CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Water pollution is a major global challenge with severe consequences for human

health and environmental sustainability (UN Water, 2023). Industrial processes,

agricultural runoff, and domestic wastewater discharge are primary contributors,

contaminating water sources with organic matter, heavy metals, and other

pollutants. Wastewater treatment is a crucial process that aims to remove

contaminants from water, ensuring its safe discharge into the environment or its

reuse for various purposes (Metcalf & Eddy, 2014). Conventional wastewater

treatment methods, while effective, can be expensive and require complex

infrastructure, limiting their accessibility in developing regions (Crini et al., 2019).

The need for sustainable and low-cost alternatives for wastewater treatment is

pressing. One promising approach involves utilizing natural, readily available

materials as adsorbents (Han et al., 2022). The search for low-cost and efficient

adsorbent materials has led researchers to explore various natural materials,

including agricultural and industrial wastes (Gupta & Suhas, 2009). One of the

most widely used wastewater treatment methods is adsorption, which involves the

accumulation of pollutants on the surface of a solid material (Crini & Lichtfouse,

2019). Adsorbents are materials with a high surface area that can attract and hold

contaminants from a liquid or gas phase. This process, known as adsorption, offers
a simple and effective way to remove pollutants from wastewater (Ahmad &

Hameed, 2010).

Snail shells possess high calcium carbonate content, making them potentially

effective adsorbent materials for various pollutants. This is because calcium

carbonate has a high surface area and can interact with contaminants through

adsorption processes (Gupta & Babu, 2013). The abundance of snail shells in

various ecosystems also makes them readily available for utilization in adsorption

processes, offering an eco-friendly solution to pollution remediation challenges.

Snail shells, a readily available waste material, have shown potential as a low-cost

adsorbent for the removal of pollutants from wastewater (Auta & Hameed, 2011).

These shells are composed primarily of calcium carbonate and organic matter,

which can be modified through various processes to enhance their adsorption

capacity (Auta & Hameed, 2013). One such process is carbonization, which

involves heating the shells in the absence of oxygen, resulting in the formation of a

porous carbon structure with increased surface area and adsorption sites (Foo &

Hameed, 2011).

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a widely used parameter for measuring the

organic pollution load in wastewater (Metcalf & Eddy, 2014). It represents the

amount of oxygen required to oxidize the organic matter present in the water
sample, and its reduction is a key objective in wastewater treatment

(Tchobanoglous et al., 2014). The determination of the optimum adsorbent dosage

is crucial for the efficient removal of COD from wastewater using carbonized snail

shells.

This project investigates the use of carbonized snail shells as an adsorbent for

wastewater treatment. Snail shells, composed primarily of calcium carbonate

(Jayasinghe et al., 2021), are a readily available and often discarded material in

many locations. Their abundance makes them a potentially sustainable and cost-

effective option for wastewater treatment. Recent research suggests that these

shells, when processed appropriately, can be effective adsorbents for various

pollutants present in wastewater (Sundalian et al., 2022).

By exploring the use of carbonized snail shells, we hope to contribute to the

development of sustainable and cost-effective wastewater treatment solutions.

The aim of this study is to investigate the use of carbonized snail shells as an

adsorbent for wastewater treatment and to determine the optimum dosage for COD

removal.
Literature Review

Adsorption as a Wastewater Treatment Method

Adsorption is a widely used method for wastewater treatment due to its

effectiveness in removing a wide range of pollutants, ease of operation, and

potential for regeneration of the adsorbent material (Crini & Lichtfouse, 2019).

The process involves the accumulation of pollutants on the surface of a solid

material, known as the adsorbent. The efficiency of adsorption depends on various

factors, such as the characteristics of the adsorbent, the nature of the pollutants,

and the operating conditions (Gupta & Suhas, 2009).

One of the key advantages of adsorption is its ability to remove organic and

inorganic pollutants, including heavy metals, dyes, and pesticides, from wastewater

(Crini & Lichtfouse, 2019). The process can be used as a standalone treatment

method or in combination with other treatment techniques, such as biological

treatment or membrane filtration (Metcalf & Eddy, 2014).

Snail Shells as Adsorbent Materials

Snail shells have been investigated as a potential adsorbent material for wastewater

treatment due to their availability, low cost, and ability to remove various

pollutants (Auta & Hameed, 2011). These shells are composed primarily of
calcium carbonate and organic matter, which can be modified through various

processes to enhance their adsorption capacity (Auta & Hameed, 2013).

One of the most commonly used modification techniques is carbonization, which

involves heating the shells in the absence of oxygen (Foo & Hameed, 2011). This

process results in the formation of a porous carbon structure with increased surface

area and adsorption sites, making it more effective for the removal of pollutants

from wastewater (Foo & Hameed, 2011).

Several studies have investigated the use of carbonized snail shells for the removal

of various pollutants from wastewater, including heavy metals, dyes, and organic

compounds (Auta & Hameed, 2011; Auta & Hameed, 2013; Foo & Hameed,

2011). The results of these studies have shown that carbonized snail shells can be

an effective and low-cost alternative to commercially available adsorbents.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) as a Measure of Organic Pollution

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a widely used parameter for measuring the

organic pollution load in wastewater (Metcalf & Eddy, 2014). It represents the

amount of oxygen required to oxidize the organic matter present in the water

sample, and its reduction is a key objective in wastewater treatment

(Tchobanoglous et al., 2014).

treatment processes, as it provides a measure of the organic matter that can be

oxidized by chemical means (Metcalf & Eddy, 2014). The test involves the

addition of a strong oxidizing agent, such as potassium dichromate, to the water

sample, followed by heating and titration to determine the amount of oxygen

consumed (Tchobanoglous et al., 2014).

Several studies have used COD as a measure of the efficiency of adsorption

processes for the removal of organic pollutants from wastewater (Auta & Hameed,

2011; Auta & Hameed, 2013; Foo & Hameed, 2011). The results of these studies

have shown that the COD removal efficiency can be used to determine the

optimum adsorbent dosage for the treatment of wastewater.

**Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)**

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is a key parameter used to measure the amount

of organic pollutants in water. It represents the quantity of oxygen required to

oxidize organic matter chemically, often expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L)

or parts per million (ppm). COD serves as an important indicator of water quality

and pollution levels in various aquatic environments, including rivers, lakes, and

wastewater treatment plants.

using a strong chemical oxidizing agent, such as potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)

or potassium permanganate (KMnO4), in the presence of a catalyst, such as silver

sulfate (Ag2SO4) or mercuric sulfate (HgSO4). The reaction typically occurs

under acidic conditions and is often accelerated by heating. During the oxidation

process, organic molecules are converted into simpler, oxidized forms, releasing

oxygen in the form of water.

The COD value is determined by titrating the remaining oxidizing agent after the

reaction is complete (APHA-AWWA-WEF, 2017). The amount of oxidizing agent

consumed is proportional to the organic content in the sample, thus providing a

quantitative measure of COD (APHA-AWWA-WEF, 2017). The COD test is

commonly conducted using closed reflux or open reflux methods, each with its

own set of procedures and apparatus.

COD analysis is widely used in environmental monitoring and wastewater

treatment processes due to its advantages over biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

testing (Eaton et al., 2005). Unlike BOD, which measures the amount of oxygen

consumed by microorganisms during the aerobic degradation of organic matter

over a specific period, COD provides a faster and more reproducible assessment of
organic pollution levels. Additionally, COD testing does not require a waiting

period for microbial activity, making it suitable for rapid analysis of water samples

(Eaton et al., 2005).

Despite its widespread use, COD analysis has certain limitations (Rice et al.,

2017). It measures the total amount of oxidizable organic compounds in a sample,

including both biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances (Rice et al., 2017).

Therefore, high COD values do not necessarily indicate the presence of readily

biodegradable pollutants. Furthermore, the choice of oxidizing agent and reaction

conditions can affect COD results, leading to variability in measurements.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is a valuable analytical tool for assessing

organic pollution in water systems (Rice et al., 2017). Its rapid and reproducible

nature makes it suitable for routine water quality monitoring and process control in

wastewater treatment plants (Rice et al., 2017). However, careful interpretation of

COD results is essential, considering its limitations and the specific characteristics

of the water sample being analyzed.

Determination of Optimum Adsorbent Dosage

The determination of the optimum adsorbent dosage is crucial for the efficient

removal of pollutants from wastewater using adsorption processes (Crini &

Lichtfouse, 2019). The optimum dosage is the amount of adsorbent required to

adsorbent used (Gupta & Suhas, 2009).

Several factors can influence the optimum adsorbent dosage, including the

characteristics of the adsorbent, the nature of the pollutants, and the operating

conditions (Crini & Lichtfouse, 2019). The optimum dosage can be determined

through a series of adsorption experiments, in which different amounts of

adsorbent are added to the wastewater sample and the removal efficiency is

measured (Gupta & Suhas, 2009).

Several studies have used COD as a measure of the efficiency of adsorption

processes for the removal of organic pollutants from wastewater (Auta & Hameed,

2011; Auta & Hameed, 2013; Foo & Hameed, 2011). The results of these studies

have shown that the COD removal efficiency can be used to determine the

optimum adsorbent dosage for the treatment of wastewater.

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