Introduction to control theory

LECTURE 2- PART 1: MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF CONTINUOUS LTI SYSTEMS

Author : Sonia GHRAB

Cursus : EENG3
UE : Introduction to control theory
Version : 1.0
Date : 12/02/2024

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 1. MATHEMATICAL MODEL

𝒆(𝒕) SYSTEM 𝒚(𝒕)

• The behavior of the continuous LTI system can be described by a constant-coefficients linear
differential equation

𝒅𝒚(𝒕) 𝒅 𝒏 𝒚(𝒕) 𝒅𝒆(𝒕) 𝒅 𝒎 𝒆(𝒕)

𝒂𝟎 𝒚 𝒕 + 𝒂𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒃𝟎 𝒆 𝒕 + 𝒃𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝒃𝒎
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝒏 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝒎

where 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , ⋯ , 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏0 , 𝑏1 , ⋯ , 𝑏𝑚 real constant

𝑚 ≤ 𝑛: Existence condition, causal system( non-anticipative system)
𝑛: System order
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 2. LAPLACE TRANSFORM

• The Laplace transform is a practical mathematical tool to transform a differential equation into an algebraic
equation that is easier to handle
Objectifs
• Determine the transfert function of a system
• Solving differential equations

Differential
Equation
Final Solution
with constant
coefficients

Laplace Partial fraction Inverse Laplace

Rational
Transform expansion transform
Fraction

(variable "𝒕") (variable "𝒔") (variable "𝒔") (variable "𝒔") (variable "𝒕")
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 2.1. DEFINITION

Consider 𝑓(𝑡) a causal function, then the Laplace transform of 𝑓(𝑡) is the function 𝐹(𝑠) given by

+∞

𝑭 𝒔 = 𝓛 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒇 𝒕 𝒆− 𝒔 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝟎

• 𝓛 : an operational symbol indicating that, the quantity that its prefixeis, to be transformed by the
+∞
Laplace integral 0 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• 𝑠 : Laplace variable (complex variable), 𝑠 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽
2.2. NOTE AND VOCABULARY
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝓛 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑓(𝑡) Laplace Transform 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝓛−𝟏 𝐹(𝑠)

• 𝐹 𝑠 : is the 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 of 𝑓 𝑡 , it is the Laplace transform of 𝑓 𝑡

• 𝑓 𝑡 : is the 𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧 of 𝐹 𝑠 it is also called the inverse Laplace transform of 𝐹(𝑠)
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 • To avoid the calculation of the integral, we use the Laplace transform table which contains
the Laplace transforms of the usual functions
Table 1: Laplace transform table (usual functions)

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 2.3. LAPLACE TRANSFORM PROPERTIES

• A set of properties allowing the calculation of the Laplace Transforms of more complex functions (which
do not appear in the Laplace transforms table) have to be known
2.3.1. Unicity property
For 𝑓 𝑡 ∃ a unique 𝐹 𝑠 , For 𝐹(𝑠) ∃ a unique 𝑓(𝑡)
2.3.2. Linearity property

• 𝓛 𝒌 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒌 𝓛 𝒇(𝒕) ; 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝒌 𝐢𝐬 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭

• 𝓛 𝒇(𝒕) + 𝒈(𝒕) = 𝓛 𝒇(𝒕) + 𝓛 𝒈(𝒕) 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒇 𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒈 𝒕 are causal functions

• 𝓛 𝜶 𝒇(𝒕) + 𝜷 𝒈(𝒕) = 𝜶 𝓛 𝒇(𝒕) + 𝜷 𝓛 𝒈(𝒕) ; 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝜶 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜷 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

2.3.3. Time scaling property

𝟏 𝒔
• 𝓛 𝒇(𝒌𝒕) = 𝒌 𝑭 ; 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒌 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝒌

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 You should pay attention to the fact that the following expressions are different
𝓛 𝒌 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒌 𝓛 𝒇(𝒕) (linearity property)
𝟏 𝒔
𝓛 𝒇(𝒌𝒕) = 𝑭( ) (scaling property)
𝒌 𝒌

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 DEMONSTRATION OF THE TIME SCALING PROPERTY

+∞

• We remind the Laplace transforom definition 𝑭 𝒔 = 𝓛 𝒇(𝒕) = 𝒇 𝒕 𝒆− 𝒔 𝒕 𝒅𝒕

𝟎

+∞
• We have
𝓛 𝒇(𝒌𝒕) = 𝒇 𝒌𝒕 𝒆−𝒔𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝟎

• Let’s consider the following (variable change method)

𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑢=𝑘𝑡→ 𝑡=𝑘 then 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑘

+∞
1 𝑠
−𝑘𝑢
ℒ 𝑓(𝑘𝑡) = 𝑓 𝑢 𝑒 𝑑𝑢
𝑘 0

+∞
1 𝑠
−𝑘𝑢 1 𝑠
ℒ 𝑓(𝑘𝑡) = 𝑓 𝑢 𝑒 𝑑𝑢 = 𝐹
𝑘 0 𝑘 𝑘
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 2.3.4. Derivation theorem

• First derivative
𝒅 𝒇(𝒕)
𝓛 = 𝒔 𝑭 𝒔 − 𝒇 𝟎+
𝒅𝒕
• Second derivative
𝒅(𝟐) 𝒇(𝒕) 𝟐 + +
𝓛 = 𝒔 𝑭 𝒔 − 𝒔 𝒇 𝟎 − 𝒇′(𝟎 )
𝒅𝒕𝟐
• General derivative

𝒅(𝒏) 𝒇(𝒕) 𝒏 𝑭 𝒔 − 𝒔𝒏−𝟏 𝒇 𝟎+ + 𝒔𝒏−𝟐 𝒇′ 𝟎+ + ⋯ + 𝒔 𝒇 𝒏−𝟐

𝓛 = 𝒔 𝟎+ + 𝒔𝟎 𝒇 𝒏−𝟏
(𝟎+ )
𝒅𝒕 𝒏
If the initial conditions are considered to be zeros then we have

𝒅 𝒇(𝒕) 𝒅(𝟐) 𝒇(𝒕) 𝒅(𝒏) 𝒇(𝒕)

𝓛 =𝒔𝑭 𝒔 𝓛 = 𝒔𝟐 𝑭 𝒔 𝓛 = 𝒔𝒏 𝑭 𝒔
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒏

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2.3.5. Integration theorem
+∞
𝑮(𝒔) 𝒈(𝟎+ )
𝒈 𝒕 = 𝒇 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑮 𝒔 = 𝓛 𝒈(𝒕) = −
𝟎 𝒔 𝒔
2.3.6. Time Shifting theorem

A delayed signal with a time delay 𝝉

𝑮 𝒔 = 𝓛 𝒇(𝒕 − 𝝉) = 𝒆−𝒔 𝝉 𝑭(𝒔)

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 DEMONSTRATION TIME SHIFTING THEOREM

+∞ +∞
−𝑠 𝑡
ℒ 𝑓(𝑡 − τ) = 𝑓 𝑡−𝜏 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 𝜏

• Consider the variable change: 𝑢 =𝑡−𝜏 → 𝑡 = 𝑢 + 𝜏 → 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑢

+∞ +∞
ℒ 𝑓(𝑡 − τ) = ℒ 𝑓(𝑢) = 𝑓 𝑢 𝑒 −𝑠 (𝑢+𝜏) 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 −𝑠 𝜏 𝑓 𝑢 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 −𝑠 𝜏 𝐹(𝑠)
0 0

2.3.7. Frequency shifting

ℒ 𝑒 −𝜔𝑡 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑠 + 𝜔)

DEMONSTRATION OF THE FREQUENCY SHIFTING PROPERTY

+∞ +∞
ℒ 𝑒 −𝜔𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝜔𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 𝑒 − 𝑠+𝜔 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹(𝑠 + 𝜔)
0 0

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2.3.8. Initial value theorem

𝑓 0+ = lim 𝑓 𝑡 = lim 𝑠 𝐹(𝑠)

𝑡→0 𝑠→+∞

2.3.9. Final value theorem

𝑓 +∞ = lim 𝑓 𝑡 = lim 𝑠 𝐹(𝑠)

𝑡→+∞ 𝑠→0

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 2.4. LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF THE STANDARD SIGNAL TESTS (STEP/RAMP/DIRAC)

2.4.1. Case of a Unit step 2.4.2. Case of a Step of amplitude 𝑨

𝟎 𝒊𝒇 𝒕 < 𝟎
𝒖 𝒕 = 𝟎 𝒊𝒇 𝒕 < 𝟎
𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎 𝒖 𝒕 =
𝑢(𝑡) 𝑨 𝒊𝒇 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎
𝑢(𝑡)
𝑨
𝟏

𝑡 𝑡
+∞ +∞
Thanks to the Linearity property of
𝑈 𝑠 = ℒ 𝑢(𝑡) = 𝑢 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 Laplace transform (LT)
0 0
1 −𝑠 𝑡 1 +∞
=− 𝑒 = 0
𝑠 𝑠
𝟏 𝑨
𝑼 𝒔 = 𝓛 𝒖(𝒕) = 𝓛 𝑨 𝒖(𝒕) = 𝑨 𝓛 𝒖(𝒕) =
𝒔 𝒔

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 2.4.3. Unit Ramp signal 2.4.4. Ramp signal of Amplitude 𝑨
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝒕 𝒖 𝒕 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒖 𝒕 = 𝟏 ∀ 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎
Case of a ramp multiplied by a constant 𝑨
𝑣(t)
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝒕 𝒖 𝒕 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒖 𝒕 = 𝟏 ∀ 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎

Thanks to the Linearity property of

Laplace transform (LT)
+∞ +∞ 𝑡
𝑉 𝑠 = ℒ 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 0 𝑨
𝓛 𝑨 ν(𝒕) = 𝑨 𝓛 ν(𝒕) =
• By simple integration by parts we have 𝒔𝟐
1 −𝑠 𝑡
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡; 𝑓′ 𝑡 =1 𝑔′ 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑡 ; 𝑔 𝑡 =− 𝑒
𝑠
Integration by parts Formula
• Then +∞ +∞ +∞
1 1 −𝑠 𝑡
𝑉 𝑠 = 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑡 + 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 𝐟 𝐠 ′ 𝒅𝒕 = 𝐟 𝐠 − 𝐟 ′ 𝐠 𝒅𝒕
0 𝑠 0 0 𝑠
+∞ +∞
𝑒 −𝑠 𝑡 1 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑡 1 1
= −𝑡 + = 2 𝑉 𝑠 = ℒ 𝑣(𝑡) =
𝑠 0
𝑠 𝑠 0
𝑠 𝑠2

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 2.4.5. Unit Impulse function (Dirac Delta function)
𝜹(𝒕)
𝜹 𝒕 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝜹𝜺 (𝒕)
𝛿 𝑡 → ∞, 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 = 0 𝜺→𝟎
𝟏
𝛿 𝑡 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 ≠ 0
𝜺
Rectangular pulse of
+∞
And is constrained to satisfy unit area
𝜹 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟏
−∞

+∞ 𝜀 𝜀
1 −𝑠𝑡 1
ℒ 𝛿(𝑡) = Δ(𝑠) = 𝛿 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = lim 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = lim 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜺
0 𝜀→0 0 𝜀 𝜀→0 𝜀 0 𝒕
𝜀
1 1 1 1 1
= lim − 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑡 = lim − 𝑒 −𝜀 𝑠 + 𝑒 0 +∞
𝜀→0 𝜀 𝑠 0 𝜀→0 𝜀 𝑠 𝑠 𝒙𝒌
Definition of exponential function 𝒆𝒙 =
𝒌!
𝒌=𝟎

1 1 1 1 − 𝑒 −𝑠𝜀 1 𝑠2𝜀 2
= lim − 𝑒 −𝜀 𝑠 + = lim = lim 1 − 1 − 𝑠𝜀 + −⋯ =1
𝜀 𝑠 𝑠 𝜀→0 𝑠𝜀 𝜖→0 𝑠𝜀 2!
𝜀→0

+∞
∆ 𝑠 = ℒ 𝛿(𝑡) = 𝛿 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠 𝑡 = 1
0

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 3. TRANSFER FUNCTION OF A SYSTEM
3.1. DEFINITION

• Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of control systems

• The transfer function concept is only for LTI systems

• The Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform
of output and Laplace transform of input by assuming all the initial conditions are zero

• If e 𝑡 and 𝑦(𝑡) are the input and the output of an LTI system, then the corresponding Laplace transforms
are 𝐸 𝑠 = ℒ 𝑒(𝑡) and 𝑌 𝑠 = ℒ 𝑦(𝑡)

• The Transfer function (TF) of a linear LTI system is the ratio of 𝒀 𝒔 and 𝑬(𝒔)
𝒀(𝒔)
Transfer function = 𝑬(𝒔)

• The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown in the following figure
𝒀(𝒔)
𝑬(𝒔) 𝒀(𝒔)
𝑬(𝒔)

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• Consider a continuous linear LTI system described by a constant-coefficient differential equation of order 𝑛

𝑑𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑛 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑒(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑚 𝑒(𝑡)

𝑎0 𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑏0 𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑏1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚

• By applying the Laplace transform to both sides of the above equation (we assume that the initial
conditions are equal to zero) then we get:

𝑎0 𝑌 𝑠 + 𝑎1 𝑠𝑌 𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑏0 𝐸 𝑠 + 𝑏1 𝑠 𝐸 𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 𝐸 𝑠

[𝑎0 +𝑎1 𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 ]𝑌 𝑠 = [𝑏0 +𝑏1 𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 ]𝐸 𝑠

𝒀(𝒔) 𝒃𝒎 𝒔𝒎 + ⋯ + 𝒃𝟏 𝒔 + 𝒃𝟎
𝑯 𝒔 = =
𝑬(𝒔) 𝒂𝒏 𝒔𝒏 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝟏 𝒔 + 𝒂𝟎

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• The transfer function 𝐻 𝑠 can be put in the following form
𝒃𝒎 𝒎 𝒃𝟏
𝒃𝟎 𝒃𝟎 𝒔 + ⋯ + 𝒔+𝟏
𝒃𝟎 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑏0
is the static gain of the system
𝑯 𝒔 = ×
𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝒏 𝒔𝒏 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝟏 𝒔 + 𝟏 𝑎0
𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟎
• The transfer function 𝐻 𝑠 can be also written as follows

𝒃𝒎 𝒔 − 𝒛𝒎 𝒔 − 𝒛𝒎−𝟏 ⋯ 𝒔 − 𝒛𝟏
𝑯 𝒔 =
𝒂𝒏 𝒔 − 𝒑𝒏 𝒔 − 𝒑𝒏−𝟏 ⋯ 𝒔 − 𝒑𝟏

• Where 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , ⋯ 𝑧𝑚 are the zeros of the transfer function (the roots of the numerator )

• 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , ⋯ , 𝑝𝑛 are the poles of the transfer function (the roots of the denominator )

• The zeros and the poles of the transfer function 𝐻 𝑠 can be either real or complex

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 3.2. PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION

• Apply an input of type Unit Impulse to the LTI system

𝒆 𝒕 =𝜹 𝒕 𝑬 𝒔 = 𝓛 𝜹(𝒕) = ∆(𝒔) = 𝟏

𝒆 𝒕 = 𝜹(𝒕) 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒚𝜹 (𝒕)
𝒀(𝒔)
𝑯 𝒔 =
𝑬 𝒔 = ∆(𝒔) 𝑬(𝒔) 𝒀𝜹 𝒔 = 𝑯(𝒔)

• The response 𝒚𝜹 𝒕 is called the unit impulse response (the unit impulse response is the response of the
LTI system to an input of type unit impulse) and its Laplace transform denoted by 𝑌𝛿 𝑠 is defined as

𝑌𝛿 𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = ∆ 𝑠 × 𝐻 𝑠 = 1 × 𝐻 𝑠 = 𝐻(𝑠)

Consider an LTI system which is described by its transfer function 𝑯 𝒔 , the impulse response denoted by
𝒉 𝒕 = 𝒚𝜹 𝒕 is, in fact equal to the inverse Laplace Transform of 𝑯(𝒔)

𝒚𝜹 𝒕 = 𝒉 𝒕 = 𝓛−𝟏 𝑯(𝒔) 𝒀𝜹 𝒔 = 𝑯(𝒔)

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 3.3. EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1: THE RESPONSE OF RC CIRCUIT TO A RAMP

• Consider the following RC system (Figure 2). The system’s input and output are denoted by 𝑒 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑡
• The input, depicted in Figure 1, is a ramp signal of the following expression 𝑒 𝑡 = 2 𝑡
• Question: Using the Laplace transform concept, determine the expression of the system’s output 𝑦(𝑡)

𝒆(𝒕)
𝑹

𝑪
𝒆(𝒕) 𝒚(𝒕)

𝑡
Figure 1: Input signal Figure 2: RC system

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 SOLUTION

• Step 1: Determination of the differential Equation describing the RC circuit

• Using the mesh law we can write the following

𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑅 𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑦(𝑡) (1)
𝑑𝑦(𝑡) (2)
𝑖 𝑡 =𝐶
𝑑𝑡
• Substituting 2 in equation 1 then we obtain

𝑑𝑦(𝑡) (3)
𝑒 𝑡 =𝑅𝐶 +𝑦 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

• Step 2: Determination of the Transfer function of the RC circuit

• Let 𝐻(𝑠) be the transfer function of the considered system

𝑌(𝑠)
𝐻 𝑠 = 𝐸(𝑠), where 𝐸(𝑠) and 𝑌 𝑠 are respectively the Laplace transforms of the input and the output

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• In order to determine the Transfer Function (TF) of the system, we have to assume that the Initial
Conditions (IC) are equal to zero and then, apply the Laplace transform to the obtained differential equation (3)
𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝑒 𝑡 =𝑅𝐶 +𝑦 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Laplace transform (IC are zero)
𝐸 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝐶 𝑠𝑌 𝑠 + 𝑌 𝑠 = 1 + 𝑅𝐶 𝑠 𝑌(𝑠)
𝒀(𝒔) 𝟏
𝑯 𝒔 = = (4)
𝑬(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑹 𝑪 𝒔

• Step 3: Determination the expression of 𝒀(𝒔)

• Using the expression (4), we deduce the expression of 𝑌(𝑠)
1 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
𝑌 𝑠 =𝐻 𝑠 𝐸 𝑠 = × 𝐸(𝑠) 𝒀 𝒔 =𝑯 𝒔 𝑬 𝒔 = × =
1 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 𝟏 + 𝑹𝑪𝒔 𝒔𝟐 𝒔𝟐 𝟏 + 𝝉 𝒔
𝟐
• The input signal is 𝑒 𝑡 = 2 𝑡 then 𝑬 𝒔 = 𝓛 𝒆(𝒕) = 𝒔𝟐 with 𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪

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 • Step 4: Determination the expression of 𝒚(𝒕) using the Laplace Table

• The expression of 𝑌 𝑠
𝑎
1 2 2
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐻 𝑠 𝐸 𝑠 = 1+𝑅𝐶𝑠 × 𝑠2 = 𝑠2 , with 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 𝑠2 𝑠 + 𝑎
1+𝜏 𝑠
1
2 Laplace
𝑌 𝑠 = =2× 𝜏
1 1 Table
𝑠2 𝜏 𝜏 + 𝑠 𝑠2 𝜏 + 𝑠
1
𝑎 𝑡 − 1 + 𝑒 −𝑎 𝑡
1 𝑎
• Let 𝑎 = 𝜏 ; using the Laplace table then we get

1 −𝑎 𝑡
𝑡 −
𝑡
−
𝑡
𝑦 𝑡 = 2 × 𝑎𝑡 −1+𝑒 = 2×𝜏 −1+𝑒 𝜏 = 2 𝑡 − 𝜏 + 𝜏𝑒 𝜏
𝑎 𝜏

• Finally the expression of the output 𝑦(𝑡) is

𝒕
−
𝒚 𝒕 =𝟐 𝒕−𝝉+ 𝝉𝒆 𝝉

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 EXAMPLE 2 :SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

Consider the following system. The input is 𝑒 𝑡 = 5 𝑢(𝑡) where 𝑢 𝑡 is the unit step
1. Determine the differential equation that links the input 𝑒 𝑡 to the output 𝑦 𝑡
2. Determine the transfer function of the considered system
3. Determine the expression of the output 𝑦(𝑡)

𝑒(𝑡) 𝑦(𝑡)

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