Chapter 1 Introduction

to Technical
Communication

After reading this chapter, you should be able to

Learning Objectives
1.1 Explain the practical needs served by technical documents.

1.2 Understand the importance of writing in a person’s career.

1.3 Describe the positive and negative effects of electronic technologies in the
workplace.

1.4 Discuss the four challenges encountered by technical writers.

1.5 Consider the changing nature of technical communication.

As a technical communicator, you interpret and communicate specialized
information for your readers and listeners, who may need your information to
perform a task, answer a question, solve a problem, or make a decision. Your
email, letter, text message, report, manual, or online post must advance the
goals of your audience and of the company or organization you represent. You
often collaborate with others to plan, prepare, and present important
documents and oral presentations.

Successful communicators know that the communication process is complex

and subject to misunderstanding, so they choose their communication media
carefully. They also choose words, accompanying non-verbal cues, and images
that will help readers and listeners grasp the intended meaning. This text is
designed to help you make those choices.

As a first step, this chapter introduces technical communication environments

and communication media, with special emphasis on technical writing. The
chapter also examines the challenges faced by workplace communicators, as
technological change has increased its pace. To further place this discussion in
context, this chapter reviews two careers that require strong communication
skills: independent consulting and project management.
1.1 Technical Writing Serves Practical
Needs
1.1 Explain the practical needs served by technical
documents.

Unlike poetry and fiction, which appeal mainly to our imagination, technical
documents appeal to our understanding. Technical writing rarely seeks to
entertain, create suspense, or invite differing interpretations. If you have
written a lab or research report, you know that technical writing must be clear,
audience-oriented, and efficient.

When novice technical writers first encounter the task of producing scientific,
technical, or business documents, they often rely on the strategies they’ve used
to create essays or personal documents. Some of those strategies can be readily
transferred to technical and business documents. For example, arguments and
opinions usually require detailed support in the form of evidence, examples,
statistics, or expert testimony. However, essays and personal correspondence
use structures and writing styles that can differ quite markedly from technical
documents, which emphasize clearly defined structures and concise, readable
prose. Those emphases result from meeting the reader’s needs and priorities,
not the writer’s needs and goals.
1.1.1 Technical Documents Meet the Audience’s
Needs
Instead of focusing on the writer’s desire for self-expression, a technical
document addresses the audience’s desire for information. This requirement
should not make your writing sound like something produced by a robot,
without any personality (or voice) at all. Your document may in fact reveal a lot
about you (your competence, knowledge, integrity, and so on), but it rarely
focuses on you personally. Readers are interested in who you are only to the
extent that they want to know what you have done, what you recommend, or how
you speak for your company. A personal essay, then, is not technical writing.
Consider this essay fragment which focuses on the writer’s feelings:

Computers are not a particularly forgiving breed. The wrong key struck or
the wrong command entered is almost sure to avenge itself on the
inattentive user by banishing the document to some electronic trash can.

This personal view communicates a good deal about the writer’s resentment
and anxiety but very little about computers themselves. The following example
can be called technical writing because it focuses on the subject, on what the
writer has done, and on what readers should do:

On MK 950 terminals, the BREAK key is adjacent to keys used for text
editing and special functions. Too often, users inadvertently strike the
BREAK key, causing the program to quit prematurely. To prevent the
problem, we have modified all database management terminals: to quit a
program, you must now strike BREAK twice successively.
This next example also can be called technical writing because it focuses on
what the writer recommends:

We should develop Help 2.0 support sites to (a) establish online

communities of customers and support staff, (b) create a hub for
collaborating on solutions for issues that arise, and (c) provide our
customers with an easy way to send feedback about our products and
services.

As the above examples illustrate, while a technical document never makes the
writer “disappear,” it does focus on what is most important to readers.
1.1.2 Technical Documents Strive for Efficiency
Educators read to test our knowledge, but colleagues, customers, and
supervisors read to use our knowledge. Workplace readers hate wasting time
and demand efficiency; instead of reading a document from beginning to end,
they are more likely to use it for reference and want only as much as they need:
“When it comes to memos, letters, proposals, and reports, there’s no extra
credit for extra words. And no praise for elegant prose. Bosses want employees
to get to the point—quickly, clearly, and concisely” (Spruell 32). Efficient
documents save time, energy, and money in the workplace.

No reader should have to spend 10 minutes deciphering a message worth only

five minutes. Consider, for example, the following inefficiently wordy message:

At this point in time, we are presently awaiting an on-site inspection by

vendor representatives relative to electrical utilization adaptations
necessary for the new computer installation. Meanwhile, all staff members
are asked to respect the off-limits designation of said location, as
requested, due to liability insurance provisions requiring the online status of
the computer.

Inefficient documents drain a reader’s energy—they are too easily

misinterpreted, and they waste time and money. Notice how hard you had to
work with the previous message to extract information that could be expressed
efficiently, as in the next example:

Hardware consultants soon will inspect our new computer room to

recommend appropriate wiring. Because our insurance covers only an
 operational computer, this room must remain off limits until the computer is
fully installed.

When readers sense they are working too hard, they tune out the message—or
they stop reading altogether.

Inefficient documents have varied origins. Even when the information is

accurate, errors like the following make readers work too hard:

more (or less) information than readers need

irrelevant or uninterpreted information

confusing organization

jargon or vague technical expressions readers cannot understand

more words than readers need

uninviting appearance or confusing layout

no visual aids when readers need or expect them

An efficient document sorts, organizes, and interprets information to suit

readers’ needs, abilities, and interests. Instead of merely happening, an efficient
document is carefully designed to include these elements:

content that makes the document worth reading

organization that guides readers and emphasizes important material

style that is economical and easy to read

visuals (graphs, diagrams, pictures) that clarify concepts and

relationships and that substitute for words whenever possible
 format (layout, typeface) that is accessible and appealing

supplements (abstracts, appendices) that enable readers with different

needs to read only those sections required for their work

Efficiency and audience orientation are not abstract rules: writers are
accountable for their documents. In questions of liability, faulty writing is no
different from any other faulty product. If your inaccurate, unclear, or
incomplete information leads to injury, damage, or loss, you can be held legally
responsible.

On The Job ...

The Importance of Written Communication
“As an environmental consultant, I spend 75 percent of my work week writing and
editing correspondence, proposals, and reports. I’d like to spend more time in the field,
but it’s critical to communicate what you’ve learned and what you think it means. That’s
what the client is paying for! And in providing that information and analysis, we’re
dealing with some serious health and safety issues, so we have to be very careful in
interpreting and reporting the data we collect....”

– Dave Ayriss

Associate, Senior Occupational Hygienist, Golder Associates Ltd., Calgary

1.3 Electronic Technologies Have
Transformed Information Sharing
1.3 Describe the positive and negative effects of electronic
technologies in the workplace.

Information has become our prized commodity and, to a large extent, that
information is stored and transmitted electronically. Electronic technologies,
collectively known as information technology (IT), enhance the speed, volume,
and varieties of creating and transmitting messages.

NOTE

Howard Solomon reports that companies, such as Hewlett-Packard, are trying to

replace the term information technology with the term business technology to
reflect the integration of software, hardware, and related services in meeting a
company’s internal and external business communication needs. Others argue that the
terminformation and communications technology (ICT) better suits the wide
range of hardware and software applications that are now available.

Following is a comprehensive list of electronic technologies, with discussion of

each item and its benefits in today’s workplace:

Integrated software facilitates the inclusion of verbal, graphic, and video

elements from word processors, internet sources, digital recording and
storage media, electronic spreadsheets and databases, and oral
presentation software.

Basic email helps people exchange ideas and information, while email
attachments allow for sophisticated formatting of documents.
Wireless laptop computers allow users to receive and send email from
locations (hotel conference rooms, airport lounges, classrooms) that
support wireless transmission.

Smartphones, which are now full-fledged computers, combine all the

advantages of wireless communication (phone, email, text messaging,
instant messaging, internet access, entertainment) with organizer
applications and more. Annual smartphone sales reached about 1.5
billion in 2018; the global research firm IDC predicts that over two
billion smartphones will be sold annually by 2022. Note, though, that
annual smartphone sales had started to decline by early 2018, and some
observers have forecast a continuing decline as users keep their phones
longer (Swearingen).

Tablets: The only real drawback to smartphones is their size, so

developers have created tablets. Over 100 tablet models are available,
attesting to the growing demand for devices that are capable of
performing all the functions of portable computers, and more. Tablets
are now used for educational settings, business and industrial training,
sales information and quotes, multi-party conferencing, social
networking, web browsing, video recording and streaming, phone calls,
and myriad other applications. In business, tablets are used more and
more. Partly because of Microsoft’s introduction of Windows 10, IDC
analysts Bryan Bassett and Jean Philippe Bouchard predict that
“detachables like the Microsoft Surface will begin to replace traditional
PCs.” Note, however, that the tablet market is being challenged as some
models of smartphones get larger screen sizes.

Virtual private networks (VPNs) connect home-based workers to their

office intranet, without allowing their messages to be monitored by
anyone outside that intranet.
Video conferencing and web conferencing provide live online meetings in
which participants at different sites can present their ideas and comment
on the ideas of others while observing one another’s non-verbal
messages.

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) technology is in the process of

replacing traditional phone systems, partly because of massive long-
distance phone call savings, and partly because it enables a host of
communication convergence features (Lima, “Calling All Workstations”
22). Converged messaging (also known as unified messaging) allows
different types of messages, such as voice mail and email, to be
automatically forwarded to and accessible on a smartphone or on a
tablet.

Google Voice and other phone management systems take VoIP one step
further. Such systems allow subscribers to link their landline and
cellphone to a single number at a web browser that manages all aspects
of phone usage. Google Voice forwards and records calls, provides text
alerts, and transcribes voice mails. This service could be a real boon for
entrepreneurs, consultants, and service providers (Bertolucci). Other
VoIP service providers include Skype, Vonage, and VOIPo.

Electronic document sharing uses file transfer software for sharing and
editing drafts. The best software allows participants to comment on one
another’s work online so that each participant’s comments are distinct
from everyone else’s and from the original text.

Teleconferencing, using speakerphones, is good for small rooms with 15 or

fewer people at a table. Many job interviews are now conducted via
teleconference.

Social networking sites, such as Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn, offer

unprecedented opportunities for making and managing personal,
professional, and business contacts.
On The Job ...
The Trend in Workplace Collaboration
“A new movement called ‘modern workplace experience’ uses advanced collaborative
tools like Slack and Workplace by Facebook so that employees can stay engaged and
productive from any location. There’s been an explosion of collaborative work tools, all
supported by the tremendous storage capacity offered by the cloud. As teams come
together to develop products and solve service problems, they can have access to
video and other tools that require broadband storage.”

– Craig Gorsline

Global Executive, Head of Advisory, Innovation, and Offering Services at Avanade

These technologies have had a profound effect on office communication:

Small and medium-sized companies, which make up 95 percent of all

Canadian businesses, are slower than large companies to adopt
emerging technologies, such as VoIP, wireless networking, web
conferencing, and video conferencing. However, almost all have desktop
computers and email access, and many have laptops, cellphones, and
websites (Lima, “Small Firms” E2).

Instead of being housed in one location, the virtual company may have
branches in widespread locations, or just one central office, to which
employees “commute” electronically. Such arrangements require
workers to be skillful communicators who must master the latest
technologies, use proper e-communication etiquette, and know how to
compensate for the lack of face-to-face contact (Marron, “Close
Encounters” C1). Sarah Sutton Fell, CEO of FlexJobs, reports that “the
long-term trends all show steady growth in the number of people
working remotely” (Sutton Fell).

A special class of worker has emerged—the “virtual assistant,” who

works on contract, at home, for one or more firms. A virtual assistant
might answer phones, direct emails, produce and edit documents,
update websites, or maintain databases and inventories. He or she can
even go into a client firm’s computer (via an internet connection) to work
on material stored on that computer’s hard drive (Buckler). Websites
such as odesk.com and elance.com carry thousands of listings for virtual
assistants.

Instead of relying on office staff, most managers compose and send their
own messages via email and messaging. Many also compose, design,
and deliver their own reports and proposals.

On desktop publishing networks, the composition, layout, graphic

design, and printing of external documents and webpages are done in-
house.

Paper documents (such as résumés) can be optically scanned and stored

electronically in file formats, such as PDF. However, electronically stored
documents may have a short life cycle if new software does not properly
reproduce documents stored in earlier formats. Many experts are deeply
concerned that a whole generation’s store of technical and historical data
could become lost because today’s storage media will eventually become
obsolete (Reagan).

Computer-supported cooperative work systems, instant messaging, and

video conferencing enable employees worldwide to converse in real
time. Email LISTSERVs announce daily developments in prices, policies,
and procedures. In particular, video conferencing has benefited from
recent improvements. Users now talk about “telepresence,” which
 provides life-sized, sharp video images and “near-direct eye contact
between participants” (Bradbury par. 9).

On another front, “enterprise rights management (ERM) technology

allows a company to restrict the access to and use of all documents and
e-mails throughout the organization” (Gooderham, “It Was” E1).
Restricted access is especially important when part of a firm is halfway
around the world, in a location where “ethics [may be] questionable and
corruption is rampant” (E1). Overseas outsourcing has become possible
for small companies as well as large ones, according to business reporter
Mary Gooderham. Canadian firms might outsource administrative
functions, call centres, design work, or even product design to workers
in India, Finland, or Singapore. One main challenge in managing the
outsourced office is fitting those workers into the company culture while
respecting the workers’ own cultural values and practices.

On The Job ...

The One-Person Virtual Office
“My one-man operation can’t afford a ‘normal’ office with someone to answer the phone
and send and receive concept drawings and photographed samples. So, when I’m
away from the shop, I rely on my smartphone to receive calls and emails. I can open
email attachments in the phone, so I don’t have to wait until I get back to my office.
Later, at my workplace, I can send graphic representations and other information to my
clients and suppliers.”

– Blair Peden

Owner of Awards and Trophies HQ

However, there’s a price to be paid for the efficient, convenient electronic
office. For example, knowledge workers depend on IT professionals (network
technicians and others), who are the wunderkinds of the new office
environment. Their expertise is essential to maintaining not only the computers
but also the hardware networks and associated software. In a short time,
today’s workers have become totally dependent on computer technology.

We pay another price for full-time connectivity and electronic multitasking—

we have scant time for quiet reflection. Dr. Edward Hallowell, author of Crazy
Busy: Overstretched, Overbooked, and About to Snap, sees symptoms of attention-
deficit disorder in adult executives who are “caught up in a dust storm of
information competing for our attention” (qtd. in Immen, “The Next Great
Curse” C1).

Researchers have also found evidence that “when people keep their brains
busy with digital input, they are forfeiting downtime that could allow them to
better learn or remember information or to come up with new ideas” (Richtel).

In reaction, legions of “plugged-in” people are taking “unplugged days” when

they turn off their cellphones and computers for a full day or more (Serjeant).
Companies such as Loblaw and Intel have banned smartphone and computer
use for one day a week to help employees have more time for deep thinking
and long-term planning (Dube).

These companies recognize that, despite the opportunities for multitasking

brought by electronic devices, those tools facilitate interruptions. The Basex
research firm found that, on average, interruptions consume 28 percent of a
knowledge worker’s day. Further, a study of Microsoft employees found that
they took an average of 15 minutes to return to “serious mental tasks” after
responding to emails or text messages (Galt, “Drive-by Interruptions”).
And, despite the tremendous advantages brought by IT, information does not
write itself. Information technology provides tools; it does not substitute for
human interaction. Only humans can answer the following questions:

Which information is most relevant?

What does this information mean?

Can I verify the accuracy of this information?

How will others interpret it?

With whom should I share it?

What action does it suggest?

1.4 Discuss the four challenges encountered by technical
writers.

No matter how sophisticated our communication technology, computers

cannot think for us. More specifically, computers cannot solve all the challenges
faced by people who write in the technical professions. These challenges
include the following:

The information challenge. Different people in different situations have

different information needs.

The persuasion challenge. People often disagree about what the

information means and about what should be done.

The ethics challenge. The interests of your company may conflict with the
interests of your audience.

The global context challenge. Diverse people work together on information

for a diverse audience.

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Table Drag-and-Drop: Challenges to Technical Writers

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Match the challenges to technical writers with their descriptions.

Ethics challenge Global context challenge Information c

Challenges Descriptions

Different people in different

situations have different information
needs.
 People often disagree about what the
information means and about what
should be done.

The interests of your company may

conflict with the interests of your
audience.

Diverse people work together on

information for a diverse audience.

Clear all

Submit

Information has to have meaning for its audience, but people differ in their
interpretations of facts, and so they may need persuading that one viewpoint is
preferable to another. Persuasion, however, can be powerful and unethical.
Even the most useful and efficient document could deceive or harm. Therefore,
solving the persuasion challenge doesn’t mean manipulating your audience by
using “whatever works”; rather, it means building a case from honest and
reasonable interpretation of the facts. Figure 1.1 offers one way of visualizing
how these challenges relate.

Figure 1.1
Writers Face Four Related Challenges
The scenarios that follow illustrate the challenges faced by a professional in her
own day-to-day communication on the job.
1.4.1 The Information Challenge

Erika Song, who has a background in biology and environmental studies,

works for Enviro Associates, an Edmonton-based environmental assessment
firm. On contract to the Alberta Environment ministry, Enviro monitors
water flow and water quality in the Athabasca River near the Fort McMurray
oil sands projects.

Erika’s task is to compile and analyze Enviro’s 2015 monitoring data and
compare that data with both Enviro’s 2014 data and the 2015 data made
public by the Wood Buffalo Environmental Association and the Regional
Environmental Monitoring Association (REMA). Alberta Environment wants
Enviro’s data and conclusions, and it wants to know whether there is any
redundancy in the three collections of data.

After analyzing the reams of data, Erika’s next challenge is to organize and
present the data for technical and non-technical audiences. She has to answer
such questions as How much explaining do I need to do? Do I need visuals? How
much of the hundreds of pages of raw data should I include in the appendices? What
conclusions can I draw?

To some extent, Erika also faces a persuasion challenge. She sees some striking
discrepancies between the Enviro data and data released by REMA, an
initiative funded by oil sands producers. Further examination reveals that some
discrepancies have resulted from the contrasting locations of monitoring
stations. (Most of REMA’s stations are downstream from the oil sands
developments, while half of Enviro’s stations are upstream and half are
downstream.)
1.4.2 The Persuasion Challenge

Before writing her report, Erika must persuade her boss, Dr. Russ Klingbeil,
to include the data discrepancies, only some of which resulted from the
location of monitoring stations. For 16 days in July 2015, Enviro’s main
downstream station recorded wild fluctuations in water flows because of an
electrical short that was eventually diagnosed and repaired. Klingbeil is
reluctant to admit this equipment failure. He is about to propose a contract
extension to Alberta Environment.

Erika’s associates have asserted that Enviro’s monitoring methods are

superior to REMA’s methods, but Erika sees little evidence in the 2014 and
2015 data to support this belief. Enviro’s stations might be better placed to
record sediment deposits but not to measure stream flow or water levels.
Also, it seems that REMA and Enviro use similar methods to determine
benthic invertebrate communities (a biological indicator that is an important
component of fish habitats).

Finally, Erika concludes that measuring sediment quality is not very useful
and should be discontinued—varying flows affect which parts of the
riverbanks get eroded; shifting sand bars affect sedimentation and obscure
the effect of releasing water from the oil sands production facilities; and
deposited hydrocarbon sediments, which occur naturally from the
hydrocarbons found in the riverbanks, have historically varied very little.

If Erika persuades Alberta Environment to discontinue the sediment

measurements, the contract will be less profitable for her firm, so she will face
pressure from her boss to “re-examine” the data and her conclusions.
1.4.3 The Ethics Challenge

Erika can choose what data to include and what to omit. Does she report the
16-day equipment malfunction and the faulty data or simply omit the
information that reflects badly on Enviro Associates? Admitting the
malfunction may jeopardize her firm’s continuing contract.

By choosing certain data and omitting other facts, Erika could show that
Enviro’s methods are superior to the methods employed by REMA, thus
strengthening her firm’s case for continuing to monitor the Athabasca River,
and she could show that multiple sets of monitoring data are not redundant.
Further, recommending that sediment measurements be discontinued may
affect her firm’s bottom line and perhaps her own employment.

Situations that jeopardize truth and fairness present the hardest choices of all.
Some aspects of Erika’s ethical challenges are as follows: How much am I
obligated to report? What do I feel is fair? What would be the consequences of omitting
some of the data and interpreting the data to favour Enviro Associates?

In addition to meeting these various challenges, Erika collaborates with others

to produce the final report. Technologist Avre Ostif, who collected and
downloaded most of the data, will review Erika’s data presentation; Klingbeil
will proofread and edit the report; and a graphic artist will help to create
professional, bound copies.

Finally, Erika’s audience will extend beyond her own group of technical
experts. Government bureaucrats will use the report to aid their decision
making. Erika’s audience will even extend beyond her own culture.
1.4.4 The Global Context Challenge

Eventually, Alberta Environment will place the report on its website, where it
will be available to a worldwide audience of interested oil-industry business
people and environmentalists. Also, Enviro Associates is negotiating with
Alice Earth, an Australian-based company that wants to buy Enviro and
incorporate it into its global environmental practice. If the acquisition
occurs, all of Enviro’s reports will be placed in Alice Earth’s database for
associates in Australia, the United States, China, Singapore, and Malaysia
to read. Thus, Erika and her colleagues have been urged to write reports
that will be understood by an international audience.

Possibly, Erika will soon start to develop working relationships with people
she has never met and whose cultural expectations differ from hers. For more
information on the global context challenge, see the In Brief box, “Writing
Reaches a Global Audience.”

In Brief
Writing Reaches a Global Audience
Our linked global community shares social, political, and financial interests that demand
cooperation as well as competition. Multinational corporations often use parts that are
manufactured in one country and shipped to another for assembly into a product that
will be marketed elsewhere. Medical, environmental, and other research crosses
national boundaries, and professionals in all fields deal with colleagues from other
cultures.
Here is a sampling of documents that might address global audiences (Weymouth 143):

studies of global pollution and industrial emissions

specifications for hydroelectric dams and other engineering projects

operating instructions for appliances and electronic equipment

catalogues, promotional literature, and repair manuals

contracts and business agreements

To communicate effectively across cultural and national boundaries, any document

must respect not only language differences but also cultural differences. One writer
offers this helpful definition of culture:

Our cultures, our accumulated knowledge and experiences, beliefs and

values, attitudes and roles, shape us as individuals and differentiate us as a
people. Inbred through family life, religious training, and educational and
work experiences ... cultures manifest themselves ... in our thoughts and
feelings, our actions and reactions, and our views of the world ... [and] in
our information needs and our styles of communication... . Our cultures
define our expectations as to how information should be organized, what
should be included in its content, and how it should be expressed. (Hein
125)

Cultures define appropriate social behaviours, business relationships, contract

negotiations, and communication practices. A communication style considered perfectly
acceptable in one culture may be offensive elsewhere.

Effective communicators recognize these differences but withhold judgment or

evaluation, focusing instead on similarities. For example, needs assessment and needs
satisfaction know no international boundaries; technical solutions are technical
solutions without regard to nationality, creed, or language; courtesy and goodwill are
universal values. In a diverse global context, the writer must establish trust and
enhance human relationships.

Outsourcing of products and services brings special challenges. North American culture
tends to focus on tasks and deadlines for task completion. Meanwhile, Asian cultures
are more concerned with group cohesion and solidarity. The specifics of the product or
service to be delivered may be interpreted differently by the vendor and client, purely
because of language differences and inaccurate translations. Also, rules and
regulations about product quality, labour standards, and documentation vary from
culture to culture.

Because of the potential pitfalls inherent in contracting services and product

components from other parts of the globe, many North American companies hire
outsourcing consultants who understand the vendor’s cultural values and practices.

-- of 0 points

Exploratory Writing 1.4: Considering Your Own

Experience with Communication Challenges

If submitted, your response can be viewed by your instructor.

Consider a situation in which you’ve had to work with a small group, either
on a project in your everyday life or on a collaborative classroom or
extracurricular project. First, describe the project in a paragraph. What was
the aim of the project? How many people were involved? What were the
perceived or stated roles of the people in the group? Next, write a paragraph
identifying the challenges faced by the group. Was there a common
understanding of what needed to be done (information)? How or how not?
Was everyone on the same page regarding how it needed to be done
(persuasion)? How or how not? Were there any issues related to the people
involved and/or their behaviours (diversity and ethics)? If so, what were
they? If not, where might there have been issues? How was your group
experience similar to and different from the discussion in this module of the
four challenges faced by technical writers?

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1.5 Technical Communication Is
Changing
1.5 Consider the changing nature of technical
communication.

New technologies have created new customer expectations. For example, many
customers who use manuals prefer online documentation to printed manuals.
Users might also prefer 3D graphics, video demonstrations, or interactive high-
reality simulations. Regardless of the technology, technical communicators
need to process and understand the technical information. Their role further
requires them to structure and “write” the content of reports, instructions,
proposals, and other varieties of “technical” content.

According to Adobe Systems trainer Matt Sullivan, “The term technical writer is
becoming increasingly inaccurate. Writers are producing the print, the online-
and application-based help, and the self-paced training books, along with
instructor-led materials. In some cases, the writer is even the instructor as
well!”

For example, the aviation manual writing process used by technical writer
Roger Webber, for clients such as Bombardier and Flightcraft, requires
collaboration at nearly every one of the many stages outlined in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2
Publications Production Flow Chart for Aviation Documents
Source: Courtesy of Roger Webber, Torbay Technical Services.

Successful collaboration combines the best that each team member has to offer.
It enhances critical thinking by providing feedback, new perspectives, group
support, and the chance to test ideas in group discussion.

Not all members of a collaborative team do the actual writing—some might

research, edit, proofread, or test the document’s usability. The more important
the document, the more it will be reviewed. Notice the engineering approval,
technical review, verification, and quality control checks in Figure 1.2.

As technologies advance, writers have to become proficient in many areas that

were once the realm of graphic artists and computer specialists. Here are some
of the major trends that are now affecting the role of the technical
communicator.

On The Job ...

The New Challenge
“We are in the middle of a content development revolution. To attract and engage the
next generation of tech-savvy customers, we must do more than just write content—we
must deliver user-optimized content when the customer wants it, and in the format the
customer wants. That takes an effective content strategy—and really, really smart use
of available resources.”

– Jack Molisani

Executive Director, The LavaCon Conference on Content Strategy and Technical

Communication Management
1.5.1 The Advent of Big Data
Decision makers are challenged by the sheer volume of available data and the
speed at which data are produced. In addition to the standard data sources
(news sources; government, academic, and business reports; and in-house
research), internet sources and social media data streams add to the avalanche
of daily information. Every day, hundreds of millions of people leave behind
bits of data when they visit social media sites, use email, or surf the internet.
That data adds to the material posted on websites. This increasing pool of data
and data sources is labelled Big Data.

A sizeable chunk of Big Data is analyzed, structured, and stored; but these
processes require skilled workers who tackle the time-consuming task of
finding patterns and drawing useful inferences in the reams of data they mine.
In other words, big businesses can devote considerable resources to making
sense of Big Data. Those who can afford to pay for data processing services
profit from the expenditure, in terms of increased workforce productivity,
product development, and overall profitability (Gravelle, “Maximizing” 1).

However, small businesses and individuals lack the resources to mine and
make sense of data-intensive scientific domains. The other side of the coin deals
with the constant streams of user-generated data on social media such as
Facebook, Instagram, Vine, Google+, and LinkedIn. Various manufacturers,
employers, retail chains, entertainment purveyors, governments, and the social
media companies themselves are able to collect and analyze useful data about
individuals. Thus, there are privacy implications as big business and
government have more tools to conduct surveillance.

Solution providers such as IBM are developing and grouping platforms that
analysts and managers use to minimize risk and improve decision making. For
example, IBM works with such partners as Hortonworks and open source
Apache Hadoop to gather, assess, and present useful data.

The explosion of data requires new methods of analyzing and using

information, including the burgeoning field of artificial intelligence, which
relies on the massive data storage and computing power on internet services
hosted by cloud providers.

On The Job ...

The Challenge of Big Data
“For the first time in human history, we have the ability to collect information, process it,
visualize it, and respond to it while it’s still happening... . We’ve reached a tipping point
in history: today more data is being generated by machines—servers, cell phones,
GPS-enabled cars—than by people. I think Big Data is going to have a bigger effect on
humanity than even the internet.”

– Rick Smolan

Creator of the Day in the Life series, as he welcomed participants on October 2, 2012,
to the conference The Human Face of Big Data(retrieved
from http://the_human_face_of_bigdata.com)

Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI), sometimes called “machine intelligence” imitates

such human intelligent behaviours as learning, reasoning, planning, solving
problems, observing, moving, and manipulating objects. AI is used in vehicles,
electronic personal assistants, robots, and thousands of other applications,
including lightning fast data gathering and assessment.

Technology companies such as Adobe, Facebook, Microsoft, and Samsung have

set up in Canada to take advantage of the AI development talent found in
Canada’s major AI research and development centres: Montreal, Toronto,
Edmonton, and Vancouver. In those centres, university researchers and
independent R&D hubs have created many spinoff startups that create viable
commercial applications.

One such application is Vancouver’s Novarc firm, which has responded to a

worldwide shortage of skilled welders by developing welding robots that can
be employed in pipeline construction, shipbuilding, and other industrial
settings. These robots work in conjunction with human operators who set and
supervise the robot that performs the manual welding. In essence, the human
and the robot collaborate to perform the job. According to Novarc CEO,
Soroush Karimzadeh, “The robot works as a productivity tool to enhance the
capabilities of existing welders and operators with very little training. That’s
different than traditional robots where you replace workers” (Kerr).

Another Vancouver-based firm, Sanctuary AI, is taking robots to another level.

Sanctuary is trying to create “humanoid robots that can move, speak and think
for themselves and interact—as intellectual peers—with real people on a daily
basis in intimate and vital roles as therapists, caregivers, teachers, scientists,
even lovers” (Silcoff 2018). Co-founder Geordie Rose describes this quest as
“the biggest single quest that humanity has ever undertaken” (Silcoff 2018).
Sanctuary AI’s chance of success depends on the merging of several advanced
technologies, especially an enhanced form of AI known as “artificial general
intelligence” (AGI), a powerful algorithm that seeks to perform the full range of
human cognitive abilities.
Montreal’s Mila research hub connects professors, students, and research
associates with commercial enterprises. Mila is known for its advances in “deep
learning” (programming that allows computers to learn through experience)
and “reinforcement learning” (in which learning systems go through
automated trial and error to explore ways of doing things). However, following
the leadership of its founder, Yoshua Bengio, Mila concerns itself with the long-
term social impacts of AI (Semeniuk).

On The Job ...

Artificial Intelligence and the Data Estate
“Discussions about Big Data are being supplanted by a new term, the Data Estate,
which refers to all the information available to an enterprise, not in isolated silos of data
but in a way that disparate streams of data can be correlated and understood. Modern
data analysis often uses visual displays of those correlations to help the user gain
insight and make good decisions.

“Artificial intelligence in machines or computer software uses algorithms to simulate

aspects of human intelligence, especially the ability to learn and to think. These
algorithms are written in programming code to be self-learning; they can monitor,
observe, and trigger further insights or decisions. AI is being leveraged in health care,
for example, to quickly and accurately assess test data and then recommend the best
treatment for a patient. There are a million other applications of AI, including
environmental monitoring and self-driving vehicles.

“Data is king, and artificial intelligence is the new oil. Oil has been the backbone of our
industrial economy since the mid-20th century, but AI data gathering, manipulation, and
applications will be the backbone of our economy for the next 100 years. It’s happening
now—I’ve visited a factory in Tokyo that is completely run by robots. No humans are on
site; robots make all on-site decisions and solve production problems.
“Our challenge is to use artificial intelligence to make our lives better. We take a very
strong view of the concept of human plus machine. Machines can calculate and analyze
and make decisions leading to actions, but machines can never feel or apply ethical
principles, so humans will need to be involved even though machines will be able to
better perform all work tasks currently performed by humans.”

– Craig Gorsline

Global Executive, Head of Advisory, Innovation, and Offering Services at Avanade

In the Cloud

Cloud computing, which delivers hosted services over the internet, helps to
meet the challenges brought by Big Data. The cloud provider sells services by
the minute or the hour, provides as much as the customer requests, and fully
manages the requested service.

The customer might purchase server usage and storage or rent software and
product development tools hosted on the provider’s infrastructure. The
customer might outsource such services as database processing, inventory
control, web-based email, or third-party billing. The cloud provider might even
provide a complete suite of software tools that the customer uses to author
content and distribute technical drafts.
1.5.2 Complex Delivery Requirements
Traditionally, manuals, reports, proposals, and other content have been printed
or made available to be placed on computers. Now a given document—
whether product descriptions, software help, operating instructions, or
analytical reports—needs to be presented in parallel formats. The content needs
to go to online readers and mobile device users, in addition to consumers of
print media.

Multimedia Communication

To make matters even more complex, audiences are pushing for multimedia
delivery of content in the form of interactive instructions, online video, high-
quality 3-D graphics, and/or animated demonstrations.

These delivery methods clearly help meet information consumers’ needs, but
they also pose real challenges:

video and animation are time-consuming and expensive to produce;

non-print formats must be searchable, so that users can find particular

parts of a presentation; and

material has to be reformatted to fit the varying screen sizes and

orientations of smartphones, tablets, netbooks, and traditional
computers.

Communicators, such as Hans Rosling and Salman Khan, understand the

communicative power of dynamic graphics, audio, and video. The Khan
Academy is available at www.khanacademy.org​, while Rosling’s videos
populate YouTube and the TED website.
In a talk delivered in the TED series, Khan also points out two components of
the “humanizing power” of technology: (1) viewers can use the Khan
Academy’s tutorial videos on their own time and at their pace; (2) teachers
assign his lectures as homework, and then class time is used to work on
assignments and problems while students and teacher interact.

E-Learning

Such considerations are especially important for e-learning, whether that

learning takes place in an academic setting or in business/industrial settings. E-
learning is one of the most rapidly growing industries, as more and more
people turn to portable devices. The worldwide market for e-learning products
was $32.1 billion in 2010, but a July 2018 report released by Technavio analytics
forecasts the global e-learning market to grow to 272 billion by 2022
(Reportlinker). Managers love e-learning because it’s cost-effective—workers
don’t have to leave the office to take a training course. Such courses are
increasingly necessary as new technology begets new kinds of work. In this
ever-changing environment, workers frequently change careers or take on new
responsibilities.

Structured Documents

The need to adapt documents for different media or for delivery to different
cultures and varying levels of expertise has led to the use of structured
documents that “use some method of embedded coding or markup to provide
structural meaning to an agreed upon organizational structure or schema”
(Gravelle, “Top 10” 1). Adobe FrameMaker, Ideapi, Autotag, and MadCap Flare
are tools that ease and speed up the processes of reusing content or publishing
for multi-channels. For example, information about a new tablet designed for
the construction industry might find its way into news releases, brochures,
printed manuals, online help, website product descriptions, and video or
animated tutorials.

Single sourcing allows content to be used in different documents and converted

quickly from one format to another. However, not all single sourcing uses
“embedded coding or markup” to help convert the content.
1.5.3 The TechComm Generalist
Subject-matter experts will continue to write the content of technical
documents, but increasingly technical communicators will need to go beyond
research and writing. This trend will be especially noticed in small
organizations where the technical writer will need to be proficient in text,
layout, structured documentation, video, and animation. Large companies will
be able to afford specialists for those roles, but even in large companies
technical communicators will be involved in most components of product and
service communications.

Product Development

One area where technical communicators are assuming increased responsibility

is product development.

Following are the phases technical communicators are expected to take a part
in:

In the initial planning stages, a writer can help to shape and write the
project plan.

Later, in the design and development phase, the technical communicator

might produce documents for building a prototype, purchasing
components, and integrating systems into a product.

Then, the test phase usually requires a written test plan. During the new
product’s sell phase, writers create launch material, press releases,
advertising copy, catalogue copy, and product documents.

Writers continue to contribute to the new product development process

during the service phase, which requires documents such as an
 installation guide, a theory of operation, adjustment and replacement
procedures, training manuals, and diagnostic guides.

As the project draws to a close, a technical writer might even compile a project
history file of lessons learned, consumer surveys, and recommendations for
future projects (Shenouda).

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Table Drag-and-Drop: Product Development Phases

Unlimited tries

Match the product development phases with their descriptions.

Service phase Test phase Design and de

phase

Product development phases Descriptions

The writer helps to shape and write

the project plan.

The writer produces documents for

building a prototype, purchasing
components, and integrating systems
into a product.

The writer produces a written test

plan.

The writer creates launch material,

press releases, advertising copy,
catalogue copy, and product
documents.

The writer creates documents such as

an installation guide, a theory of
operation, adjustment and
 replacement procedures, training
manuals, and diagnostic guides.

Clear all

Submit

Communication Skills Required by Consultants

The communication skills discussed in this chapter certainly apply

to consultants—people who are paid to provide assessments, advice, technical
solutions, and business solutions for external clients. Although many prefer the
security of working for consulting firms, others choose an entrepreneurial path.
These risk takers are willing to work long and hard to identify and meet clients’
needs.

People provide consulting services in almost any field—engineering,

environmental assessment and improvement, manufacturing, project
management, health care, criminal justice, municipal services, business
management, education, and computer technology. The list could go on and
on.

Consultants provide assessment and other analytical services; they determine

causes of problems and recommend solutions; they plan and lead projects; they
provide skills assessment and training; they guide their clients through
procedures that the consultants have recommended; and they write reports for
private and government organizations.

Whether they work for a firm or are self-employed, consultants rely on several
critical communication skills:
 They must be active listeners. In conversation or in writing, they help
clients identify needs and priorities. All successful consulting begins
with an understanding of the pressing issues and problems. Often, the
consultant supplements this knowledge with secondary research into the
history and/or technical context of the situation.

Consultants must be good analysts and problem solvers. Often, they will need
creative, innovative strategies to deal with unique situations. There are
very few “cookie cutter” solutions in the world of consulting. So
consultants need to be open to new ways of doing things.

Consultants must handle the pressure of looming deadlines and client

expectations. Even the least assertive client expects high-quality work in
return for what he or she may perceive as high fees.

Consultants must project a professional image, through their written

correspondence, personal appearance, and timely communication. Phone
calls, text messages, and emails should be acknowledged and returned
promptly. Consultants must fully prepare for client meetings.

Consultants must have excellent interpersonal skills to work with all levels of
client understanding and a variety of personality types.

Consultants must possess team-building and leadership skills. Almost every

project, at some stage or other, requires collaborative effort. Often, the
consultant will lead or supervise that team effort.

Above all, consultants must display strong oral and written skills for
networking, marketing, reporting, and proposal writing. The independent
consultant will learn about opportunities through his or her contact
network or through advertised requests for proposals. The next step will
be to prepare and present a proposal that likely will compete with rival
proposals.

Project Management Communications

Specialized consultants who plan and direct the collaborative efforts of people
in a defined project are known as project managers (or, colloquially, PMs). They
manage processes, resources, and people in projects, such as a study, the
construction of a building, or the selection and installation of IT equipment and
software.

These consultants might be either freelancers or company employees. Most

project managers have learned their professional skills on the job, but
increasingly they’re gaining the required knowledge and skills from colleges
and training institutes, such as the Canadian Management Centre and Procept
Associates.

On the job and in the classroom, project managers learn the critical importance
of communication. According to Calgary-based project manager Rob Corbett,
“You need the right types and amount of resources, but the other main factor in
successful project management is good communication, which develops
understanding and trust. Having that trust with the client and the members of
your project team is essential.” Lisa Leffler, an Appriss project manager, adds
that being assertive is another valuable strategy for project managers, who
often find it necessary to push recalcitrant client employees to perform
required tasks (Leffler).

Effective project communication starts in the planning stages. The project

manager must solicit and listen carefully to the opinions and information
provided by clients, team members, and subcontractors: “Measuring time and
resources is always a challenge, so when planning a project it’s important to get
input from everyone who has pertinent information and requirements”
(Corbett).
As a project progresses, successful project managers keep clients and team
members informed through progress reports and project planning tools, such
as Gantt charts. These charts can also be used to manage budgets. Gantt-chart
proponents, such as Jon Peltier, know how to maximize Microsoft Office to
produce such charts.

Some find Gantt charts too limiting, so they turn to more comprehensive
project-management tools, such as PERT charts, Microsoft Project, GanttProject,
Lighthouse, or Intervals, to track and manage all aspects of a project. Such tools
facilitate flexible planning and help managers react promptly to unexpected
problems and delays.

On The Job ...

Communicating with the Team
“When everyone gets involved early, they’re more likely to get engaged and stay
engaged. The net result is that the work gets done on time, and we don’t have breaks in
the process. To reinforce that level of commitment and inter-dependence, I keep
everyone up to date with status reports, spreadsheets, and Gantt charts that show each
participant’s contributions.”

– Rob Corbett

Professional Project Manager

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Exploratory Writing 1.5: Considering Your Own
Experience with Technological Change

If submitted, your response can be viewed by your instructor.

Think about the technologies that have changed in your lifetime. For
example, did you family have a PC that you shared before the affordability
of individual laptops? Did you use a flip phone or an iPod before
smartphones became popular (and did your family have a landline phone)?
Did you use instant messaging before text messaging replaced it? Did your
family have an analog TV before the price of digital HD TVs went down?
Have you replaced cable TV with streaming services? Do you now store
your photos and other files on the cloud rather than on your computer or
phone? Think of some other examples of technological change that you
have experienced. Then pick three technologies from the above list or from
your own brainstorming, and write a paragraph listing the technologies and
how each has impacted your life. Have all of the changes been positive, or
is there also a negative side to technological change? Please explain.

Write your response here...

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1.6 Exercises & Projects: Chapter 1
Exercises
Locate a brief example of a technical document (or a section of one).
Make a photocopy, bring it to class, and explain why your selection can
be called technical writing.

Research the kinds of writing you will do in your future career. You
might interview a member of your chosen profession. Why will you
write on the job? For whom will you write? Explain in a memo to your
instructor.

In a memo to your instructor, describe the skills you seek to develop in

your technical writing course. How exactly will you apply these skills to
your career?

In the On the Job box “Artificial Intelligence and the Data Estate” (in
Module 1.5, “Technical Communication Is Changing”), why does Craig
Gorsline say that “discussions about Big Data are being supplanted by a
new term, the Data Estate?” Write a paragraph explaining the difference
between the terms Big Dataand the Data Estate. In that paragraph,
consider the questions he raises about artificial intelligence. If robots and
other applications of artificial intelligence will be able to perform most
tasks better than humans, what role will humans have in the workplace?

Collaborative Project
Divide the class into three groups. Conduct an informal survey of
communications technologies used by group members’ acquaintances who are
employed in a business setting.
The groups will be responsible for learning more about usage of the following
communications tools:

Group 1—smartphones

Group 2—tablets

Group 3—small laptops/netbooks

As a group, compile the information you have gathered and appoint one
member to present your findings to the class.

Ask such questions as the following:

Approximately what percentage of your written business messages

(emails, text messages, social media posts) is sent via this device? (Group
1 members will ask about smartphone usage; Group 2 members will ask
about tablets; Group 3 members will ask about laptops.)

What are the main advantages and limitations of this device for
gathering business-related information?

What are the main advantages and limitations of this device for
displaying detailed information, such as tables, reports, and
spreadsheets?

What are the main advantages and limitations of this device for viewing
graphics and video?

What are the main advantages and limitations of this device for keeping
supervisors, colleagues, and clients informed about your progress on a
project?

What are the main advantages and limitations of this device for
maintaining your social networks?