left-hand side is in quadratic form. Let m = a2 b. 2a4 − 5a2 − 3 = 0
to help with the factorisation. Let m = a2 .
2m2 − 5m − 3 = 0
2. Factorise the quadratic. (2m + 1)(m − 3) = 0
3. Substitute m = a2 and factorise further where (2a2 + 1)(a2 − 3) = 0
possible. √ √
(2a2 + 1)(a − 3 )(a + 3 ) = 0
Note: There is no factorisation technique for the
addition of perfect squares.
4. Solve the equation. 2a2 + 1 =
√0 has no real solution.
∴a=± 3
1.6.2 Graphing quartic and higher degree polynomial functions

The function f : R → R, f (x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e where a, b, c, d, e ∈ R, a ≠ 0 is the general form
of a quartic polynomial function. Its graph can take various shapes, but all of them exhibit the same long-
term behaviour. If the x4 term has a positive coefficient, y → ∞ as x → ±∞; if the x4 term has a negative
coefficient, y → −∞ as x → ±∞. Particular forms of the quartic equation enable some shapes of the graphs
to be predicted.
Quartic functions of the form y = a(x − h)4 + k

The simplest quartic function is y = x4 . It has a graph that has
y
much the same shape as y = x2 , as shown in the diagram.
This leads to the conclusion that the graph of y = a(x − h)4 + k
will be much the same shape as that of y = a(x − h)2 + k and will y = x4 y = x2
have the following characteristics.
For y = a(x − h)4 + k:

• if a > 0, the graph will be concave up with a
minimum turning point (h, k)
(–1, 1) (1, 1)
• if a < 0, the graph will be concave down with a
maximum turning point (h, k)
(0, 0) x
• the axis of symmetry has the equation x = h
• there may be zero, one or two x intercepts.
Quartic functions with linear factors

Not all quartic functions can be factorised. However, if it is possible to express the equation as the product of
linear factors, then the multiplicity of each factor will determine the behaviour of its graph.
A quartic polynomial may have up to 4 linear factors as it is of fourth degree. The
possible combinations of these linear factors are:
• four distinct linear factors: y = (x − a) (x − b) (x − c) (x − d)
• one repeated linear factor: y = (x − a)2 (x − b) (x − c), where the graph has a
turning point that touches the x-axis at x = a
• two repeated linear factors: y = (x − a)2 (x − b)2 , where the graph has turning
points that touch the x-axis at x = a and x = b
• one factor of multiplicity three: y = (x − a)3 (x − b), where the graph has a
stationary point of inflection that cuts the x-axis at x = a.
The factorised forms may be derived from the general equation using standard algebraic techniques. Tech-
nology or calculus is required to accurately identify the position of turning points that do not lie on the
x-axis.
WORKED EXAMPLE 22
Sketch the graph of y = −x4 + 8x2 − 7 and hence determine graphically the number of solutions to
the equation x4 − 8x2 + 3 = 0.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. Express the equation in factorised form. y = −x4 + 8x2 − 7

This is a quadratic in x2 .
y = −(x4 − 8x2 + 7)
Let a = x2 .
y = −(a2 − 8a + 7)
= −(a − 7)(a − 1)
Substitute back for a:
y = −(x2 − 7)(x2 − 1)
√ √
= −(x + 7 )(x − 7 )(x + 1)(x − 1)
2. State the x- and y-values of the intercepts with the x-intercepts: Let y = 0.
axes. √ √
−(x + 7 ) (x − 7 ) (x + 1) (x − 1) = 0
√
∴ x = ± 7 , x = ±1
y-intercept:
y = −x4 + 8x2 − 7
Let x = 0.
∴ y = −7.
3. What will be the long-term behaviour? As the coefficient of x4 is negative,
y → −∞ as x → ±∞.

y = –x4 + 8x2 – 7
(– 7, 0) 0 ( 7, 0) x
(–1, 0) (1, 0)
(0, –7)
5. Rearrange the given equation so that the graph’s The given equation is x4 − 8x2 + 3 = 0.
equation appears on one of its sides. This rearranges to
3 = −x4 + 8x2
3 − 7 = −x4 + 8x2 − 7
−x4 + 8x2 − 7 = −4
6. Explain how the number of solutions to the The number of intersections of the
equation could be solved graphically. graph of y = −x4 + 8x2 − 7 with the
horizontal line y = −4 will determine
the number of solutions to the
equation x4 − 8x2 + 3 = 0.
7. Specify the number of solutions. The line y = −4 lies parallel to the
x-axis between the origin and the
y-intercept of the graph
y = −x4 + 8x2 − 7.
y
y = –x4 + 8x2 – 7
(– 7, 0) (–1, 0) 0 (1, 0) 7, 0)x

y = –4
(0, –7)
There are four points of intersection,

so there are four solutions to the
equation x4 − 8x2 + 3 = 0.
1. On a Graphs page, 1. On a Graph & Table screen,
complete the entry line complete the entry line for y1
for function 1 as as
f 1(x) = −x4 + 8x2 − 7 y1 = −x4 + 8x2 − 7
Select the Graph icon to draw
the graph.
2. To find the x-intercepts, 2. To find the x-intercepts, select

press MENU then select • Analysis
6: Analyze Graph • G-Solve
1: Zero • Root
Move the cursor to the With the cursor on the first
left of the x-intercept x-intercept, press EXE.
when prompted for the Use the left/right arrows to
lower bound, then press move to the next x-intercept,
ENTER. Move the then press EXE.
cursor to the right of the Repeat for all x-intercepts.
x-intercept when Note: the calculator will show
prompted for the upper approximate values for the
bound, then press x-intercepts, not exact values.
ENTER.
Repeat for all
x-intercepts.
Note: the calculator will
show approximate
values for the
x-intercepts, not exact
values.
3. To calculate exact values 3. To calculate exact values for
for the x-intercepts, open the x-intercepts, go to the
a Calculator page and Main screen and complete the
complete the entry line entry line as
as solve (−x4 + 8x2 − 7 = 0, x)
solve (−x4 + 8x2 − 7 then press ENTER.
= 0, x)
then press ENTER.
4. Return to the Graphs 4. To find the y-intercept, select

page, double click on the • Analysis
value−2.64 …√change • G-Solve
the value to − 7 then • Y-Intercept
press ENTER. then press EXE.
Double click on the
√ … change the
value 2.64
value to 7 then press
ENTER.

5. To find the y-intercept, 5. Answer the question. The graph shows four x-intercepts,
press MENU then select hence there are four solutions to the
5: Trace equation −x4 + 8x2 − 7 = 0
1: Graph Trace Type “0”
then press ENTER
twice.
6. Answer the question. The graph shows four

x-intercepts, hence there are four
solutions to the equation
−x4 + 8x2 − 7 = 0
WORKED EXAMPLE 23
A quartic function has the equation y = a(x + b)4 + c. The points (0, 5), (−2, 9) and (4, 9) lie on the
graph of the function. Calculate the values of a, b and c and state the coordinates of the turning
point.
THINK WRITE
1. Deduce the equation of the axis of symmetry. y = a(x + b)4 + c
As the points (−2, 9) and (4, 9) have the
same y-value, the axis of symmetry must
pass midway between them.
The axis of symmetry is the line
−2 + 4
x=
2
x=1
∴ b = −1
2. Use the given points given to form a pair of The equation is y = a(x − 1)4 + c.
simultaneous equations. Substitute the point (4, 9):
a(3)4 + c = 9 [1]
81a + c = 9
Substitute the point (0, 5):
a(−1)4 + c = 5 [2]
a+c =5
3. Solve the equations. Subtract equation [2] from equation [1]:
80a = 4
1
a=
20
1
∴ c=5−
20
99
c=
20
1 99
4. State the values required. a = , b = −1 and c = .
20 20
1 99
5. Give the coordinates of the turning point. The equation is y = (x − 1)4 + .
20 20
99
The minimum turning point is 1, .
( 20 )
Interactivity: Polynomials of higher degrees (int-2569)
Quartic functions Summary screen and practice questions
1.6.3 The family of polynomial functions y = xn where n ∈ N

One classification of the polynomial functions is to group them according to whether their degree is even
or odd.
The graph of y = xn where n is an even positive integer

The similarities shown between the graphs of y = x2 and y = x4 continue to hold for all polynomial functions
of even degree. A comparison of the graphs of y = x2 , y = x4 and y = x6 is shown in the diagram.
The graphs each have a minimum turning point at (0, 0) and each contains y y = x2
the points (−1, 1) and (1, 1). They exhibit the same long-term behaviour that as
x → ±∞, y → ∞. y = x4
6
The graph of the function with the highest degree, y = x , rises more steeply y = x6
than the other two graphs for x < −1 and x > 1. However, for −1 < x < 0
and 0 < x < 1, the function with the highest degree lies below the other graphs.
(–1, 1) (1, 1)
0 x
For y = a(x − h)n + k, where n is an even positive integer:

• if a > 0, the graph will be concave up with a minimum turning point (h, k)
• if a < 0, the graph will be concave down with a maximum turning point (h, k)
• the axis of symmetry has the equation x = h
• there may be zero, one or two x-intercepts
• the shape of the graph will be similar to that of y = a(x − h)2 + k
• if a > 0, the range is [k, ∞)
• if a < 0, the range is (−∞, k].

The graph of y = xn where n is an odd positive integer, n > 1
y
Polynomials of odd degree also share similarities, as the graphs of
y = x5
y = x3 and y = x5 illustrate. Both y = x3 and y = x5 have a station- y = x3
ary point of inflection at (0, 0), and both pass through the points
(−1, −1) and (1, 1), as does the linear function y = x. The three
graphs display the same long-term behaviour that as x → ±∞,
y → ±∞. (1, 1)
As observed for even degree polynomials, the graph of the func- (0, 0) x
(–1, –1)
tion with the highest degree, y = x5 , rises more steeply than the
other two graphs for x < −1 and x > 1. However, for −1 < x < 0
and 0 < x < 1, the function with the highest degree lies below the
other graphs.
The graphs of y = a(x−h)n +k where n is an odd positive integer,
n ≠ 1, have the following characteristics:
For y = a(x − h)n + k, where n is an odd positive integer and n ≠ 1:

• there is a stationary point of inflection at (h, k)
• if a > 0, the long-term behaviour is as x → ±∞, y → ±∞
• if a < 0, the long-term behaviour is as x → ±∞, y → ∓∞
• there will be one x-intercept
• the shape of the graph is similar to that of the cubic function
y = a(x − h)3 + k.
Polynomial functions that can be expressed as y

the product of linear factors (0, 72)
A degree n polynomial function may have up to n linear factors and
therefore up to n intercepts with the x-axis. Where the polynomial
can be specified completely as the product of linear factors, its
graph can be drawn by interpreting the multiplicity of each linear
factor together with the long-term behaviour determined by the
sign of the coefficient of xn . (–2, 0) (1, 0) (3, 0)
For example, consider y = (x + 2)3 (1 − x) (x − 3)2 . The equa- 0 x
tion indicates there are x-intercepts at −2, 1 and 3. The x-intercept
(−2, 0) has a multiplicity of 3, meaning that there is a station-
ary point of inflection at this point. The x-intercept (3, 0) has a
multiplicity of 2, so this point is a turning point. The point (1, 0)
is a standard x-intercept. The polynomial is of degree 6 and the
coefficient of x6 is negative; therefore, as x → ±∞, y → −∞.
WORKED EXAMPLE 24
Sketch the graph of y = (x − 1)5 − 32.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. State whether the graph has a turning point or y = (x − 1)5 − 32
a point of inflection, and give the coordinates As the degree is odd, the graph will have a
of the key point. stationary point of inflection at (1, −32).
2. Calculate the intercepts with the coordinate y-intercept: Let x = 0.
axes. y = (−1)5 − 32
= −33
The y-intercept is (0, −33).
x-intercepts: Let y = 0.
0 = (x − 1)5 − 32
(x − 1)5 = 32
x−1=2
x=3
y = (x – 1)5 – 32
0 (3, 0) x
(0, –33) (1, –32)
Units 3 & 4 AOS 1 Topic 2 Concepts 2 & 3

n
Graphs of f(x) = x , where n = even positive integer Summary screen and practice questions
Graphs of f(x) = xn , where n = odd positive integer Summary screen and practice questions
Exercise 1.6 Higher degree polynomials
Technology free
1. Fully factorise x4 − 5x3 − 32x2 + 180x − 144.
WE20
2. WE21 Solve the following for x.

a. x4 − 8x3 + 17x2 + 2x − 24 = 0 b. a4 + 2a2 − 8 = 0
a. l 4 − 17l 2 + 16 = 0 b. c4 + c3 − 10c2 − 4c + 24 = 0
c. p4 − 5p3 + 5p2 + 5p − 6 = 0

a. a4 − 10a2 + 9 = 0 b. 4k4 − 101k2 + 25 = 0
c. 9z4 − 145z2 + 16 = 0 d. (x2 − 2x)2 − 47(x2 − 2x) − 48 = 0
Technology active
5. If (x + 2), (x − 3) and (x + 4) are factors of x4 + ax3 + bx2 + cx + 24, find the values of a, b and c.
6. WE22 Sketch the graph of y = x2 − x4 and hence determine graphically the number of solutions to the
equation x4 − x2 + x − 2 = 0.
7. Sketch the graph of y = x4 − 6x3 and hence state the number of intersections the graph of
y = x4 − 6x3 + 1 would make with the x-axis.
8. WE23 A quartic function has the equation y = a(x + b)4 + c. The graph of the function cuts the x-axis at
x = −9 and x = −3. The range of the graph is (−∞, 7]. Calculate the values of a, b and c and state the
coordinates of the turning point.
9. Use CAS technology to sketch the graphs of y = x4 − 2 and y = 2 − x3 , and hence state to 2 decimal
places the values of the roots of the equation x4 + x3 − 4 = 0.
10. Use CAS technology to obtain the coordinates of any turning points or stationary points of inflection on
the graphs of:
a. y = (x2 + x + 1) (x2 − 4)
b. y = 1 − 4x − x2 − x3
c. y = 14 ((x − 2)5 (x + 3) + 80).
Express answers to 3 decimal places, where appropriate.
11. WE24 Sketch the graph of y = (x + 1)6 + 10.
12. Sketch the graph of y = (x + 4) (x + 2)2 (x − 2)3 (x − 5).
13. a. A quartic function has exactly one turning point at (−5, 12) and also contains the point (−3, −36).
Form its equation.
b. Sketch the graph of y = (2 + x) (1 − x)3 .
c. i. Factorise −x4 + x3 + 10x2 − 4x − 24.
ii. Hence sketch y = −x4 + x3 + 10x2 − 4x − 24.
14. a. i. Sketch the graphs of y = x6 and y = x7 on the same set of axes, labelling any points of
intersection with their coordinates.
ii. Hence state the solutions to {x : x6 − x7 ≥ 0}.
b. Sketch the graphs of y = 16 − (x + 2)4 and y = 16 − (x + 2)5
on the same set of axes, identifying the key features of each
graph and any points of intersection. y
c. Consider the graph of the polynomial function shown.
i. Assuming the graph is a monic polynomial that
maintains the long-term behaviour suggested in the
diagram, give a possible equation for the graph and
state its degree.
ii. In fact the graph cuts straight through the x-axis once
(–3, 0) (–1, 0) 0 (2, 0) x
more at x = 10. This is not shown on the diagram.
Given this additional information, state the degree and (0, –2)
a possible equation for the function.
1.7 Other algebraic functions
The powers of the variable in a polynomial function must be natural numbers. In this subtopic we consider
functions where the power of the variable may be rational.
1.7.1 Maximal domain

The maximal domain of any function must exclude:
• any value of x for which the denominator would become zero
• any value of x which would create a negative term under an even root sign.
g (x)
The maximal or implied domain of rational functions of the form y = , where both f (x) and g(x) are
f (x)
polynomials, must exclude any values of x for which f (x) = 0. The domain√ would be R \{x : f (x) = 0}.
Likewise, the maximal domain of square root functions of the form y = f (x) would be {x : f (x) ≥ 0}.
g(x)
For a function of the form y = √ , the maximal domain would be {x : f (x) > 0}.
f (x)
y
1.7.2 The rectangular hyperbola
1
The equation of the simplest hyperbola is y = . In power form
x 1
this is written as y = x−1 . Its maximal domain is R \{0}, as the y =– x
function is undefined if x = 0.
The graph of this function has the following characteristics.
• There is a vertical asymptote with equation x = 0. 0 y=0 x
• There is a horizontal asymptote with equation y = 0.
• As x → ∞, y → 0 from above the horizontal asymptote, and
as x → −∞, y → 0 from below the horizontal asymptote.
• As x → 0+ , y → ∞, and as x → 0− , y → −∞.
• The function has one-to-one correspondence. x=0
• The domain is R \{0} and the range is R \{0}.
As the asymptotes are perpendicular to each other, the graph is called a rectangular hyperbola. The graph
1
lies in the first and third quadrants formed by its asymptotes. The graph of y = − would lie in the second
x
and fourth quadrants.
a
Hyperbolas of the form y = +k
x−h
The asymptotes are the key feature of the graph of a hyperbola. Their positions are unaffected by a dilation,
1
but if the graph of y = is horizontally or vertically translated, then the vertical and horizontal asymptotes
x
are moved accordingly.
a
The graph of y = + k has:
x−h
• a vertical asymptote x = h
• a horizontal asymptote y = k
• a domain of R \ {h}
• a range of R \ {k}.
If a > 0, the graph lies in quadrants 1 and 3 as formed by its asymptotes.

If a < 0, then the graph lies in quadrants 2 and 4 as formed by its asymptotes.

Identifying the asymptotes
a
The presence of a vertical asymptote at x = h on the graph of y = + k could also be recognised by
x−h
a
solving x − h = 0. The hyperbola y = has a vertical asymptote when bx + c = 0, and its maximal
bx + c
c
domain is R \ {− }.
b
The horizontal asymptote is identified from the equation of a hyperbola expressed in proper rational form,
1 + 2x
that is, when the numerator is of lower degree than the denominator. The equation y = should be
x
1
rewritten as y = + 2 in order to identify the horizontal asymptote y = 2.
x
WORKED EXAMPLE 25
a. Determine an appropriate equation for the hyperbola shown.

y
(0, 0)
x
y = –4
x=2
2x + 5
b. i. Obtain the maximal domain of y = .
x+1
2x + 5
ii. Sketch the graph of y = and state its range.
x+1
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a
a. 1. Write the general equation of a a. Let the equation be y = + k.
x−h
hyperbola.
2. Identify the asymptotes and enter The graph shows there is a vertical asymptote at
them into the equation. x = 2.
a
∴y = +k
x−2
There is a horizontal asymptote at y = −4.
a
∴y = −4
x−2
3. Identify the known point through The graph passes through the origin.
which the graph passes and use this to Substitute (0, 0):
fully determine the equation. a
0= −4
−2
a
4=−
2
a = −8
−8
The equation is y = − 4.
x−2
2x + 5
b. i. 1. Identify what must be excluded from b. i. y=
x+1
the domain.
The function is undefined if its denominator is zero.
When x + 1 = 0, x = −1.
This value must be excluded from the domain.
2. State the maximal domain. The maximal domain is R \{−1}.
2x + 5 2(x + 1) + 3
ii. 1. Express the equation in proper rational ii. =
x+1 x+1
form.
2(x + 1) 3
= +
x+1 x+1
3
=2+
x+1
3
The equation is y = + 2.
x+1
2. State the equations of the asymptotes. The graph has a vertical asymptote x = −1 and a
horizontal asymptote y = 2.
2x + 5
3. Calculate any intercepts with the x-intercept: Let y = 0 in y = .
x+1
coordinate axes. 2x + 5
0=
x+1
0 = 2x + 5
5
x=−
2
5
The x-intercept is − ,0
( 2 )
y-intercept: Let x = 0.
5
y=
1
=5
2x + 5
y = ––––
x+1
(0, 5)
y=2
(–2.5, 0) 0 x
x = –1
5. State the range. The range is R \{2}.

Interactivity: Hyperbola (int-2573)

1
Graphs of f(x) = n , where n = positive odd integer Summary screen and practice questions
x
1.7.3 The truncus

1 y
The graph of the function y = is called a truncus. Its rule can be
x2
written as a power function, y = x−2 .
1
The graph of this function has the following characteristics. y = –2
x
• There is a vertical asymptote with equation x = 0.
• There is a horizontal asymptote with equation y = 0.
• The domain is R \{0}.
• The range is R+ . 0 y=0 x
x=0
• The function has many-to-one correspondence.
• The graph is symmetric about its vertical asymptote.
1
The graph of y = 2 lies in the first and second quadrants that are created by its asymptotes. The graph of
x
1
y = − 2 would lie in the third and fourth quadrants.
x
The truncus is steeper than the hyperbola for x ∈ (−1, 0) and x ∈ (0, 1). However, a similar approach is
taken to sketching both functions.
a
The general form of the truncus y = +k
(x − h)2
a
The graph of the truncus with the equation y = +k
(x − h)2
has the following characteristics.
• There is a vertical asymptote at x = h.
• There is a horizontal asymptote at y = k.
• The domain is R \ {h}.
• If a > 0, then the range is (k, ∞).
• If a < 0, then the range is (−∞, k).
WORKED EXAMPLE 26
2
Sketch the graph of y = 8 − and state its domain and range.
(x − 3)2
THINK WRITE/DRAW
2
1. State the equations of the asymptotes. y=8−
(x − 3)2
The vertical asymptote is x = 3.
The horizontal asymptote is y = 8.
2
y=8−
(−3)2
7
y=7
9
7
The y-intercept is 0, 7 .
( 9)
3. Calculate any x-intercepts. x-intercepts: Let y = 0.
2
0=8−
(x − 3)2
2
=8
(x − 3)2
2 = 8(x − 3)2
1
(x − 3)2 =
4
1
x−3=±
2
1 1
x = 2 or x = 3
2 2
1 1
The x-intercepts are 2 , 0 , 3 , 0 .
( 2 ) ( 2 )
4. Sketch the graph. y y=8
(0, 7 ) 7
–
9 y=8 –—
2
—2
(x –3)
0 x
( 1
2 –,
2
0 ) (3 , 0)
1
–
2
x=3
5. State the domain and range. The domain is R \{3} and the range is
(−∞, 8).
The square root and cube root functions

√ √
The square root function has the rule y = x , and the rule for the cube root function is y = 3 x . As power
1 1
functions these rules can be expressed
√ as y = x 2 and y = x 3 respectively.
The maximal domain of y = x is [0, ∞), because negative values under a square root must be excluded.
√
However, cube roots of negative numbers are real, so the maximal domain of the cube root function y = 3 x
is R.
The graph of the square root function
√
The function y = x is the top half of the ‘sideways’ parabola y2 = x. The bottom half of this parabola is the
√
function y = − x .
y
y= x
0 x
y=– x
The√ parabola y2 = x is not a function, but its two halves are. The equation y2 = x could also be written√as
y = ± x . The turning point or vertex of the parabola is the end point for the square root functions y = x
√
and y = − x . These functions both have domain [0, ∞), but their ranges are [0, ∞) and (−∞, 0] respectively.
2
√ y = −x would
The parabola √ open to the left of its vertex. Its two branches would be the square root
functions y = −x and y = − −x , with domain (−∞, 0] and ranges [0, ∞) and (−∞, 0] respectively.
The four square root functions show the different orientations that can be taken. Calculation of the maximal
domain and the range will identify which form a particular function takes.
y = –x
0 x
y = – –x
√
Square root functions of the form y = a x − h + k have the
following characteristics.
• The end point is (h, k).
• The domain is [h, ∞).
• If a > 0, the range is [k, ∞); if a < √
0, the range is (−∞, k].
Square root functions of the form y = a −(x − h) + k have the
following characteristics.
• The end point is (h, k).
• The domain is (−∞, h].
• If a > 0, the range is [k, ∞); if a < 0, the range is (−∞, k].
The graph of the cube root function
The graph of the cubic function y = x3 has a stationary point of inflection at the origin. The graph of y3 = x
has a ‘sideways’ orientation but still has a point √
of inflection at the origin.
√
The rule y3 = x can also be expressed as y = 3 x . The graph of y = 3 x is shown in the diagram.
y
3
y= x
(0, 0)
x
√
3
The graph y = x has the following characteristics.
• There is a point of inflexion at (0, 0) where the tangent drawn to the curve would be vertical.
• The domain is R and the range is R.
• The function has one-to-one correspondence.
√ √
The graph of y = − 3 x would be the reflection of y = 3 x in the x axis.
y
3
y=– x
(0, 0)
x
√
3
√
3
√
This would also be the graph of y = −x , as −x = − 3 x .
√
3
The general equation y = a x − h + k shows the graph has
the following characteristics.
• There is a point of inflection at (h, k).
• The domain is R and the range is R. √
3
• One x-intercept can be located by solving a x − h + k = 0.
• If a > 0, the long-term behaviour is x → ±∞, y → ±∞.
• If a < 0, the long-term behaviour is x → ±∞, y → ∓∞.
The long-term behaviour of the cube root function resembles that of the cubic function.
WORKED EXAMPLE 27
√
a. i. State the maximal domain of y = 4 − x − 1.
√
ii. Sketch the graph of y = 4 − x − 1 and state its range.
b. The graph of a cube root function has its point of inflection at (1, 5) and the graph cuts the
y-axis at (0, 2). Determine the rule and sketch the graph.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
√
a. i. Form the maximal domain. a. i. y= 4−x −1
The term under the square root cannot be negative.
4−x ≥ 0
x ≤ 4
The maximal domain is (−∞, 4].
ii. 1.State the coordinates of the end point. ii. The end point is (4, −1).
2. Calculate the y-intercept, if there is With the domain (−∞, 4], the graph opens to the
one. left, so it will cut the y-axis.
y-intercept:
√ Let x = 0.
y= 4 −1
y=1
3. Calculate the x-intercept, if there is The end point lies below the x-axis and the
one. y-intercept lies above the x-axis. There will be an
x-intercept.
x-intercept:√Let y = 0.
0= 4−x −1
√
4−x =1
4−x=1
x=3
(0, 1)
y = (4 – x) – 1 (3, 0)
0 x
(4, –1)
5. State the range. The range is [−1, ∞).

√
3
b. 1. Write the general equation of a cube b. Let the equation be y = a x − h + k.
root function.
2. Insert the information about the point The point
√ of inflection is (1, 5).
3
of inflection. ∴y = a x − 1 + 5
3. Fully determine the equation using the Substitute
√ the point (0, 2):
3
other piece of information given. 2 = a −1 + 5
2 = −a + 5
a=3
√3
The equation is y = 3 x − 1 + 5.
4. Calculate the x-intercept. x-intercept: Let y = 0.
√3
0=3 x−1 +5
√3 −5
x−1 =
3
3
5
x−1= −
( 3)
125
x=1−
27
98
x=−
27
98
The x-intercept is − ,0 .
( 27 )
y=33x–1+5
(1, 5)
(0, 2)
0 x
( 98
–—, 0
27
(
Interactivity: Patterns of functions (int-6415)

Interactivity: The relation y2 = x (int-2574)
Interactivity: Fractional power functions (int-6521)

1
Graphs of f (x) = , where n = positive even integer Summary screen and practice questions
xn
p
1.7.4 Power functions of the form y = xq , p, q ∈ N
p
The square root and cube root functions are examples of power functions of the form y = x q , p, q ∈ N. For
√ 1 √ 1
the square root function, y = x = x 2 so p = 1 and q = 2; for the cube root function, y = 3 x = x 3 , so
p = 1 and q = 3.
In this section we consider some other functions that have powers which are positive rational numbers and
deduce the shape of their graphs through an analysis based on index laws.
p √
q
Index laws enable x q to be expressed as xp .

With p, q ∈ N, the function is formed as the qth root of the polynomial xp . As polynomial shapes are known,
this interpretation allows the shape of the graph of the function to be deduced. Whichever is the larger of p
and q will determine whether the polynomial or the root shape will be the dominant function.
p
For the graph of y = x q , p, q ∈ N:
• if p > q, the polynomial shape dominates, because the
p
index > 1
q
• if q > p, the root shape dominates, because the index must be in the
p
interval 0 < < 1
q
• if p = q, the index is 1 and the graph is that of y = x
• even roots of the polynomial x p cannot be formed in any section
where the polynomial graph is negative
• the points (0, 0) and (1, 1) will always lie on the graph.
p
–
y = xq , p > q
The basic polynomial or root shape for the first quadrant y
y = x, p = q
is illustrated for p > q ⇒ index > 1, p = q ⇒ index = 1 and
q > p ⇒ index < 1.
Note that the polynomial shape lies below y = x for p
–
0 < x < 1 and above y = x for x > 1, whereas the root y = xq, q > p
shape lies above y = x for 0 < x < 1 and below y = x for (1, 1)
x > 1. It is always helpful to include the line y = x when
p
sketching a graph of the form y = x q .
(0, 0) x
WORKED EXAMPLE 28
Give the domain and deduce the shape of the graph of:
2 3
a. y = x3 b. y = x2 .
THINK WRITE/DRAW
2
a. 1. Express the function rule in surd form a. y = x3
and deduce how the function can be √3
formed. = x2
The function is formed as the cube root of the
quadratic polynomial y = x2 .
2. Use the nature of the operation forming Cube roots of both positive and negative numbers
the function to determine the domain of can be calculated. However, the graph of y = x2
the function. lies in quadrants 1 and 2 and is never negative.
Therefore, there will be two non-negative
branches to the power function, giving it a
domain of R.
3. Reason which shape, the root or the As 3 > 2 (or as the index is less than 1),
polynomial, will dominate. the root shape dominates the graph. This means
the graph lies above y = x for 0 < x < 1 and
below it for x > 1.
4. Draw the required graph, showing its The points (0, 0) and (1, 1) lie on the graph, and
position relative to the line y = x. by symmetry the graph will also pass through the
Note: There is a sharp point at the origin. point (−1, 1).
y y=x
2
–
y = x3
(–1, 1) (1, 1)
(0, 0) x
3
b. 1. Express the function rule in surd form b. y = x2
and deduce how the function can be √
formed. = x3
The function is formed as the square root of the
cubic polynomial y = x3 .
2. Use the nature of the operation forming The graph of y = x3 is positive in quadrant 1 and
the function to determine the domain of negative in quadrant 3, so the square root can only
the function. be taken of the section in quadrant 1. There will
be one branch and its domain will be R+ ∪ {0}.
3. Reason which shape, the root or the As 3 > 2 (or as the index is greater than 1), the
polynomial, will dominate. polynomial shape dominates. The graph will lie
below y = x for 0 < x < 1 and above it for x > 1.
4. Draw the required graph, showing its The points (0, 0) and (1, 1) lie on the graph.
position relative to the line y = x. y y=x
3
–
2
y=x
(1, 1)
(0, 0)
x

Graphs of functions with fractional powers Summary screen and practice questions
Exercise 1.7 Other algebraic functions
Technology free
1. Determine the maximal domains of each of the following functions.
x−6 √
a. y = b. y = 1 − 2x
x+9
−2 1
c. y = d. y =
(x + 3) 2 2
x +3
2. a. WE25 Determine an appropriate equation for the hyperbola shown at right. y
5x − 2
b. i. Find the maximal domain of y = .
x−1
5x − 2
ii. Sketch the graph of y = and state the range. (0, 3)
x−1
4 y=1
3. Sketch the graph of y = , stating its domain and range.
1 − 2x
4. Sketch the following hyperbolas and state the domain and (–9, 0) 0 x
range of each.
4 3
a. y = + 5 b. y = 2 −
x x+1
4x + 3 x = –3
c. y = d. xy + 2y + 5 = 0
2x + 1
10
e. y = −5
5−x
5. a. The graph of a hyperbola has a vertical asymptote at y
x = −3 and a horizontal asymptote at y = 6. The point
(−4, 8) lies on the graph. Form the equation of this
graph.
Form a possible equation for the graph shown at right.

b.
8 x
6. WE26 Sketch the graph of y = − 2 and state its 0
(x + 2)2
domain and range.
3
y = ––
7. Sketch each of the following and state the domain and range (–3, –2) 2
of each.
2 −3
a. y = +1 b. y = −2
(3 − x)2 4(x − 1)2
1 25x2 − 1 x = –2
c. y = − 1 d. y =
(2x + 3)2 5x2
8. Determine an appropriate equation for the truncus shown.
y
(–0.5, 0) (0.5, 0)
0 x
y = –1
x=0
Technology active y
9. a. The diagram shows the graph of a truncus. Form its equation.

b. A function f defined on its maximal domain has a graph
y = f (x) in the shape of a truncus with range (−4, ∞). y=2
Given f (−1) = 8 and f (2) = 8, determine the equation
of the graph and state the function f using function
notation. 0 x
√ (5, –1)
10. WE27 a. i. State the maximal domain of y = − x + 9 + 2
√
ii. Sketch the graph of y= − x + 9 + 2 and state
its range.
b. The graph of a cube root function has its point
of inflection at (1, 3) and the graph cuts the y-axis at (0, 1).
x=4
Determine its rule and sketch its graph, locating its
x-intercept.
√
11. a. Determine the maximal domain and the range of y = 3 4x − 9 − 6, and sketch its graph.
b. State the coordinates of the point of inflection of the graph of
1
y = (10 − 3x) 3 and sketch the graph.
12. a. Give the equations of the two square root functions that form the branches of each of the following
‘sideways’ parabolas, and state the domain and range of each function.
i. (y − 2)2 = 4(x − 3)
ii. y2 + 2y + 2x = 5
b. Sketch the following square root functions and state the domain and range of each.
√
i. y = 1 − 3x
√
ii. y = 2 −x + 4
√
iii. y = 2 4 + 2x + 3
√ √
iv. y = − 3 − 12 − 3x

√
13. a. The graph of the function f : [5, ∞) → R, f (x) = a x + b + c is shown in the diagram. Determine the
values of a, b and c.
y = f (x)
(6, 0)
0 x
(5, –2)
√
b. The graph of the function f : (−∞, 2] → R, f (x) = ax + b + c is shown in the diagram.
i. Determine the values of a, b and c.
ii. If the graph of y = f (x) is reflected in the x-axis, what would the equation of the reflection be?
y = f (x)
(0, 0) x
(2, –2)
√ y
3
14. a. Sketch the graph of {(x, y) : y = x + 2 − 1}, labelling
the intercepts with the coordinate axes with their
exact coordinates.
√3 (1, 0)
1− x+8
b. Sketch the graph of y = f (x) where f (x) = , 0 x
2
stating its implied domain and range. (0, –2)
√3
c. Sketch the graph of g : [−3, 6] → R, g(x) = −x + 5 and
state its domain and range.
d. Form a possible equation for the cube root function whose
graph is shown.
e. The graph of a cube root function passes through the points
(−9, 5) and (−1, −2). At the point (−1, −2), the tangent drawn
to the curve is vertical. Determine the equation of the graph.
f. Express y as the subject of the equation (y + 2)3 = 64x − 128 and hence state the coordinates of the
point of inflection of its graph. √
15. What is the maximal domain of the function y = (2 − x) (x + 3) ? Use CAS technology to investigate
the shape of the graph.
16. WE28 Give the domain and deduce the shape of the graph of each of the following.
3 4
a. y = x4 b. y = x3
17. Give the domain and deduce the shape of the graph of each of the following.
1 1
y = x5
a. b. y = x 8
18. For each of the following, identify the domain and the quadrants in which the graph lies, and sketch the
graph, showing its position relative to the line y = x.
5 5
a. y = x2 b. y = x3
3
c. y = x5 d. y = x0.25
1
19. a. Explain how the graph of y = x 3 could be drawn using the graph of y = x.
1
b. On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = x and y = x 3 .
1
c. Hence, obtain {x : x 3 − x > 0}.
1.8 Combinations of functions

By combining together pieces of different functions defined over restricted domains, a ‘piecewise’ function
can be created. By combining together different functions using arithmetic operations, other functions can be
created. In this section we consider some of these combinations.
1.8.1 Hybrid functions

A hybrid function, or piecewise function, is a function whose rule takes a different form over different subsets
of its domain. An example of a hybrid function is the one defined by the rule
√
3
⎧
⎪ x, x ≤ 0
f (x) = ⎨2, 0 < x < 2.
⎪
⎩x, x≥2
To sketch its graph,

√ the three functions that combine to form y
its branches, y = 3 x , y = 2 and y = x, are drawn on their
respective restricted domains on the same set of axes. If the
branches do not join, then it is important to indicate which end y = f (x)
points are open and which are closed, as each of the x-values
of any function must have a unique y-value. The graph of this
(0, 2)
hybrid function y = f (x) is shown in the diagram. (2, 2)
The function is not continuous when x = 0 as the branches
do not join for that value of x. It is said to be discontinuous at (0, 0) x
that point of its domain. As the rule shows, x = 0 lies in the
domain of the cube root section, the point (0, 0) is closed and
the point (0, 2) is open.
The function is continuous at x = 2 as there is no break or
gap in the curve. There is no need for a closed point to be shown
at x = 2, because its two neighbouring branches run ‘naturally’
into each other at this point.
To calculate the value of the function for a given value of x, choose the function rule of that branch defined
for the section of the domain to which the x-value belongs.

WORKED EXAMPLE 29
√
−x , x ≤ −1
Consider the function for which f(x) = 2 − x2 , −1 < x < 1.
√
{ x + 1, x ≥ 1
a. Evaluate f (−1), f (0) and f (4).
b. Sketch the graph of y = (x).
c. State:
i. any value of x for which the function is not continuous
ii. the domain and range.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
√
⎧ −x, x ≤ −1
⎪
a. For each x-value, decide which section of a. f (x) = ⎨2 − x2 −1 < x < 1
the domain it is in and calculate its image ⎪√
⎩ x + 1, x ≥ 1
using the branch of the hybrid function’s f (−1): Since x = −1 lies in √
the domain section
rule applicable to that section of the x ≤ −1, use the rule f (x) = −x .
domain. √
f (−1) = −(−1)
√
= 1
=1
f (0): Since x = 0 lies in the domain section
−1 < x < 1, use the rule f (x) = 2 − x2 .
f (0) = 2 − 02
=2−0
=2
f (4): Since x = 4 lies
√ in the domain section x ≥ 1,
use the rule f (x) = x + 1 .
√
f (4) = 4 + 1
=2+1
=3
√
b. 1. Obtain the information needed to sketch b. y = −x , x ≤ −1 is a square root function.
each of the functions forming the The points (−1, 1) and (−4, 2) lie on its graph.
branches of the hybrid function. y = 2 − x2 , −1 < x < 1 is a parabola with
maximum turning point (0, 2).
At x = −1 or x = 1, y = 1. The points (−1, 1) and
(1, 1)√are open for the parabola.
y = x + 1, x ≥ 1 is a square root function.
The points (1, 2) and (4, 3) lie on its graph.
2. Sketch each branch on the same set of y
axes to form the graph of the hybrid
function. (0, 2) (4, 3)
(–4, 2) y = f (x)
(1, 2)
(–1, 1) (1, 1)
0 x
c. i. State any value of x where the branches c. The function is not continuous at x = 1.
of the graph do not join
ii. State the domain and range. The domain is R.
The range is [1, ∞).

a. 1. On a Calculator page, press a. 1. On a Graph & Table screen,
MENU then select complete the entry line for y1
1: Actions as √
1: Define ⎧ −x , x ≤ −1
Complete the entry line as ⎪
y1 = ⎨2 − x2 , −1 < x < 1
Define
√ f1(x) = ⎪√
⎧ −x , x ≤ −1 ⎩ x + 1, x ≥ 1
⎪ then press EXE.
⎨2 − x2 , −1 < x < 1
⎪√ Note: the hybrid function
⎩ x + 1, x ≥ 1 template can be found in the
then press ENTER. Math3 tab of the Keyboard
Note: the hybrid function menu. Click it twice for three
template can be found by equations.
pressing the t button.
2. Complete the next entry line 2. Click the Table Input icon
as and complete the fields as
f1(−1) Start: −1
then press ENTER. End: 4
Complete the next entry line Step: 1
as then select OK.
f1(0) Select the OK icon.
then press ENTER.
Complete the next entry line
as
f1(4)
then press ENTER.

3. The answers appear on the f(−1) = 1, f(0) = 2, f(4) = 3 3. The answers appear on f(−1) = 1, f(0) = 2,
screen. the screen. f(4) = 3
b. 1. On a Graphs page, select f1 b. 1. Click the Graph icon.
then press ENTER.
Note: the hybrid function
automatically appears in the
entry line for f1 as it was
previously defined on the
Calculator page.
2. Press MENU then select 2. Select

5: Trace • Analysis
1: Graph Trace • Trace
Type “−1 ” then press Type “−1”, select OK then
ENTER twice to mark the press EXE to mark the
point (−1, 1). point (−1, 1).
Type “1 ” then press ENTER Type “1”, select OK then
twice to mark the point (1, 2) . press EXE to mark the
Press the down arrow to move point (1, 2).
to the point (1, 1) then press Note: the point (1, 1)
ENTER. should be drawn as an
Note: the point (1, 1) should open circle.
be drawn as an open circle.
3. To find the maximum, press To find the maximum, select
MENU then select • Analysis
6: Analyze Graph • G-Solve
3: Maximum • Max
Move the cursor to the left of Then press EXE.
the maximum when prompted
for the lower bound, then
press ENTER. Move the
cursor to the right of the
maximum when prompted for
the upper bound, then press
ENTER.
c. 1. i. Look for points where a The graph is discontinuous at c. 1. i. Look for points where a The graph is
break in the graph occurs. x = 1. break in the graph occurs. discontinuous at x = 1.
2. ii. State the domain and range. The domain is R and the range is 2. ii. State the domain and The domain is R and
[1, ∞] . range. the range is [1, ∞].
Interactivity: Hybrid functions (int-6414)
Units 3 & 4 AOS 1 Topic 4 Concept 6 Hybrid functions Summary screen and practice questions
1.8.2 Sums, differences and products of functions
New functions are formed when two given functions are combined together under the operations of addition,
subtraction and multiplication. The given functions can only be combined where they both exist, so the domain
of the new function formed must be the domain common to both the given functions. For functions f and g
with domains df and dg respectively, the common domain is df ∩ dg .
• The sum and difference functions f ± g are defined

by (f ± g) (x) = f (x) ± g(x) with domain df ∩ dg .
• The product function f g is defined by
(f g) (x) = f (x)g(x) with domain df ∩ dg .
Graphs of the functions f ± g and fg may be able to be recognised from their rules. If not, the graphs may
be deduced by sketching the graphs of f and g and combining by addition, subtraction or multiplication, as
appropriate, the values of f (x) and g(x) for selected x-values in their common domain. The difference function
f − g can be considered to be the sum function f + (−g).
WORKED EXAMPLE 30
√ √
Consider the functions f and g defined by f (x) = 4 + x and g(x) = 4 − x respectively.
a. Form the rule for the sum functionf + g, stating its domain, and sketch the graph
of y = (f + g) (x).
b. Form the rule for the product function f g and state its domain and range.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
√
a. 1. Write the domains of the functions a. f (x) = 4 + x
f and g. Domain: 4 + x ≥ 0
x ≥ −4
df = [−4, ∞)
√
g(x) = 4 − x
Domain: 4 + x ≥ 0
x≤ 4
dg = (−∞, 4]
2. State the common domain. df
dg
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
df ∩ dg = [−4, 4]
3. Form the sum function and state its (f + g) (x) = f (x) + g(x)
domain. √ √
= 4+x + 4−x
df+g = [−4, 4]

4. Sketch the graphs of y = f (x) and y y = ( f + g)(x)
y = g(x) on the same set of axes. Add
y = g(x) (0, 4)
the y-coordinates of key points
(0, 2) y = f (x)
together to form the graph of (−4, 8) (4, 8)
y = (f + g) (x).
(−4, 0) (4, 0) x
x −4 0 4
√
f (x) 0 2 8
√
g(x) 8 2 0
√ √
f (x) + g(x) 8 4 8
b. 1. Form the product function and state b. (fg)(x) = f (x)g(x)

√ √
its domain. = ( 4 + x) × ( 4 − x)
√
= (4 + x)(4 − x)
√
= 16 − x2
dfg = [−4, 4]
√
2. State the range of the function. The rule (fg) (x) = 16 − x2 is that of the top half of
a semicircle with centre (0, 0) and radius 4.
Therefore, the range is [0, 4].
Interactivity: Sums, differences and products of functions (int-6416)
Sum of two functions Summary screen and practice questions
1.8.3 Graphical techniques

Given the graphs of functions whose rules are not necessarily known, it may be possible to deduce the shape
of the graph of the function that is the sum or other combination of the functions whose graphs are given.
Addition of ordinates
Given the graphs of y1 = f (x) and y2 = g(x), the graphing technique known as addition of ordinates adds
together the y-values, or ordinates, of the two given graphs over the common domain to form the graph of the
sum function y = y1 + y2 = f (x) + g(x).
Note the following points when applying this technique over the common domain df ∩ dg :
• If the graphs of f and g intersect at (a, b), then the point (a, 2b) lies on the graph of f + g.
• Where f (x) = −g(x), the graph of f + g cuts the x-axis.
• If one of f (x) or g(x) is positive and the other is negative, the graph of f + g lies between
the graphs of f and g.
• If one of f (x) or g(x) is zero, then the graph of f + g cuts the other graph.
• If f (x) → 0+ , then the graph of f + g approaches the graph of f from above.
• If f (x) → 0− , then the graph of f + g approaches the graph of g from below.
• Any vertical asymptote of f or g will be a vertical asymptote on the graph of f + g.
The subtraction of ordinates is usually simpler to achieve as the addition of the ordinates of y1 = f (x) and
y2 = −g(x).
Squaring ordinates
Given the graph of y = f (x), the graph of y = (f (x))2 can be deduced by squaring the y-values, or ordinates,
noting in particular that 02 = 0, 12 = 1 and (−1)2 = 1.
• The graph of f and its square will intersect at any point on f where y = 0 or y = 1.
• If the point (a, −1) is on the graph of f, then (a, 1) lies on the graph of the squared function.
• The squared function’s graph can never lie below the x-axis.
• Where 0 < f (x) < 1, (f (x))2 < f (x), and where f (x) > 1 or f (x) < −1, (f (x))2 > f (x).
Similar
√ reasoning about the ordinates and their square roots and the domain will allow the graph of
y = f (x) to be deduced.
These graphing techniques can be applied to combinations of known functions where the first step would
be to draw their graphs.
WORKED EXAMPLE 31
The graphs of the functions f and g are shown.
y
(0, 4)
(0, 2)
y = f (x)
(–2, 0) 0 (2, 0) x
y = g(x)
Draw the graph of y = (f + g) (x).

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1. State the domain common to both Both of the functions have a domain of R,
functions. so df ∩ dg = R.
2. Determine the coordinates of a key point At x = 0, f (x) = 2 and g(x) = 4. Hence the point
on the required graph. (0, 6) lies on the graph of f + g.
3. Deduce the behaviour of the required At x = ±2, g(x) = 0.
graph where one of the given graphs cuts Hence, the graph of f + g will cut the graph of f
the x-axis. when x = ±2.
4. Use the long-term behaviour of one of As x → ±∞, f (x) → 0+ .
the given graphs to deduce the long-term Hence (f + g)(x) → g(x) from above as x → ±∞.
behaviour of the required graph.
5. Draw a sketch of the required graph. y
(0, 6)
y = ( f + g)(x)
(0, 4)
(0, 2)
y = f (x)
(–2, 0) 0 (2, 0) y = g(x) x
Exercise 1.8 Combinations of functions
Technology free
1. WE29 Consider the function for which:
√
⎧− 3 x , x < −1
⎪ 3
f (x) = ⎨x −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
⎪
⎩2 − x, x > 1
Evaluate f (−8), f (−1) and f (2).

a.
c. State:
i. any value of x for which the function is not continuous
ii. the domain and range.
2. Sketch the graphs of each of the following hybrid functions and state their domains, ranges and any
points of discontinuity.
√
3
⎧
⎪ x, x < 1
−2x, x≤0 1
a. y = b. y = ⎨
{4 − x 2 , x > 0 ⎪ , x≥1
⎩x
3. A hybrid function is defined by:
⎧ 1
⎪ , x < −1
⎪ (x + 1)2
f (x) = ⎨ 2 .
⎪x − x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 2
⎪
⎩8 − 2x, x>2
Evaluate:
a.
i. f (−2) ii. f (2).
c. State the domain over which the hybrid function is continuous.
4. Consider the following function.
⎧1 3
⎪ 9 x + 5, x < −3
⎪
f : R → R, f (x) = ⎨√1 − x , −3 ≤ x ≤ 1.
⎪
⎪
⎩x − 2, x>1
Show the function is not continuous at x = 1.
a.
b. Sketch the graph of y = f (x) and state the type of correspondence it displays.
c. Determine the value(s) of x for which f (x) = 4.
5. Form the rule for the hybrid function shown in the diagram.
(8, 8)
(0, 4)
(4, 4)
(−4, 0)
0 x
y = f (x)
6. Form the rule for the function whose graph is shown in the diagram.
y
y = f (x)
(0, 4) (2, 4)
(3, 2)
(–3, 0) (–1, 0) (4, 0)

0 x

Technology active
√ √
7. WE30Consider the functions f and g defined by f (x) = − 1 + x and g (x) = − 1 − x respectively.
a. Form the rule for the sum function f + g, stating its domain, and sketch the graph of y = (f + g) (x).
b. Form the rule for the product function fg, stating its domain and range.
8. Given f (x) = x3 and g(x) = x2 , form the rule (f − g) (x) for the difference function and sketch the graphs
of y = f (x), y = −g(x) and y = (f − g) (x) on the same set of axes. Comment on the relationship of the
graphs at the places where y = (f − g) (x) cuts the axes.
9. WE31 The graphs of the functions f and g are shown. Draw the graph of y = (f + g) (x) .
y
y = g(x)
y = f (x)
0 y=0 x
x=0
10. The graphs of two functions y = f (x) and y = g(x) are drawn in the following diagrams. Use the
addition of ordinates technique to sketch y = f (x) + g(x) for each diagram.
a. y b. y
y = f(x)
y = g(x)
y = g(x)
0 y=0 x y=0
x
0
y = f (x)
x=0 x=0
11. Consider the functions f and g defined by f (x) = 5 − 2x and g(x) = 2x − 2 respectively. For each of the
following, give the rule, state the domain and the range, and sketch the graph.
a. y = (f + g) (x) b. y = (f − g) (x) c. y = (fg) (x)
√
12. Consider the functions f (x) = x2 − 1 and g(x) = x + 1 .
a. Evaluate:
i. (g − f) (3) ii. (gf) (8).
b. State the domain of the function f + g.
c. Draw a possible graph for each of the following functions.
i. f + g ii. g − f iii. fg
√
13. Use addition of ordinates to sketch y = x + −x .
14. Sketch the graph of y = x2 − 1 and hence draw the graph of y = (x2 − 1)2 , stating the domain and range.
15. a. Consider the function defined by g(x) = (2x − 1)3 . Sketch the graph of y = g(x) and hence sketch
y = (g(x))2 .
b. Calculate the coordinates of the points of intersection of the graphs of y = f (x) and y = (f (x))2 if
f (x) = x3 − 2x.
16. Use CAS technology to draw on screen the hybrid function defined by the rule:
⎧
⎪−x, x < −1
f (x) = ⎨1, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
⎪
⎩(2x − 1) (x − 3) , x>1
State the range of the function.
17. A hybrid function is defined by:
⎧x + a, x ∈ (−∞, −8]
⎪√3
x + 2, x ∈ (−8, 8]
f (x) = ⎨
⎪b, x ∈ (8, ∞)
⎩x
a. Determine the values of a and b so that the function is continuous for x ∈ R, and for these values,
sketch the graph of y = f (x).
Use the values of a and b from part a for the remainder of this question.
b. Determine the values of k for which the equation f (x) = k has:
i. no solutions ii. one solution iii. two solutions.
c. Find {x : f (x) = 1}.
1.9 Modelling and applications

People in research occupations, such as scientists, engineers and
economists, analyse data though the use of mathematical models in
order to increase our understanding of natural phenomena and to draw
inferences about future behaviour. In this subtopic we consider some
applications of the functions that are discussed earlier in this topic.
1.9.1 Modelling with data

Consider the set of data shown in the table.
t 2 4 7 9
h 15 23.5 21 8.5

h
h(t) = –0.9t2 + 9.3t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 10.333
In deciding what type of model this data might best fit, a linear
26
model would be ruled out as the data is not steadily increasing or 24 (4, 23.5)
decreasing. The values increase and then decrease; there are no 22
obvious signs that the data is oscillating or showing asymptotic (7, 21)
20
behaviour. Observations such as these would rule out an expo- 18
nential model, a trigonometric model and a hyperbola or truncus 16
(2, 15)
model. 14
12
The data is likely to be a polynomial model with a many-to-one
10
correspondence. Plotting the points can help us recognise a possi- 8 (9, 8.5)
ble model. If the variables t and h are time and height respectively, 6
then we may suspect the polynomial would be a quadratic one. 4
Three of the data points could be used to form the model in the 2
form h = at2 + bt + c, or the entire set of data could be used to 0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
obtain the model through a quadratic regression function on CAS.
The quadratic model h(t) = −0.9t2 + 9.3t shows a good fit with
the data.
1.9.2 Applications of mathematical models

The variables in a mathematical model are usually treated as continuous, even though they may represent a
quantity that is discrete in reality, such as the number of foxes in a region. Values obtained using the model
need to be considered in context and rounded to whole numbers where appropriate.
Domain restrictions must also be considered. A variable representing a physical quantity such as length
must be positive. Similarly, a variable representing time usually cannot be negative. However, it is important
to read carefully how the variables are defined. For example, if t is the time in hours after 10 am, then t = −2
would be possible as it refers to the time 8 am.
Exercise 1.9 Modelling and applications
Technology active
1. Consider the data points shown.
x 0 1 3 4
y 4 2 10 8
Discuss why neither a linear, trigonometric, exponential nor a power function of the form y = xn is a
a.
likely fit for the data.
a
b. Assuming the data set fits a hyperbola of the form y = + k, x ∈ [0, ∞)\{2}:
x−2
i. use the data to determine the equation of the hyperbola
ii. sketch the model, showing the data points.
2. The population, in thousands, of bees in a particular colony increases as shown in the table.
Month (t) 1 2 3 4
Population in thousands (P) 36 38.75 42.5 45
a. Plot the data points p against t and suggest
a likely model for the data.
b. Use the values when t = 2 and t = 4 to
form a rule for the model expressing P in
terms of t.
c. If the variable t measures the number of
months since January, how many bees were in the
colony in January, according to the model?
d. What is the rate of increase in the
population of bees according to the model?
3. A parabolic skate ramp has been built at a local park. y
It is accessed by climbing a ladder to a platform as
shown. The platform is 2 metres long. The horizontal (9, ––
9 (
32
distance from the origin is x, and the vertical distance

from the origin is y. The lowest point on the skate
32 (2, a)
ramp is at (5, 0) and the highest point is at 9, . (0, a)
( 9)
a. Find the value of a where (0, a) is the
point where the ladder connects with the platform.
b. What are the coordinates of the point where the
(–1, 0) 0 (5, 0) x
platform and the skate ramp meet?
c. Find the equation of the parabolic section of the
skate ramp.
d. Write a hybrid function rule to define the complete skate ramp system for {x: − 1 ≤ x ≤ 9}.
e. Determine the exact values of x when the skateboarder is 1.5 metres above the ground.
4. ABCD is a square field of side length 40 metres. The points E and F are located on AD and DC
respectively so that ED = DF = x m. A gardener wishes to plant an Australian native garden in the region
that is shaded green in the diagram.
1
a. Show that the area, A m2 , to be used for the Australian native garden is given by A = 800 + 20x − x2 .
2
b. What restrictions must be placed on x?
c. i. Calculate the value of x for which the area of the Australian native garden is greatest.
ii. Calculate the greatest possible area of the native garden.
A B
D C
F

The graph of y = g(x) is shown. The graph has a stationary
(– )
5. y
point of inflection at the√origin and also 3, 12 3
√ crosses the x-axis at
the points where x = − 5 and x = 5 . The coordinates of
the maximum
√ √turning point
√ and the√minimum turning point
are (− 3 , 12 3 ) and ( 3 , −12 3 ) respectively.
(– 5, 0) (0, 0) ( 5, 0)
a. Use the above information to form the equation of the graph. x
b. Hence, show that g(x) = 2x5 − 10x3 .
c. A water slide is planned for a new theme park and its
cross-sectional shape is to be designed using a horizontal
and vertical translation of the curve g(x) = 2x5 − 10x3 .
The image of the point A, the maximum turning point 3, –12 3 ( )
of the original curve, now lies on the y -axis. The image of the point B, the minimum turning point of
the original curve, now lies 1 unit above the x-axis. The point C is the image of the origin (0, 0) after
the original curve is translated.
The water slide is modelled by the section of the curve from A to B with the x-axis as the water level.
y
A
C
y
B A
x C
0
0 x
i. State the values of the horizontal and vertical translations required to achieve this model.
ii. Give the height of A above the water level to 1 decimal place.
iii. State the coordinates of the points C and B.
6. In an effort to understand more about the breeding habits of a
species of quoll, 10 quolls were captured and relocated to a small
reserve where their behaviour could be monitored. After 5 years
the population size grew to 30 quolls.
A model for the size of the quoll population, N, after t
years on the reserve is thought to be defined by the function
at + b
N : R+ ∪ {0} → R, N(t) = .
t+2
a. Calculate the values of a and b.
b. Sketch the graph of N against t.
B
c. Hence or otherwise, determine how large the quoll population
can grow.
7. A right circular cone is inscribed in a sphere of radius 4 cm,
as shown in the cross -section below. h
a. Express the radius, r cm, of the cone in terms of h. O
b. Write an equation expressing the volume of the cone,
V cm3 , in terms of h and state any restrictions on h. 4 cm
c. Sketch the graph of V versus h. A B r cm C
d. Use the graph to find the maximum volume for the
cone to the nearest cm3 .
1.10 Review: exam practice
A summary of this topic is available in the Resources section of your eBookPLUS at www.jacplus.com.au.
Short answer: technology free
1. Solve the following equations.
a. 3x2 − 5x = 4 b. 4x3 − 8x2 − 3x + 6 = 0
c. 2m4 − 5m2 − 3 = 0 d. −2x3 + 12x2 − 22x + 12 = 0
2. a. Show that m − 2 is a factor of 4m − 11m − 19m2 + 44m + 12.
4 3
b. Hence, solve the equation 4m4 − 11m3 − 19m2 + 44m + 12 = 0.

3. If (x + 1), (x + 2)and (x + 3) are factors of x4 + ax3 + bx2 + cx − 6, find the values of a, b and c.
4. Sketch the graphs of each of the following, stating the domain and range.
1 4
a. y = (x − 2)4 − 1 b. y = 1 − c. y = (2x + 1)3 + 8
81 (x − 2)2
5. a. Solve the following system of simultaneous equations.
m + n − p = −2
3m + 5n − 2p = 1
5m + 4n + 2p = 9
b. Solve the pair of simultaneous equations through the use of a parameter, 𝜆.
2x + y − z = 7
−x − y + 3z = 1
6. a. Sketch the graph of the hybrid function defined by the following.
√
3
⎧
⎪ x + 1, x≤0
f (x) = ⎨(3 − x) (x + 1) , 0 < x ≤ 3.
⎪
⎩x + 3, x>3
b. State where this function is discontinuous.
c. State the domain and range of the function.
√ √
7. Consider the functions f and g with respective rules f (x) = x + 2 and g (x) = 4 − x2 .
a. Give the maximal domain of each function and hence state their common domain, D.
b. On the same axes, sketch y = f (x) and y = g(x), and hence sketch the graph of the function
y = (f + g) (x).
Multiple choice: technology active
1. MC When fully factorised, 4x3 − 2x2 − 36x + 18 becomes:
A. (2x − 1) (2x2 − 18) B. 2(2x − 1)(x − 3)2 C. 4(x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 3)
D. 2(2x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 3) E. 2(2x − 1)(x2 − 9)
2. MC (x − 1) is a linear factor of 6x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 1. The solutions to the equation 6x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 1 = 0
are:
1 1 1 1 1 1
A. x = 1, − and B. x = 1, − and − C. x = 1, and
2 3 2 3 2 3
1 1 1 1
D. x = 1, and − E. x = −1, − and −
2 3 2 3
3
3. MC If ax3 + bx2 + cx + d ≡ 3 (x − 2) + 2 (x − 2), then a, b, c and d are respectively:
A. 3, −18, 36 and −24 B. 3, 18, −36 and 24 C. 3, −18, 38 and 28
D. 3, −18, 38 and −28 E. 3, 18, 38 and −28

4. MC Find the value of k for which the simultaneous equations
2kx + (k + 2) y = 1
4x + (5k + 1) y = 2
have infinitely many solutions.
4 4
A. k = − B. k ≠ − and k ≠ −1 C. k = −1
5 5
4
D. k ≠ −1 and k = E. k = 1
5
5. MC A possible equation for the graph shown is:
1 1 1
A. y = −1 B. y = − −1 C. y = −1
x−2 x−2 (x − 2)2
1 1
D. y = − −1 E. y = − −2
(x − 2)2 x−1
y
(1, 0)
0 x
y = –1
x=2
6. MC A possible equation for the graph shown is:
A. y = x2 (x + 2) (x − 3) B. y = x2 (x − 2) (x + 3)
C. y = x2 (x + 2) (3 − x) D. y = −x2 (x − 2) (x + 3)
E. y = −x (x + 2) (x − 3)
y
(–2, 0) (0, 0) (3, 0) x
4
7. MC The maximal domain of the function with the rule y = √
3
is:
x − 64
A. R \ {4} B. R \ {64} C. (4, ∞) D. (64, ∞) E. R
8. MC Data about the relationship between two variables, x and y, are plotted in the diagram.
y
0 x
The most likely model for the relationship is:

A. linear of the form y = x − a
B. exponential of the form y = ax
1
C. power function of the form y = (x − a) 2
D. trigonometric of the form y = cos(x − a)
E. polynomial of the form y = (x − a)4
9. MC Which of the following functions could be the rule for the graph shown?
y
(1, 1)
(0, 0) x
1 1 3 2
A. y = x 5 B. y = x5 C. y = x 4 D. y = x 2 E. y = x 3
10. MC The graphs of y = f (x) and y = g(x) are shown.
y = f (x)
0 x
y = g(x)
Select the correct statement about the graph of y = g(x) − f (x).

A. The graph of y = g(x) − f (x) has no x-intercepts.
B. The graph of y = g(x) − f (x) has one x-intercept.
C. The graph of y = g(x) − f (x) has two x-intercepts.
D. The graph of y = g(x) − f (x) has three x-intercepts.
E. The graph of y = g(x) − f (x) has four x-intercepts.

Extended response: technology active
2
1. a. If am4 + bm3 + cm2 + dm + e ≡ (m2 + 2) − 13 (m2 + 2) + 42, find the values of a, b, c, d and e.
2
b. Hence, or otherwise, solve (m2 + 2) − 13 (m2 + 2) + 42 = 0 over R.
2. For what values of m does the equation (m + 1)x2 + 2x + 3m = 0 have two solutions?
x−y+z+w=5
2x + y − z + 2w = 1
x + 2z − w = 0
2y − 3z − 2w = −11
4. a. Given f (x) = (x + 1)2 and g (x) = (x − 1) (x − 3), form the rule (fg) (x).
b. Sketch the graph of y = (fg) (x), showing all intercepts with the coordinate axes.
c. Hence, state the number of solutions to the equation (fg)(x) − x = 0.
5. In the figure shown, the parabola is defined by y = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and care constants.
y
C (3, 4)
(2, 3)
0 A B x
The curve intersects the x-axis at points A and B. Point C is the vertex of the parabola. The curve
passes through the point (2, 3) and has a maximum turning point at (3, 4).
a. Calculate the values of a, b and c.
b. Find the coordinates of points A and B.
c. Hence, calculate the area of the triangleABC.
d. i. Show that every member of the family of quadratic polynomials defined by
y = ax2 − 6ax + 8a + 3, a ∈ R\{0} passes through the point (2, 3).
ii. For what value(s) of a will these parabolas have two x-intercepts?
6. Consider the polynomial y = 8 + 4x − 2x2 − x3 .
a. Factorise 8 + 4x − 2x2 − x3 .
b. Sketch the graph of y = 8 + 4x − 2x2 − x3 and state an interval, using integer values for x, in which its
maximum turning point must lie.
√
c. The cross-section of a mountain range is modelled by the curve y = 8 + 4x − 2x2 − x3 for
−2 ≤ x ≤ a, where x km is the horizontal distance and y is the vertical height in hundreds of metres.
i. State the largest value a can take.
√
ii. Express y = 8 + 4x − 2x2 − x3 as the product of a polynomial f and a square root function g,
specifying the rule for each function.
iii. Using the largest value that a can take, state the ranges of the functions f and g.
iv. Sketch the functions f and g.
v. Hence, draw a sketch of the cross-section of the mountain range.
Units 3 & 4 Sit VCAA exam
Answers c. y
(–2, 8)
Topic 1 Functions and graphs
Exercise 1.2 Linear functions (0, 4)
1. a. i. Many-to-one ii. [−3, 6), [−9, 7]

0 (2, 0) x
iii. Yes –2 4
b. i. One-to-many ii. [0, ∞), R (4, –4)
iii. No
c. i. Many-to-many ii. [−2, 2], [−2, 2]
iii. No
d. i. One-to-one ii. R, R Range (−4, 8]
iii. Yes d. y
e. i. Many-to-one ii. R, {2}
f.
iii. Yes
i. One-to-one ii. R, R
(5, –253 )
iii. Yes
(0, 5)
2. a. Many-to-one correspondence ( 13
–1, –
3 )
b. Domain: [− 4, 2); Range: [0, 16]
0 x
c. f : [−4, 2) →R, f (x) = x2 –1 5
d. y = 12
3. a. y
3x – 4y = 12 13 25
Range ,
0 x [3 3]
(4, 0)
5. a. y = −3x + 12
(0, –3) b. y = 3x + 2
6. a. y + 2x − 2 = 0
3 b. 2y + x − 8 = 0
b.
4
y 7. a. 140.2°
4. a.
b. y = x + 6
√
(0, 9) 8. a. i. (4, −2) ii. 4 2 units
1 1 √
b. i. , ii. 74 units
(2 2)
y = 9 – 4x
9. a. a = 6 b. a = 7
c. a = −2, 14 d. a = −5, 1
10. a. p = 6
9, 0
( )
–
4
b. 9y − 7x = 23
c. 8.3 units
0 x
Exercise 1.3 Solving systems of equations

1. k ∈ R \ {−1, 4}
Range R 2. m = 2
b. y
1
3. m = ±
y = ––
3x 2
5
(5, 3) 4. k ∈ R \ {−1, 2}
(0, 0) 5. a. m ∈ R \ {−4, 1}
x b. m = −4
c. m = 1
(–3 , – –59 ) 6. m = 2, n = 2 and p = −5
7. d = 1, e = 2 and f=2
8. a. x = 3, y = 2 and z = −4
9 b. m = 7, n = −2 and p = −1
Range − ,3 c. u = 3, v = 6 and w = −2
( 5 ]
13 1
d. a = , b = −3 and c =
2 2

9. The largest angle is 70°, the smallest angle is 50° and the b. i. (3, 9)
third angle is 60°.
y
10. w = 1, x = −3, y = 2 and z = 3
2(a + 2) 4(a + 2) 4 (–2, 4)
11. x = ,y= ,z=
a(a + 4) a(a + 4) a
12. a. 3x + 3z = 3
𝜆
b. x = 1 − 𝜆, y = − , z = 𝜆
2
(––23 , 0) 0 (2, 0) x
c. This solution describes the line along which the two

planes are intersecting.
(0, –6)
13. x =
2 (𝜆 + 5)
,y=−
7𝜆 + 2
,z=𝜆 (–41 , – –498 )
3 3
49
11 2 (3𝜆 + 2) Range = − , 9
14. x = ,y= ,z=𝜆 [ 8 ]
3 3 ii. y
15. x = 3𝜆, y = 5𝜆 − 2, z = 𝜆
(2, 6)
16. a. m ∈ R \{6}, n ∈ R
b. m = 6, n = −2
c. m = 6, n ∈ R \{−2} (0, 2)
Exercise 1.4 Quadratic functions (2–√6, 0) 0 (2+√6, 0) x

1. a. (5u − 2)(3u + 1)
b. 2(3d − 2)(d − 4)
√ √
c. 3( j + 2 − 6 )( j + 2 + 6)
2. a. ( f − 14)( f + 2)
b. (g + 4)(g − 1)
c. (b − 1)(b + 1) Range = (−∞, 6]
3 1 iii. y
3. a. x=− ,
4√ 2
2± 2 0 x
b. x=
2
1 7 (–1, –3)
4. a. y=± b. z = −
9 √ 2
5 ± 10 (0, –5)
c. m= d. x = 1 or 3
5
1 3 11
e. p = or f. k= or 7
2 2 4 √
−5 ± 3 17
g. m = −4 or 1 h. n =
8 (–3, –11)
5. y
Range = (−11, −3]
y
y = 2(3x – –8
iv.
2)2
(–34 , 0)
0
(0, 0)
x
(0, 72 ) ( 3+√2 , 0)
2
0 x
( 2 , –8
–
3 ) ( 3–√2 , 0
2 ) ( 3 , –1)
2
Domain R, range [−8, ∞).
6. a. [2, 29) Range = [−1, ∞)

7. a. None
b. f (x) = 4(x − 1)2 + 3
c. y 13. x2 − 2 = 2x − 3
x2 − 2x + 1 = 0
y = 4x2 – 8x + 7
(0, 7) Δ = b2 − 4ac
= (−2)2 − 4 × 1 × 1
(1, 3) =4−4
0 x =0
As Δ = 0, the graph of y = 2x − 3 is a tangent to the graph
Domain R+ ∪ {0}, range [3.∞). of y = x2 − 2.
3 3
1 14. a. k ∈ −∞, ∪ , ∞
8. y = − (2x + 1)(x − 4) ( 2) (2 )
2
2
b. kx + 4x − k + 2 = 0
3
9. a. y = − (x + 6)2 + 12 Δ = 16 − 4 × k × (−k + 2)
20
4 = 16 + 4k2 − 8k
b. y = − (x + 7)(2x + 5)
7 = 4(k2 − 2k + 4)
1 2
c. y = x − 5 = 4(k2 − 2k + 12 − 12 + 4)
4
= 4[(k + 1)2 + 3]
10. a. −(x − 1)2 − 4
b. (1, −4) = 4(k + 1)2 + 12
c. y As (k + 1)2 > 0,
∴ 4 (k + 1)2 > 0
and 4 (k + 1)2 + 12 > 0
Δ is always greater than zero, therefore the equation
0 x will always have a solution for all values of k.
√ √
y = –x2 + 2x – 5 15. m ∈
3 − 2 46 3 + 2 46
, \{1}
(1, –4) ( 14 14 )
(0, –5)
Exercise 1.5 Cubic functions
2 2
1. a. (5a − 3b)(25a + 15ab + 9b )
b. 2(c + d)3
2
c. 5(2p − 1)(4p + 2p + 1)
2. a. (3z − 2)3
Range (−∞, −4] 2 2
b. (mn + 4)(m n − 4mn + 16)
d. y
3. a. (x − 1)(3x − y)
(0, 3) y=x+3 2 2
b. ( y + z )(3y − 2z)
4. a. (3a − 2 − 4b)(3a − 2 + 4b)
b. (np − 2m − 1)(np + 2m + 1)
(–3, 0) 0 x
5. (x + 1)(x − 6)(x + 3)
y = –x2 + 2x – 5 6. a. (r − 7)(7r2 + 1)
(1, –4) b. (6v + 1)(6v2 + 5)
(0, –5) c. (2m + 3)(m − 7)(m + 7)
d. (2z − 1)(z2 + 1)
e. (2x − 7 − 5y) (2x − 7 + 5y)
f. (4a − 2b − 3) (4a + 2b + 3)
g. (v − w + 2)(v + w − 2)
h. (2p + q − 1)(2p + q + 1)
√ 1
19 7. x = ± 5 ,
e. k = − 2
4
8. a. b = −4, −2, 1
11. k ∈ (−4, 4)
√ √ 3
b. m = −1, , 4
12. m ∈ (−∞, 2 ) ∪ ( 2 , ∞) 2
√ 1
c. x = ± 3 ,
2
1
d. x = −3, −1 and
2

3
9. a. Let P (t) = 3t + 22t + 37t + 10
2
17. a. y
3 2
P(−5) = 3(−5) + 22(−5) + 37(−5) + 10
= 3 × 125 + 22 × 25 − 185 + 10
= −375 + 550 − 175
=0 (–2, 0) (0, 0) (3, 0)
∴ t + 5 is a factor. 0 x
1
t = −5, −2 and −
3
3 2
b. Let P (d) = 3d − 16d + 12d + 16.
P (2) = 3 (2)3 − 16 (2)2 + 12 (2) + 16

= 24 − 64 + 24 + 16 y = x3 – x2 – 6x
=0
b. y
∴ d − 2 is a factor
2 y=1––
1 (x + 1)3
d = − , 2 and 4 8
3 (–3, 2)
10. A = 3, B = 0, C = 2 and D = −7
1
(0, –78 ) (1, 0)
11. d = ±3, e = ±
3 0 x
12. a. a = 5, b = −3, c = 4 and d = −1
b. a = −3 and b = 1
13. a = 2, b = 1, c = 1 and d = −3; (2, –2 –38 )
3 2
2 (x − 1) + (x − 1) + (x − 1) − 3
14. a = 2, b = 5
y y = 12(x + 1)2 – 3(x + 1)3
c.
15. y
y = –4(x + 2)3 + 16
(–2, 16) (0, 9)
( 3
4 – 2, 0 )
0 x
(3, 0)
(–1, 0) 0 x
(0, –16)
18. y = 2x(5x − 4)(2x − 3)

16. a. 4(x − 2)2 (x + 2)
1
19. y = (x + 4)(4x − 5)2
b. y 10
(4, 96) 3 2
20. a. f (x) = −2x + 9x − 24x + 17
f (1) = −2 + 9 − 24 + 17 = 0
(0, 32) y = 4x3 – 8x2 – 16x + 32
∴ (x − 1) is a factor.
(–2, 0) (2, 0)
By inspection,
0 x
−2x3 + 9x2 − 24x + 17 = (x − 1) (−2x2 + 7x − 17).
c. Maximum value 96, minimum value 0.

Consider the discriminant of the quadratic factor
−2x2 + 7x − 17 .
Δ = 49 − 4(−2)(−17)
= 49 − 136
<0
As the discriminant is negative, the quadratic cannot be
factorised into real linear factors; therefore, it has no
real zeros.
For the cubic, this means there can only be one
x-intercept, the one which comes from the only linear
factor (x − 1).
b. For there to be a stationary point of inflection, the 6. y
equation of the cubic function must be able to be
written in the form y = a(x + b)3 + c. y=x–2
Let −2x3 + 9x2 − 24x + 17 = a(x + b)3 + c (0, 0)
(1, 0)
By inspection, the value of a must be −2.
3 2
(–1, 0)
∴ − 2x + 9x − 24x + 17 0 x
(2, 0)
= −2 (x3 + 3x2 b + 3xb2 + b3 ) + c
(0, –2)
Equate coefficients of like terms:
y = x2 – x4
3
x2 : 9 = −6b ⇒ b = −
2
∴ 2 solutions
x: − 24 = −6b2 ⇒ b2 = 4
7. y
It is not possible for b to have different values. y = x4 – 6x3
Therefore, it is not possible to express the equation of
the function in the form. y = a(x + b)3 + c. (0, 0) (6, 0)
There is no stationary point of inflection on the graph of x
the function.
c. x → ± ∞, y → ∓ ∞
d. y
y = x4 − 6x3 + 1 will make 2 intersections with the x-axis.
y = –2x3 + 9x2 – 24x + 17

7
8. a = − , b = 6, c = 7, (−6, 7)
(0, 17) 81
9. x = −1.75, x = 1.22
10. a. Minimum turning points (−1.31, −3.21) and
(1, 0)
(1.20, −9.32) , maximum turning point (−0.636, −2.76)
0 x
b. None
c. Minimum turning point (−2.17, −242), stationary point
of inflection (2, 20)
11. y
(0, 11)
(–1, 10)
y = (x + 1)6 + 10
Exercise 1.6 Higher degree polynomials x

0
1. (x − 1)(x − 4)(x − 6)(x + 6)
√
2. a. x = −1, 2, 3, 4 b. a = ± 2
12. y = (x + 4 )(x + 2)2(x – 2)3(x – 5)
3. a. l = ±4 and ± 1 y
b. c = −3 and ± 2
c. p = ±1, 2 and 3
4. a. a = ±1 and ± 3 (–2, 0)
(0, 640)
1
b. k = ± and ± 5 (–4, 0) (2, 0) (5, 0)
2
1 0 x
c. z = ± and ± 4
3
d. x = 8, −6, 1
5. a = 2, b = −13, c = −14

13. a. y = −3(x + 5)4 + 12 Exercise 1.7 Other algebraic functions
b. y
1
1. a. R \{−9} b. −∞, c. R \{−3} d. R
( 2]
6
2. a. y = +1
x+3
y = (2 + x)(1 – x)3
b. i. Maximal domain R \{1}
ii. Range R \{5}
(0, 2)
(–2, 0) (1, 0) y –2
y=—
5x—
0 x x–1
y=5
(0, 2)
(0.4, 0)
0 x
c. i. −(x + 2)2 (x − 2)(x − 3) x=1
ii. y
y = –x4 + x3 +10x2 –4x –24 y

x = 0.5
3.
(–2, 0) (2, 0) (3, 0) (0, 4)
0 x
y=0
0 x
y=— —4
1 – 2x
(0, –24) (1, – 4)
1
y
Domain R \ , range R \{0}.
14. a. i. {}
2
y = x6 4. a. y
y =–
4+5
(1, 1) x
x
0 (0, 0) y=5
(
––
4, 0
5 )
0 x
y = x7
ii. {x : x ≤ 1}
y
x=0
b.
(–2, 16)
Domain R \{0}, range R \{5}
b. y
y= 16 – (x + 2)5
y=2– –3
x+1
(–1, 15)
(–4, 0) (0, 0) (–12 , 0) y=2
x
0 x
y = 16 – (x + 2)4
(0, –16) (0, –1)
i. y = (x + 3)2 (x + 1)(x − 2)3 , degree 6

c.
x = –1
ii. y = (x + 3)2 (x + 1)(x − 2)3 (10 − x), degree 7
Domain R \{−1}, range R \{2}
c. y 7. a. y
4x + 3
y=–
2x + 1 y= –+1
2
(3 – x)2
(0, 3)
(0, –119 )
x = ––
1
y=2 (6, –119 )
2
0 x y=1
0 x
( ––
3, 0
4
) x=3
Domain R \{3}, range (1, ∞)
1 b. y
Domain R \ − , range R \{2}
{ 2}
–3
d. y y= –2
4(x – 1)2
xy + 2y + 5 = 0 x=1
0 x
y=0 y = –2
0 x
(0, –2.5)
(0, – 11–4) (2, – 11–4)
x = –2
Domain R \{−2}, range R \{0}
x =5
e. y
(3, 0)
y=–10 – 5
5–x
0 x
Domain R \{1}, range (−∞, −2)
y = –5 (0, –3)
c. y
1
y= – –1
Domain R \{5}, range R \{−5} (2x + 3)2
−2
5. a. y = +6
x+3
1 3
b. y = − (–2, 0) (–1, 0)
2(x + 2) 2
0 x
6. y
y = –1
y= — –2
8
—
(x + 2)2
(–4, 0) (0, 0)
3
x = ––
2
(0, – –98 )
0 x
3
y = –2
Domain R \ − , range (−1, ∞)
{ 2}
d. y
x = –2
Domain R \{−2}, range (−2, ∞). y=5
25x2 – 1
y= –
5x2
(–0.2, 0) (0.2, 0)
0 x
x=0
Domain R \{0}, range (−∞, 5)

1 10
8. y = −1 b. ,0
4x2 (3 )
−3
9. a. y = +2 y
(x − 4)2 1–
y = (10 – 3x)
3
108 1
b. y = − 4, f : R \ → R,
(2x − 1)2 {2} 1–
108 (0, 10 3( (10

— , 0(
3
f (x) = − 4. 0 x
(2x − 1)2
10. a. i. Maximal domain [−9, ∞)
ii. Range (−∞, 2]
y
√
12. a. i. y = 2 (x − 3) + 2, domain [3, ∞), range [2, ∞);
(–9, 2) y = – x+ 9+2 √
y = −2 (x − 3) + 2, domain [3, ∞), range (−∞, 2].
(–5, 0) √
ii. y = −2(x − 3) − 1, domain (−∞, 3],
0 x
range [−1, ∞);
(0, –1) √
y = − −2(x − 3) − 1, domain (−∞, 3],
range (−∞, −1].
b. i. y
√
3
b. y = 2 x − 1 + 3 y = 1 – 3x
y (0, 1)
0 x
y = 2 3 x – 1+ 3
(1, 3) ( )
1
–, 0
3
(0, 1)
0 x Domain [0, ∞), range (−∞, 1]
19 y
– —, 0
( ) ii.
8 y = 2 –x + 4
19
x-intercept − ,0 .
( 8 ) (–1, 6)
9 (0, 4)
11. a. Maximal domain , ∞ , range [−6, ∞)
[4 )
y
0 x
y = 3 4x – 9 – 6
Domain (−∞, 0], range [4, ∞)
iii. y
)13—4, 0) (0, 7)
0 x
y = 2 4 + 2x + 3
) 9 , –6
—
4
) (–2, 3)
0 x
Domain [−2, ∞), range [3, ∞)
iv. y b. Domain R
0 x y
4
(4, – 3 ) y = x3
– y=x
(0, –3 3 )
y = – 3 – 12 – 3x (–1, 1) (1, 1)
√ 0 x
Domain (−∞, 4], range (−∞, − 3 ] (0, 0)
13. a. a = 2, b = −5, c = −2
b. i. a = −2, b = 4, c = −2 17. a. Domain R
√
ii. y = − −2x + 4 + 2 y y=x
y
+ 2 –1
1
y=
14. a. 3x –
y = x5
(0, 32–1 ) (0, 0) (1, 1)

x
(–1, 0)
0 x (–1, –1)
(–2, –1)
+
b. Domain R ∪ {0}
b. y
y = –12 1– 3 x + 8
( ) y
( –8, –
1
2) y=x
(–7, 0) 1
–
0 x y = x8
(0, – –12) (0, 0) (1, 1)
x
Domain R, range R
c. y
y = g(x) = 3 –x + 5 18. a. Domain [0, ∞), quadrant 1
(–3, 2)
(0, 3 5) y
5
–
(5, 0) y=x 2
y=x
0 x
(6, –1) (0, 0) (1, 1)
0 x
Domain [−3, 6], range [−1, 2]
√3
d. y = 2 x − 2
√
3
7 x+1 b. Domain R, quadrants 1 and 3
e. y = − −2
√ 2
3 y 5
f. y = 4 (x − 2) − 2, (2, −2) –
y = x3
y=x
15. The maximal domain is x ∈ [−3, 2].
+
16. a. Domain R ∪ {0} (0, 0) (1, 1)
y x
(1, 1) y=x (–1, –1)
3
–
(0, 0) y = x4
0 x

c. Domain R, quadrants 1 and 3 b. y
y
y=x (1, 1)
3
– (0, 0)
(0, 0) y = x5
x
y=0
(–1, –1) (1, 1)
0 x
Domain R, range (−∞, 1], no point of discontinuity
3. a. i. 1
d. Domain [0, ∞), quadrant 1
ii. 2
y b. y
y=x
(2, 4)
y = x0.25
(0, 0) (–1, 2) (2, 2)
(1, 1)
0 x (4, 0)
0 (1, 0) x
(0, 0)
x = –1
19. a. Draw y = x and construct its cube root.
c. R \{−1, 2}
b. y
y=x √ to the left of x = 1 has the rule
4. a. The branch
1
– f (x) = 1 − x , so f (1) = 0.
3
y=x The branch to the right of x = 1 has the rule f (x) = x − 2,
(–1, –1) (1, 1) so f (1) → −1 (open circle).
0 x These branches do not join, so the hybrid function is not
continuous at x = 1.
b. y
c. {x : x < −1} ∪ {x : 0 < x < 1} (–3, 2)

(0, 1)
(– 3
45 , 0 ) (1, 0) (2, 0)
Exercise 1.8 Combinations of functions
0 x
1. a. f (−8) = 2, f (−1) = −1, f (2) = 0
(1, –1)
b. y
(–1, 1)
(1, 1)
(2, 0)
x Many-to-one correspondence
0
(–1, –1) c. x = 6
⎧
⎪x + 4, x<0
5. y = ⎨4, 0≤x<4
c. i. x = −1 ⎪
⎩x, 4≤x≤8
ii. Domain R, range R.
2. a. y ⎧ 4 (x + 3)(x + 1), x < 0

⎪3
(0, 4) 6. y = ⎨4, 0≤x≤2
⎪
⎩−2x + 8, x≥3
(0, 0) (2, 0)
x
Domain R, range R, x = 0
√ √
7. a. y = − 1+x − 1 − x , domain [−1, 1] 10. a. y
6
y 5
4 y = g(x)
3 3
2 2
y = f (x) + g(x) 1 y = f (x)
1
(–1, 0) (1, 0) –3 –2 –1 –10 1 2 3 x
x –2
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1 –3
y = f (x) y = g(x) –4
–2 –5
(
–1, – 2 –3 ) (1, – 2 ) –6
b. y
y = g(x)
y = ( f + g)(x) 4
√
b. y= 1− x2 , domain [−1, 1], range [0, 1].
y = f (x) + g(x) 2
3 2
8. (f − g)(x) = x − x
–4 –2 0 2 4 x
y –2 y = f (x)
4
y = ( f – g)(x)
3
2 11. a. y = 3, domain R, range {3}, horizontal line through
1 (0, 3)
(0, 0) (1, 0)
y
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1 y=3
–2 (0, 3)
y = f (x) –3 y = –g(x)
–4
0 x
The graphs of f and g intersect when x = 0, x = 1, which
gives the places where the difference function has b. y = 7 − 4x, domain R, range R, straight line through
x-intercepts.
7
9. y (0, 7) and ,0
(4 )
5
y
4
(0, 7)
y = g(x) y = 7 – 4x
3
2 y = ( f + g)(x)
y = f (x) 1
) –74 , 0)
0 x
0 1 2 3 x
–3 –2 –1
–1

9 14. y
c. y = 2(5 − 2x)(x − 1), domain R, range −∞, ,
( 4]
4
7 9
concave down parabola with turning point , and 3
(4 4) y = x2 –1 (0, 1)
2
passing through (0, −10), (1, 0) and (2.5, 0) (– 2, 1 ) ( 2 , 1)
y = 2(5 – 2x)(x – 1) 1
y (–1, 0) (1, 0)
(–74 , –49) –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x
(1, 0)
0 x (0, –1)
–1
( –52 ,0) (
y = x2 –1 )2
(0, –10) Domain R, range [0, ∞)
15. a. y
2
12. a. i. −6 y = (g(x))2
ii. 189
b. [−1, ∞) 1 (0, 1)
c. i. y
6 (0.5, 0)
5 0
–1 1 2 x
y = f (x) 4 y = f (x) + g(x)
3 y = g(x)
2 –1 (0, –1)
1 y = g(x)
(–1, 0)
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 √
–1 √ 1± 5
–2 b. (0, 0), (± 2 , 0), (−1, 1), ,1
( 2 )
ii. y
6
5 16. y
y = f (x) 4 y = g(x) – f (x)
3
2
1 y = g(x)
(–1, 0)
x (1, 1)
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 (–1, 1)
(3, 0)
–1
–2 0 x
(1, –2)
iii. y
6
5 (–47 , – ––258 )
4 y = f (x) g(x)
y = f (x)
3 (0, 1)
2
y = g(x)
1
(–1, 0) (1, 0) 25
x Range = − , ∞
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 [ 8 )
–1
–2
17. a. a = 8, b = 32
y
13. y
6 (8, 4)
5
(–8, 0) (0, 2)
4
y = –x 3 0 x
2
y=x
(–1, 0) 1
x b. i. k > 4
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1 ii. k = 4 or k ≤ 0
y = x + –x –2 (0, 0)
iii. 0 < k < 4
c. {−1, 32}
Exercise 1.9 Modelling and applications 4. a. The garden area is the area of the entire square minus the
1. a. The data points increase and decrease, so they cannot be area of the two right-angled triangles.
modelled by a one-to-one function. Neither a linear 1 1
A = 40 × 40 − × x × x − × (40 − x) × 40
model nor an exponential model is possible. 2 2
The data is not oscillating, however, so it is unlikely 1
= 1600 − x2 − 20(40 − x)
to be trigonometric. The jump between x = 1 and x = 3 2
is a concern, but the data could be modelled by a 1
polynomial such as a cubic with a turning point between = 1600 − x2 − 800 + 20x
2
x = 1 and x = 3. However, y = xn requires the point
(0, 0) to be on it and that is not true for the data given. 1 2
= − x + 20x + 800
4 2
b. i. y = +6
x−2 b. 0 < x < 40
2
c. i. 20 ii. 1000 m
ii. y √ √
3
5. a. y = 2x (x − 5 )(x + 5)
(3, 10) b. = 2x3 (x2 − 5)
(4, 8) = 2x5 − 10x3
√
y=6 c. i. Horizontal translation of 3 units to the right and
4 +6
√
y=– vertical translation of 12 3 + 1 units upward
(0, 4) (x – 2) √
ii. (24 3 + 1) ≈ 42.6 metres
(1, 2) √ √ √
iii. B (2 3 , 1), C ( 3 ,12 3 +1)
x=2
x 6. a. a = 38, b = 20
0
b. N
N = 38
2. a. P (’000s)
50 (5, 30)
N = 38t
– + 20
45 t+2
(0, 10)
40
0 t
35
(0, 32.5) c. The population will never exceed 38.
30 √
7. a. r = 8h − h2
25
1 2
b. V = 3 𝜋h (8 − h), 0 < h < 8
20
c. V
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 t )5 –31 , 79.4)
The data appears to be linear. 1 πh2 (8 – h)
V= –
3
b. P = 3.125t + 32.5
c. 32 500 bees
d. 3.125 thousand per month
3. a. a = 2
b. (2, 2)
2
c. y = (x − 5)2 , 2 ≤ x ≤ 9
9
⎧2x + 2, −1 < x < 0
⎪2, 0≤x≤2
d. y = ⎨ 2
⎪ (x − 5)2 , 2 < x ≤ 9
⎩9
√ (8, 0)
3 3 1 (0, 0) h
e. x = 5 ± or x = −
2 4
3
d. 79 cm

1.10 Review: exam practice c. Domain R, range R
Short answer
√ y
5 ± 73
1. a. x =
6√
b. x = 2, ±
3 y = (2x + 1)3 + 8
√
c. m = ± 3
2
( )
––
1,8
2 (0, 9)
d. x = 1, 2, 3
4 3 2
2. a. Let P(m) = 4m − 11m − 19m + 44m + 12.
If m − 2 is a factor, then P(2) = 0. ( )
––
3, 0
2
0 x
P (2) = 4 (2)4 − 11 (2)3 − 19 (2)2 + 44 (2) + 12
= 4 × 16 − 11 × 8 − 19 × 4 + 88 + 12
= 64 − 88 − 76 + 88 + 12
5. a. m = −1, n = 2 and p = 3
= 76 − 88 − 76 + 88
=0 b. x = 8 − 2𝜆, y = 5𝜆 − 9 and z = 𝜆
∴ m − 2 is a factor. 6. a. y
1
b. m = − , ±2 and 3
4
3. a = 5, b = 5 and c = −5 y = f(x)
4. a. Domain R, range [−1, ∞) (3, 6)
y (1, 4)
y= 1
—(x – 2)4 – 1
81 (0, 3)
(–1, 0)
(0, 1)
(5, 0) (–1, 0) (3, 0)
0 x 0 x
(0, )
–—
65
81 (2, –1)
b. x = 0 and x = 3
b. Domain R \{2}, range (−∞, 1)
c. Domain R, range R \(4, 6]
y 7. a. df = [−2, ∞), dg = [−2, 2], df ∩ dg = D = [−2, 2]
y=1 b. y
(0, 2 + 2 ) (
y = f + g (x) )
(0, 0) (4, 0) x
(2, 2)
(–2, 0)
0 x
y=1– 4
(x – 2)
— 2
x=2 Multiple choice

1. D 2. A 3. D 4. E 5. B
6. C 7. B 8. C 9. E 10. C
Extended response b. y
√
1. a. a = 1, b = 0, c = −9, b. m = ± 5 and ±2 y = (2 + x)2(2 – x)
d = 0 and e = 20
√ √
3 − 21 3 + 21 (0, 8)
2. m ∈ ,
( −6 −6 )
(–2, 0)
3. x = 0, y = −2, z = 1, w = 2 (2, 0)
2 0 x
4. a. (fg) (x) = (x + 1) (x − 1)(x − 3)
b. y
y = ( fg)(x)
(0, 3) y=x
The maximum turning point lies in the interval
(3, 0) −2 ≤ x ≤ 2.
(–1, 0)
c. i. a = 2 √
0 x
(1, 0) ii. f (x) = 2 + x, x ∈ [−2, 2]; g(x) = 2 − x , x ∈ [−2, 2]
iii. ranf = [0, 4], rang = [0, 2]
iv. y
(2, 4)
f (x) = x + 2
(–2, 2) (0, 2)
c. 2 (0, 2 )
g(x) = 2 – x
5. a. a = −1, b = 6, c = −5 (–2, 0)
(2, 0)
b. A (1, 0) and B (5, 0) 0 x
2
c. 8 units
2
d. i. y = ax − 6ax + 8a + 3, a ∈ R \{0}
Let x = 2:
y = 4a − 12a + 8a + 3 v. y
=3
Every parabola in this family passes through the point y = 8 + 4x – 2x2 – x3
(2, 3).
ii. a < 0 or a > 3 (0, 2 2 ) (1, 3)
6. a. (2 + x)2 (2 − x)
(–2, 0) (2, 0)
0 x

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TOPIC 1

Functions and graphs

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 1

Part of the graph of the parabola y = x2 is shown in the y

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 3

Interactivity: Vertical and horizontal line tests (int-2570)

1.2.2 The linear polynomial function

Consider the line L where L = {(x, y) : 2x + 3y = 12}.

b. Rearrange the equation in the form y = mx + c and b. 2x + 3y = 12

Find the equation, in the form ax + by + c = 0, for the line:

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 5

b. 1. Determine the gradient from the given angle. b. tan(𝜃) = m

Midpoint between two points

Distance between two points

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 7

Given the points (−3, 5) and (4, −6) calculate:

Interactivity: Equations from point–gradient and gradient–y-intercept (int-2551)

Exercise 1.2 Linear functions

2. WE1Part of the graph of the parabola y = x2 is shown in the y

a. Sketch the line. x

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 9

1.3 Solving systems of equations

1. Label the equations. kx + 3y = 1 [1]

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 11

Step 2. Equate the determinant to zero.

Interactivity: Solving systems of equations (int-2549)

Units 3 & 4 AOS 2 Topic 4 Concept 1

No solution One unique solution Infinitely many solutions

Planes are parallel to one another. The planes are identical.

Solve the following system of simultaneous equations.

1. Label the equations and determine which of the 2x − 3y + 2z = −5 [1]

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 13

TI | THINK WRITE CASIO | THINK WRITE

Interactivity: Equations in 3 variables (int-2550)

The simultaneous equations shown have infinitely many solutions.

TI | THINK WRITE CASIO | THINK WRITE

Units 3 & 4 AOS 2 Topic 4 Concept 2

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 15

8. Solve the following systems of simultaneous equations.

1.4 Quadratic functions

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 17

Use an appropriate technique to factorise each of the following quadratic expressions.

Write the answer.

Interactivity: Perfect square form of a quadratic (int-2558)

1.4.2 Solving quadratic equations

The quadratic formula

Solve the following equations for x.

TI | THINK WRITE CASIO | THINK WRITE

Interactivity: The discriminant (int-2560)

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 19

General form, y = ax2 + bx + c

Δ<0 Δ=0 Δ>0

x-intercept form, y = a(x − x1 ) (x − x2 )

Key features of the graph of a quadratic function

When sketching the graph of a parabola by hand, identify:

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 21

1. Rewrite the equation so it is in a standard form. y = 9 − (2x + 1)2

2. To find the x-intercepts, 2. To find the x-intercepts,

4. To find the maximum, 4. To find the maximum,

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 23