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IEB ESSENTIALS:

PRELIM PHYSICS

12
GRADE
Copyright Notice:

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may distribute this material as long as you adhere to the following conditions:
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it for commercial purposes.
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conditions of the license, found on www.scienceclinic.co.za/terms-book-usage/

Content Acknowledgement
Many thanks to those involved in the production, translation and moderation of this book:
R Bartholomew, L Couperthwaite, N Cullinan, W Cloete, C de Beer, S Dippenaar, T Fairless, I Govender,
C Hare, L Kroukamp, R Lodge, K Munnik, C Orchison, M Peyper, S Pienaar, Y Patterson, R Ramsugit,
S Roberts, C Steyn, K Storm, S Sapsford, X Sithenjwa , A Theron, C Visser, B Ward

www .scienceclinic.co.za facebook.com/scienceclinicsa Science Clinic (Pty) Ltd © 2022

NATIONAL SENIOR CERTIFICATE: PHYSICAL SCIENCES: PAPER I – DATA SHEET Page i of ii

EXAMINATION DATA SHEET FOR THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES

(PHYSICS)

TABLE 1 PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

NAME SYMBOL VALUE

Acceleration due to gravity g 9,8 m⋅s–2
Speed of light in a vacuum c 3,0 × 108 m⋅s–1
Universal gravitational constant G 6,7 × 10−11 N⋅m2⋅kg–2
Coulomb's constant k 9,0 × 109 N⋅m2⋅C–2
Magnitude of charge on electron e 1,6 × 10–19 C
Mass of an electron me 9,1 × 10–31 kg
Planck's constant h 6,6 × 10–34 J⋅s
1 electron volt eV 1,6 × 10–19 J

TABLE 2 PHYSICS FORMULAE

MOTION
v +u v + vi
v = u + at or v f = v i + a∆t s= t or ∆x = f ∆t
2 2

v 2 = u 2 + 2as or v f 2 = v i 2 + 2a∆x s = ut + 21 at 2 or ∆x = v i ∆t + 21 a( ∆t )2

FORCE AND MOMENTUM

∆p
Fnet = J = ∆p = mv − mu
∆t
Fnet = ma or
or
J = ∆p = mv f − mv i
Fnet ∆t = m∆v

Ffsmax = µs FN
p = mv Fg = mg
Ffk = µk FN

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

W = Fs or W = F ∆x W
P= P = Fv
or W = F ∆x cos θ t
1 powerout
E p = mgh Ek = mv 2 Wnet = ∆EK efficiency = × 100
2 powerin

IEB Copyright © 2021 PLEASE TURN OVER

NATIONAL SENIOR CERTIFICATE: PHYSICAL SCIENCES: PAPER I – DATA SHEET Page ii of ii

GRAVITATIONAL AND ELECTRIC FIELDS

m1m2 F M
F =G g= g =G
r2 m r2
qq F kQ
F = k 122 E= E= 2
r q r

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
q W
I= V=
t q
emf = I (Rext + r )
V
R= or
I
emf = Vload +Vinternal resistance
1 1 1
RS = R1 + R2 + ...... = + + ......
RP R1 R2

W
P= or W = Pt
t

V2
W = VIt or W = I Rt
2
or W = t
R
V2
P = VI or P = I 2R or P=
R

ELECTRODYNAMICS
N ∆Φ
Φ = BA cos θ emf = − F = IBℓ sinθ
∆t
Ns Vs
VpI p = Vs Is =
N p Vp

PHOTONS AND ELECTRONS

hc
c =fλ E = hf or E=
λ
1 2
E = W0 + EK (max) W0 = hf0 EK (max) = mv max
2

IEB Copyright © 2021

Grade 12 Science Essentials SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
Grade 12 Physics Definitions
Vector: A physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction
Scalar: A physical quantity that has magnitude only
Resultant vector: A single vector which has the same effect as the original vectors acting together
Distance: Length of path travelled
Vectors and Scalars
Displacement: A change in position
Speed: Rate of change of distance
Velocity: Rate of change of position (or displacement)
Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity

Weight (Fg): The gravitational force the Earth exerts on any object on or near its surface
Normal force (FN): The perpendicular force exerted by a surface on an object in contact with it
Frictional force due to a surface (Ff): The force that opposes the motion of an object and acts parallel to the surface with
which the object is in contact
Newton's First Law of Motion: An object continues in a state of rest or uniform (moving with constant) velocity unless acted
upon by a net or resultant force
Newton’s Laws Inertia: The property of an object that causes it to resist a change in its state of rest or uniform motion
Newton's Second Law of Motion: When a net force, Fnet, is applied to an object of mass, m, it accelerates in the direction
of the net force. The acceleration, a, is directly proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to the mass
Newton's Third Law of Motion: When object A exerts a force on object B, object B simultaneously exerts an oppositely
directed force of equal magnitude on object A
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation: Every particle with mass in the universe attracts every other particle with a force
which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
their centres
Gravitational field: The force acting per unit mass

Momentum: The product of the mass and velocity of the object

Newton’s Second Law in terms of Momentum: The net force acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of
momentum
Momentum and Impulse (J): The product of the net force and the contact time
Impulse Law of conservation of linear momentum: The total linear momentum of an isolated system remains constant (is
conserved)
Elastic collision: A collision in which both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved
Inelastic collision: A collision in which only momentum is conserved

Work done on an object: The product of the displacement and the component of the force parallel to the displacement
Gravitational potential energy: The energy an object possesses due to its position relative to a reference point
Kinetic energy: The energy an object has as a result of the object’s motion
Mechanical energy: The sum of gravitational potential and kinetic energy at a point
Law of conservation of energy: The total energy in a system cannot be created nor destroyed; only transformed from one
Work, Energy and form to another
Power Principle of conservation of mechanical energy: In the absence of air resistance or any external forces, the mechanical
energy of an object is constant
Work-energy theorem: Work done by a net force on an object is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the object
Power: The rate at which work is done OR rate at which energy is transferred
Watt: The power when one joule of work is done in one second
Efficiency: The ratio of output power to input power

Coulomb's law: Two point charges in free space or air exert a force on each other. The force is directly proportional to the
Electrostatics product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the the distance between the charges.
Electric field at a point: The force per unit positive charge

Potential difference: The work done per unit positive charge

Current: The rate of flow of charge
Ohm's law: Current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across the conductor at constant
Electric Circuits
temperature
Resistance: A material’s opposition to the flow of electric current
Emf: The total energy supplied per coulomb of charge by the cell

Magnetic flux density: Is a representation of the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field.
Magnetic flux linkage: Product of the number of turns on the coil and the flux through the coil.
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction: The emf induced is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
Electrodynamics
(flux linkage)
Lenz's law: The induced current flows in a direction so as to set up a magnetic field to oppose the change in magnetic flux
Diode: A component that only allows current to flow in one direction

Optical Phenomena Threshold (cut-off) frequency (fo): the minimum frequency of incident radiation at which electrons will be emitted from a
and Properties of particular metal
Materials Work function (Wo): the minimum amount of energy needed to emit an electron from the surface of a metal

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Grade 12 Science Essentials
Vectors in 2D SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©

RESOLVING INTO Fx COMPONENTS ON A SLOPE

COMPONENTS
x
θ When forces act on objects on a Fg // = Fg sin θ
Diagonal vectors can be slope, it is useful to resolve vectors
broken into components. Fx = F cos θ into components that are parallel (//) Fg ⊥ = Fg cos θ F g//
F Fg θ

F g⟂
When vectors are broken or perpendicular (⟂) components.

Fy
into the x- and y- Fy = F sin θ The most common force resolved
Fg θ

F g⟂
components, we are deter- into components on a slope is weight
mining the horizontal (x- (Fg). Remember, the weight (Fg) is
the hypotenuse.
θ
axis) and vertical (y-axis)
effect of the vector. y F g//
CONSTRUCTING FORCE TRIANGLE
When forces are not co-linear, force triangles can be used to determine resultant forces or the equilibrant. When force triangles are formed, basic geometric rules can be used to determine vectors or resultants.
Tail-to-head Parallelogram Manipulation
Used for consecutive vectors (vectors that occur in sequence). Used for vectors that act concurrently on the same object. The vector arrows can be manipulated to form a force triangle to determine the
The resultant is the diagonal of a parallelogram that originates resultant forces or an equilibrant. The vectors/arrows may only be moved if the
Eg. A boat travels 90 m east, and then moves 50 m north.
y from the tail of the vectors. magnitude and direction are both kept constant.
y When manipulating the vector arrows, the following has to remain the same:
• Length of arrow (magnitude)
• Angle of the arrow (direction)
• The direction of the arrow head
t
Vector 2

tan
su l
Re Eg. An object is suspended from a ceiling by 2 cables. Below is a free body dia-

Vector 2

nt
gram as well as a force triangle that can be used to calculate the values of T1 and

l ta
su
T2.

Re
x Free body diagram Force triangle
Vector 1
x
This principle can also be applied to more than 2 vectors Vector 1
taken in order. The resultant is from the tail of the first vector
to the head of the last. Eg. Two tugboats apply a force of 6 000N and 5 000N at bear-
y ings of 60° and 120° respectively on a cargo ship.
y T1
Vect T2 T1
or 4
Fg
nt
Resulta

0N
6 00
or 3

Resultant
x
Vect

x 50
Fg T2
00
N
Vector 1

o r2
ct
Ve

RESULTANT: The single vector which has the same effect as the EQUILIBRANT: The force that keeps a system in equilibrium.
original vectors acting simultaneously on an object.
The equilibrant is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the resultant force.
PYTHAGORAS (90° ONLY) COMPONENT ADDITION
Pythagoras can only be applied to vector triangles that are right angle triangles. The resultant of diagonal forces can be determined using Pythagoras by determining the x-resultant and
y-resultant first. This is especially useful for determining resultants when more than 2 forces act on an
FOR FINDING SIDES: FOR FINDING ANGLES:
object and a force triangle can not be used.
o a o
R2 = x2 + y2 sin θ = cos θ = tan θ = EXAMPLE:
h h a
Three forces act on an object as shown in the diagram below. Determine the resultant force on the ob-
ject.
EXAMPLE:
1.Determine the x- and y-components of each force.
A boat travels 90 m due east, and then moves 50 m due north. Determine the displacement 11N force:
of the boat. y Fy = F sin θ
Fx = F cos θ
= 11 cos 70 = 11 sin 70 11 N
= 3,76 N right (90o ) = 10,34 N up (0o ) 70°
40° 35°
30N force:
Fx = F cos θ Fy = F sin θ 30 N 20 N
nt
su lta = 30 cos 40 = 30 sin 40
Re = 22,98 N left (270o ) = 19,28 N down (180o )

50 m
20N force:
Fx = F cos θ Fy = F sin θ
= 20 cos 35 = 20 sin 35
θ x = 16,38 N right (90o ) = 11,47 N down (180o )
90 m
R2 = x2 + y2 2. Determine the x- and y-resultants of components.
R = 2
90 + 50 2 Take left (270o) as positive Take down (180o) as positive
2,84 N
R = 102,96 m Fx = −3,76 + 22,98 − 16,38 Fy = −10,34 + 19,28 + 11,47 θ
= 2,84 N left (270o ) = 20,41 N down (180o )
o
tan θ =

20,41 N
a

tan−1( 50 R
90 )
3. Find resultant-Pythagoras. 4. Find angle- trigonometry
θ = o
R2 = x2 + y2 tan θ = a
θ = 29,05∘ 20,41
R = 2,842 + 20,412 θ = tan−1 2,84
∘
Remember that θ calculated is relative to the x-axis, R = 20,61 N θ = 82,08
∘ ∘ ∘
∴ bearing = 90 − 29,05 = 60, 95
∴Resultant = 20,61 N at a bearing of 187,92°
∴ Displacement = 102,96 m at a bearing of 60,95∘

FORCES

Non-contact force: A force exerted between Contact force: A force exerted between A force is a push or a pull action exerted on an object by another object. This action can be exerted
objects over a distance without physical contact. objects that are in contact with each other. while objects are in contact (contact force) or over a distance (non-contact force).
Because forces have magnitude and direction, they are vectors. Force is measured in newton (N). 1 N is
Electrostatic force (FE) Applied force (FA) the force required to accelerate a 1 kg object at 1 m·s-2 in the direction of the force. We can therefore
say that 1 N = 1 kg·m·s-2.
Gravitational force (w/Fg) Tension (T or FT)
NOTE:
Magnetic force Friction (Ff or fs/fk)
Free-Body Diagram: forces drawn away from a dot which represents the object
Normal force (FN)

Normal force (FN) Friction (Ff or fs/fk)

The perpendicular force exerted by a surface on an object in contact with it. Frictional force due to a surface is the force that opposes the motion of an object and acts
parallel to the surface with which the object is in contact.
FN
FN is NOT a fixed value. The reaction force of the surface on an object Friction is the parallel component of the contact force on an object by the surface on which it rests. The
helps to keep vertical equilibrium. The normal force is equal to the friction between the contact surfaces is determined by the properties of both the contact surfaces of the
perpendicular component of gravity if there are no other object and surface. The coefficient of friction (µs/µk) is a description of the roughness of the surface. The
forces acting on the object. rougher the surface, the greater the coefficient of friction.
FN = Fg Fg
Static friction (fs) Kinetic friction (fk)
Static friction is the frictional force on a sta- Kinetic friction is the frictional force on a mov-
If alternative forces act on the object, the normal force will change depending on the direction and mag- tionary object that opposes the tendency of ing object that opposes the motion of the
nitude of the applied force. All vertical forces must be balanced if there is no acceleration in the vertical motion of the object. The magnitude of the object. The magnitude of the kinetic friction is
plane. static friction will increase from 0N as the parallel constant for the specific system at all velocities
FA FA component of the applied force is increased, until greater than zero, and irrespective of the applied
FN FN maximum static friction is reached. fs(max) is the force.
θ θ magnitude of friction when the object just starts
to move.

fs(max) = μs FN fk = μk FN

Fg Fg fs(max) = maximum static friction (N) fk = kinetic friction (N)

μs = coefficient of friction (no unit) μk = coefficient of friction (no unit)

FN + FAy − Fg = 0 FN − Fg − FAy = 0
FN = normal force (N) FN = normal force (N)
FN + FA sin θ = Fg FN = Fg + FA sin θ
If the applied force is greater than the maximum static friction, the object will start to move.

Objects suspended from a rope/string/cable have no

normal force, as there is no surface on which the object rests. fsmax
FT
The tension is equal to the perpendicular component of

Fric%on (N)
)
gravity if there are no other forces acting on the object (f s
n
OR the full magnitude of Fg for vertically suspended
c $o
objects that are stationary/moving at constant velocity.
c fri Kine%c fric%on (fk)
a$
St
FT + (−Fg ) = 0
Fg
Applied force (N)
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Grade 12 Science Essentials
Newton’s Laws of Motion SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©

Newton’s First Law of Motion Newton’s Second Law of Motion Newton’s Third Law of Motion
An object continues in a state of rest or uniform (moving with When a net force, Fnet, is applied to an object of mass, it When object A exerts a force on object B, object B simulta-
constant) velocity unless it is acted upon by a net or resultant accelerates in the direction of the net force. The accelera- neously exerts an oppositely directed force of equal mag-
force. tion, a, is directly proportional to the net force and in- nitude on object A.
Inertia is defined as the property of an object that causes it to resist a versely proportional to the mass.
change in its state of rest or uniform motion.
NB!
Newton’s Second Law is dependent on the resultant force- Newton’s Third Law describes action-reaction force pairs. These
Fnet = 0 N a = 0 m ⋅ s −2 The vector sum of all forces acting on the same object. are forces on different objects and can not be added or sub-
tracted.
A 3kg object moves up an incline surface at an angle of 15º with a
constant velocity. The coe"cient of friction is 0,35. Determine Fnet = m a a ≠ 0 m ⋅ s −2
the magnitude of the applied force. FA on B = − FB on A
FA
FN A 20 N force is applied to a 5 kg object. The object accelerates
up a frictionless incline surface at an angle of 15º. Determine Force pairs properties:
the acceleration of the object.
• Equal in magnitude
Fg// FA • Opposite in direction
FN • Acts on different objects (and therefore DO NOT CANCEL each
fk other out)
15° Fg T

NOTE:
Take upwards as positive: Fg// The force pairs shown
Fnet⊥ = 0 here are gravitational
FN + (−Fg ⊥ ) = 0 Fman on earth forces.
FN = Fg ⊥
15° Fg
Fearth on man Gravity and Normal force
T
FN = m g cos θ are NOT force pairs.
FN = (3)(9,8)cos 15∘
Take upwards as positive:
FN = 28,40 N
Fnet// = ma
∴ FN = 28,40 N ⊥ up from slope
FA + (−Fg // ) = ma
20 − (5)(9,8)sin 15∘ = 5a Fman on wall
Fnet// = 0 20 − 12,68 = 5a
FA + (−Fg // ) + (−fk ) = 0 7,32
a =
FA = Fg // + fk 5

FA = m g sin θ + μk FN ∴a = 1,46 m ⋅ s−2 // up the slope

FA = (3)(9,8)sin 15∘ + (0,35)(28,40)
∴ FA = 17,55 N
Effect of Newton’s Second Law on overloading:
According to Newton’s Second Law, the acceleration of an object
Importance of wearing safety belts: is directly proportional to the net force and inversely proportional Fwall on man
According to Newton’s First Law, an object will remain in motion at a to the mass of the object. If a vehicle is overloaded, the stopping
constant velocity unless a non-zero resultant force acts upon it. When a distance will increase which can lead to serious accidents. When
car is in an accident and comes to a sudden stop, the person inside the Newton’s Third Law during an accident
brakes are applied, the net force and brake force remain the
car will continue with a constant forward velocity. Without a safety According to Newton’s Third Law, the force that two objects exert
same, but the increase in mass causes a decrease in negative ac-
belt, the person will make contact with the windscreen of the car, caus- on each other is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. If
celeration, increasing the time (and distance) it takes for the vehi-
ing severe head trauma. The safety belt acts as an applied force (new two cars are in an accident, they will both exert the same amount
cle to stop.
Fnet), preventing the forward motion of the person. of force on each other irrespective of their masses.

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ALL EXAMPLES:
Grade 12 Science Essentials
Newton’s Laws of Motion DIRECTION OF MOTION POSITIVE
SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©

Horizontal Slopes
The vertical resultant = 0 N. The perpendicular (⟂) resultant = 0 N. Fg // = Fg sin θ
The horizontal resultant determines acceleration. The parallel (//) resultant determines acceleration.
Fg ⊥ = Fg cos θ
Pulled at an angle REMEMBER: Use components of weight.
FA FN Force applied down the slope Force applied up the slope
FAy
FN θ FN Ff FA FN FA
FN Ff FN
Ff Ff FAx
Fg// Fg//
Fg// Fg//
Fg Fg FA Fg⟂ Ff
FA fk Fg⟂
Horizontal: Vertical: θ Fg T
θ Fg T
Fnet = m a Fnet = 0
FAx + (−Ff ) = m a (−Fg ) + FN + FAy = 0 Parallel: Perpendicular: Parallel: Perpendicular:
Fnet = m a Fnet = 0 Fnet = m a Fnet = 0
Pushed at an angle Fg ∥ + FA + (−Ff ) = m a Fg ⊥ + (−FN ) = 0 (−Fg ∥) + (−Ff ) + FA = m a Fg ⊥ + (−FN ) = 0
FN FA FN
No force applied
θ
Parallel:
Ff FAx Ff FN Ff FN Ff Fnet = m a
Fg ∥ + (−Ff ) = m a
FAy
Fg Fg Fg// Fg// Perpendicular:
Fnet = 0
Horizontal:
Fnet = m a
Vertical:
Fnet = 0 Fg
Fg⟂ Fg ⊥ + (−FN ) = 0
θ T

FAx + (−Ff ) = m a Fg + (−FN ) + FAy = 0

Lift stationary/constant velocity Lift accelerating Lift in freefall (cable snap)

FT FT FT
Suspended FT
Vertical: Vertical: Vertical:
Horizontal resultant = 0 N.
Fnet = 0 Fnet = m a Fnet = m a
Vertical resultant determines acceleration.
Fg + (−FT ) = 0 Fg + (−FT ) = m a Fg = m a
REMEMBER: No normal or friction forces. Fg
Fg
Fg
Fg
Acceleration will be in the direc-
Fg Fg
tion of the greatest force.

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ALL EXAMPLES:
Grade 12 Science Essentials
Newton’s Laws of Motion DIRECTION OF MOTION POSITIVE
SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©

Connected objects (e.g Pulley Systems) Objects attached by rope/cable

Do separate free body diagrams for each object. FN FN FN FN
The velocity and acceleration of all objects are equal in mag- Horizontal: Horizontal:
nitude and direction. Fnet = m a
Ff FT FT FA Ff FA Fnet = m a
Applied forces are applied to only one object at a time. (−Ff ) + FT = m a Ff FA + (−FT ) + (−Ff ) = m a
Simultaneous equations for acceleration and tension are FT
sometimes needed. Fg
Ff Fg
Fg Fg
REMEMBER:
Ropes/cables- The tension forces on Objects in contact
the objects are the same in magnitude
but opposite in direction. FN FN
FN FN
Touching objects- Newton’s Third Law FA
Horizontal: A FBA FAB B Horizontal:

Fnet = m a Ff FA Ff Ff FAB Fnet = m a

Same axis Ff
FA + (−FBA) + (−Ff ) = m a (−Ff ) + FAB = m a
Can be horizontal (multiple objects on a surface) or vertical FBA
(multiple suspended objects). Fg Fg
The velocity and acceleration of all objects are equal in mag- Fg Fg
nitude and direction.
Multiple axes
Multiple axes
FN
Horizontal (objects on a surface) AND vertical (suspended
FT1 FN FN
objects). In these examples,
FT1 FT2
The velocity and acceleration of all objects are equal in
Ff FT1 clockwise is positive: Ff
magnitude NOT DIRECTION. Right positive FT2
Fg Ff
Fg Down positive Fg Fg
Vector direction on multiple axes FT2
Clockwise: Fg
Right and Down positive
Fg
Left and Up negative
FN FT2 FN FN FT2
FT1
Ff FT1 Ff FT1 Ff FT2
OR
FT1
Anti-clockwise: Fg Fg Fg Fg Fg
FT2 Fg
Left and Up positive
Right and Down negative Horizontal: Vertical: Vertical: Horizontal: Horizontal: Vertical:
Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a
FT1 + (−Ff ) = m a Fg + (−FT1) + FT 2 = m a Fg + (−FT 2 ) = m a FT1 + (−Ff ) = m a FT 2 + (−FT1) + (−Ff ) = m a Fg + (−FT 2 ) = m a

MOMENTUM VECTOR NATURE OF MOMENTUM NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

Momentum: the product of the mass and ve- Momentum is a vector quantity and has both mag- Newton’s second law in terms of momentum: The net force acting Derivation from Newton’s
locity of the object. nitude and direction. It is therefore important to on an object is equal to the rate of change of momentum. Second Law
always include direction in all momentum calcu-
Momentum can be thought of as quantifying the Fnet = m a
lations. Momentum has the same direction as the
motion of an object. The following equation is used According to Newton’s Second Law, a net force applied to an object will
to calculate momentum:
velocity vector.
cause the object to accelerate. When the net force on an object changes, Δv
Fnet = m
EXAMPLE: so does its velocity and hence the momentum. Δt
mvf − mvi
A golf ball of mass 0,05 kg leaves a golf club Fnet = resultant force (N) Fnet =
at a velocity of 90 m·s 1 in an easterly direc- Δp Δt
tion. Calculate the momentum of the golf Fnet = Δp = change in momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1) Δp
p = momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s ) −1 ball. Δt Fnet =
Δt = time (s) Δt
p = mv m = mass (kg) p = mv
IMPULSE (J)
v = velocity (m ⋅ s−1) = (0,05)(90)
Impulse (J): the product of the net force and the contact time.
= 4,5 kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1 east
By rearranging Newton’s second law in terms of momentum, we find that impulse is equal to the change
in momentum of an object according to the impulse-momentum theorem:
CHANGE IN MOMENTUM
Impulse = FΔt
When a moving object comes into contact with another object (moving or stationary) it results in a
change in velocity for both objects and therefore a change in momentum (p) for each one. The change Impulse = Δp Impulse (J), FΔt , is measured in N·s.
in momentum can be calculated by using: mΔv = Δp Δp is measured in kg·m·s−1
Δp = change in momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1)
The change in momentum is directly dependent on the magnitude of the resultant force and the dura-
Δp = pf − pi pf = final momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1) tion for which the force is applied. Impulse is a vector, and has the same direction as the net force
vector.
pi = initial momentum (kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1)
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
Due to the vector nature of momentum, it is very important to choose a positive direction.
A golf ball with a mass of 0,1 kg is driven from the The following graph shows the force ex-
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: tee. The golf ball experiences a force of 1000 N while erted on a hockey ball over time. The
A 1000 kg car initially moving at a constant A cricket ball with a mass of 0,2 kg approaches a in contact with the golf club and moves away from the hockey ball is initially stationary and has a
velocity of 16 m·s 1 in an easterly direction cricket bat at a velocity of 40 m·s 1 east and golf club at 30 m·s 1. For how long was the golf club mass of 150 g.
approaches a stop street, starts breaking and leaves the cricket bat at a velocity of 50 m·s 1 in contact with the ball?
comes to a complete standstill. Calculate the west. Calculate the change in the ball’s momen- Fnet Δt = m Δv
change in the car’s momentum. tum during its contact with the cricket bat. 1000t = (0,1)(30 − 0)
t = 3 × 10−3 s
Choosing east as positive: Choosing east as positive:
EXAMPLE:
Δp = pf − pi Δp = pf − pi Calculate the magnitude of the impulse
Why can airbags be useful during a collision? State
Δp = mvf − mvi Δp = mvf − mvi your answer by using the relevant scientific principle. (change in momentum) of the hockey ball.

Δp = (1000)(0) − (1000)(16) Δp = (0,2)(−50) − (0,2)(40) Fnet Δt = area under graph

The change in momentum remains constant, but the
Δp = −16 000 Δp = −18 use of an airbag prolongs the time (t) of impact dur- 1
impulse = b ⊥h
ing the accident. The net force experienced is in- 2
∴ Δp = 16 000 kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1 west ∴ Δp = 18 kg ⋅ m ⋅ s−1 west versely proportional to the contact time (F ∝ 1/t), 1
impulse = (0,5)(150)
2
therefore resulting in a smaller net force (Fnet) (Δp is
impulse = 37,5 N ⋅ s
constant).

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM NEWTON’S THIRD LAW AND MOMENTUM

Conservation of linear momentum: The total linear momentum of an isolated system re- During a collision, the objects involved will exert forces on each other. Therefore, according to Newton’s
mains constant (is conserved). third law, if object A exerts a force on object B, object B will exert a force on object A where the two
forces are equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction.
( ptotal)before = ( ptotal)after
pA(before) + pB(before) = pA(after) + pB(after)
The magnitude of the force, the contact time and therefore the impulse on both objects are
mAu A + mBu B + . . . = mA vA + mBvB + . . . equal in magnitude.

System: A set number of objects and their interactions with each other. Forces are applied between objects during:
Internal forces: Forces applied on each other by objects within the system - such as the contact forces
Collisions: Move off together, collide and deflect, object dropped vertically on moving object.
between colliding cars.
External forces: Forces outside of the system, e.g. friction, air resistance Explosions: Explosions, springs, firearms
Isolated system: Is on that has no net external force acting on it.

Collisions Explosions
Move off together Explosions

When objects collide and move off

vA vB = 0 vA+B Objects that experience the same vA+B = 0 vA vB
together, their masses can be explosion will experience the same
added as one object force.
mA mB Collision mA+B mA+B Explosion mA mB
The acceleration, velocity and mo-
mentum of the object is dependent
Objects that are stationary (B) on the mass.
have an initial velocity of zero. ( ptotal ) before = ( ptotal )after ( ptotal ) before = ( ptotal )after
Objects that are stationary (A+B)
mA u A + mBu B = (mA + mB)v have an initial velocity of zero. (mA + mB)u = mA vA + mBvB
Collide and rebounds Springs

Objects can collide and move off vA vB vA vB The spring will exert the same vB = 0 vB = 0 vA vB
separately force on both objects (Newton’s
Third Law).
mA mB mA mA mB Push mA mB
REMEMBER: The velocity and
Collision mB The acceleration, velocity and mo-
mentum of the object is dependent
momentum are vectors (i.e. direc-
on the mass.
tion specific). Velocity substitution
( ptotal ) before = ( ptotal )after
must take direction into account. ( ptotal ) before = ( ptotal )after Objects that are stationary (A+B)
mA u A + mBu B = mA vA + mBvB have a velocity of zero. (mA + mB)u = mA vA + mBvB

Object dropped vertically on a moving object Firearms/ cannons

Example: A stuntman jumps off a vA+B The gun and bullet will experience
bridge and lands on a truck. vA MB the same force. vG+B = 0 vG vB
Linear momentum= momentum
vB = 0 The acceleration of the weapon is Shoot
significantly less than the bullet mG+B mG mB
along one axis. mA Collision mA+B due to mass difference
A dropped object has a horizontal
Recoil can be reduced by increas-
velocity of zero, ( ptotal ) before = ( ptotal )after
( ptotal ) before = ( ptotal )after ing the mass of the weapon.
mA u A + mBu B = (mA + mB)v (m G + mB)u = m G vG + mBvB
∴viB= 0m·s 1

ELASTIC VS INELASTIC COLLISIONS PENDULUMS

Elastic collision: a collision in which both momentum and kinetic

energy are conserved.
Inelastic collision: a collision in which only momentum is conserved.
DOWNWARD SWING:
Conservation of mechanical en-
In an isolated system, momentum will always be conserved. To prove ergy (EM) to determine velocity at
that a collision is elastic, we only have to prove that kinetic energy is the bottom of the swing:
conserved.
Kinetic energy can be calculated using the mass and velocity of an EM(top) = EM(bottom)
object:
1 1
mv 2 = mg h + mv 2
mg h + 2 2 h
EK = kinetic energy (J)
1 COLLISION:
EK = mv 2 m = mass (kg)
2 Conservation of linear momentum to deter-
v = velocity (m ⋅ s−1) mine the velocity of the block after impact.
( ptotal ) before = ( ptotal )after
Elastic collision: Ek(before) = Ek(after)
pA(before) + pA(before) = pA(after) + pA(after)
Inelastic collision: Ek(before) ≠ Ek(after)
mA u A + mBu B + . . . = mA vA + mBvB + . . .
(some energy is lost as sound or heat)

EXAMPLE:
The velocity of a moving trolley of mass 1 kg is 3 m·s 1. A block of
mass 0,5 kg is dropped vertically on to the trolley. Immediately
UPWARD SWING:
after the collision the speed of the trolley and block is 2 m·s 1 in
the original direction. Is the collision elastic or inelastic? Prove your Conservation of mechanical en-
answer with a suitable calculation. ergy (EM) to determine height that
the pendulum will reach:
1 1
EK(before) = mt vt2 + m v2
2 b b
2 EM(bottom) = EM(top)
1 1
= (1)(3)2 + (0,5)(0)2 1 1
2 2 mg h + 2
mv 2 = mg h + 2
mv 2
= 4,5 J

1
EK(after) = 2
mt+ b vt+2 b COLLISION:
1 Conservation of linear momentum to deter-
= 2
(1 + 0,5)(2)2 mine the velocity of the pendulum after impact.
= 3J ( ptotal ) before = ( ptotal )after
pA(before) + pA(before) = pA(after) + pA(after)
EK(before) ≠ EK(after) mA u A + mBu B + . . . = mA vA + mBvB + . . .
∴ Kinetic energy is not conserved and the collision is inelastic

ENERGY PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

The ability to do work Principle of conservation of mechanical energy: In the absence of air resistance or any external forces, the mechanical
Unit: joules (J) energy of an object is constant. The law of conservation of mechanical energy applies EMECHA = EMECHB
Scalar quantity when there is no friction or air resistance acting on the object. In the absence of air resis-
(EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B
tance, or other forces, the mechanical energy of an object moving in the earth’s gravita-
Gravitational Potential Energy (EP) Kinetic Energy (EK) 1 1
tional field in free fall, is conserved. (m g h + m v 2 )A = (m g h + m v 2 )B
The energy an object possesses The energy an object has 2 2
due to its position relative to a as a result of the object’s Conservation of energy: the total energy in a system cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form
reference point. motion to another.
In the following instances the gravitational potential energy of an object is converted to kinetic energy (and vice versa), while the
Amount of energy transferred when an Amount of energy transferred mechanical energy remains constant.
object changes position relative to the to an object as it changes
earth’s surface. speed. EXAMPLE 1: Object moving vertically EXAMPLE 2: Object moving on an inclined plane
A 2 kg ball is dropped from rest at A, determine the maximum velocity A 2 kg ball rolls at 3 m·s−1 on the ground at A, determine the maximum
1 of the ball at B just before impact. height the ball will reach at B.

EP = mg h EK = mv 2
2
g = 9,8 m·s–2, m is mass in kg, m is mass in kg,
h is height in m above the ground v is velocity in m·s–1

Example: Example:
Determine the gravitational potential Determine the kinetic energy (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B
energy of a 500 g ball when it is placed of a 500 g ball when it travels (m g h + 1 m v 2 )A = (m g h + 1 m v 2 )B 1
(m g h + m v 2 )A = (m g h +
1
m v 2 )B
2 2 2 2
on a table with a height of 3 m. with a velocity of 3 m.s–1.
1 1
(2)(9,8)(4) + (2)(0 2 )
2
= (2)(9,8)(0) + (2)vB2
2
(2)(9,8)(0) + 1 (2)(32 ) = (2)(9,8)(h B ) + 1 (2)(0 2 )
2 2
EP = mg h EK =
1
m v2
2 78,4 + 0 = 0 + 1vB2 0+ 9 = 19,6h B + 0
= (0,5)(9,8)(3) 1 9
= (0,5)(32 ) vB = 78,4 = hB
= 14,7 J 2 19,6
= 2,25 J vB = 8,85 m ⋅ s−1 downwards hB = 0,46 m
EXAMPLE 3: Pendulum EXAMPLE 4: Rollercoaster
Mechanical Energy (EM) The 2 kg pendulum swings from A at 5 m·s−1 to B, on the ground, The 2 kg ball rolls on a toy rollercoaster from A, at 20 m above the
The sum of gravitational potential and kinetic energy of an where its velocity is 8 m·s−1. Determine the height at A. ground, to B where its height is 8 m and velocity is 14 m·s−1. Calculate
its starting velocity at A.
object at a point

EM = EP + EK
1
EM = mg h + 2
mv 2
EXAMPLE:
A ball, mass 500 g, is thrown horizontally through the air. The ball travels
at a velocity of 1,8m·s −1 and is 2,5 m from the ground. Determine the (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B
mechanical energy of the ball. (m g h + 1 m v 2 )A = (m g h + 1 m v 2 )B
1
(m g h + m v 2 )A = (m g h +
1
m v 2 )B
2 2 2 2
EM = EP + EK 1
(2)(9,8)(h A ) + (2)(52 ) =
1
(2)(9,8)(0) + (2)(82 )
1
(2)(9,8)(20) + (2)(vA2 ) =
1
(2)(9,8)(16) + (2)(142 )
2 2 2 2
1
EM = mg h + 2
m v2 19,6h A + 25 = 0 + 64 392 + vA2 = 313,6 + 196
1 64 − 25
EM = (0,5)(9,8)(2,5) + 2
(0,5)(1,82 ) 19,6
= hA vA = 313,6 + 196 − 392
EM = 13,06 J hA = 1,99 m vA = 10,84 m ⋅ s−1 to the right

WORK No Work done on an object (moving at a constant velocity) if the force and NET WORK ON AN OBJECT
Work done is the transfer of energy. Work done on an displacement are perpendicular to each other. A number of forces can act on an object at the same time. Each force
object by a force is the product of the displacement Consider a man carrying a suitcase with a weight of 20 N on a ‘travelator’ can do work on the object to change the energy of the object. The net
and the component of the force parallel to the dis- moving at a constant velocity. work done on the object is the sum of the work done by each force act-
placement.
W = FΔx cos θ FA = 20 N W = Fx Δx cos θ ing on the object.

W = work (J) Fx = F cos θ If Wnet is positive, energy is added to the system.

NOTE:
F = force applied (N) If Wnet is negative, energy is removed from the system.
Work is a scalar quantity, Direc)on
Δx = displacement (m) i.e. NO DIRECTION for of mo)on
θ = Angle between F and Δx F or x! Fg = 20 N Work and Energy are SCALARS, and NOT direction specific.

The joule is the amount of work done when a force of one EXAMPLE:
newton moves its point of application one meter in the di- Calculate the net work done on a trolley where a force of 30 N is ap-
rection of the force. Δx plied to the trolley. The trolley moves 3 m to the left. The force of
FA is perpendicular to the displacement: θ = 90° ; cos 90° = 0. friction is 5 N to the right.
Work always involves two things:
Work done by applied force: Work done by frictional force:
1. A force which acts on a certain object. (F) No force in the plane of the displacement, hence, NO WORK IS DONE by
2. The displacement of that object. (Δx / Δy) FA and Fg and no energy is transferred. We can also say that FA / Fg does WA = FΔx cos θ Wf = Ff Δx cos θ
not change the potential energy (height) or kinetic energy (vertical velo- = (30)(3)cos 0 = (5)(3)cos 180
F city) of the object.
= 90 J gained = − 15 J "lost"
A force/force component in the direction of the displacement does positive
work on the object. The force increases the energy of the object. Work done by gravity Work done by normal force:
Δx Wg = FgΔx cos θ WN = FN Δx cos θ
Positive work means that energy is added to the system.
When a resultant force is applied to an object, the resultant = (Fg )(3)cos 90 = (FN )(3)cos 90
force accelerates the block across distance Δx. Work has
been done to increase the kinetic energy of the block. F Direc+on = 0J = 0J
of mo+on W = Fx Δx cos θ
Wnet = WA + Wf + WN + Wg
θ Fx = F cos θ = 90 − 15 + 0 + 0
Δx
If a resultant force is applied to an = 75 J nett energy gained
object vertically, the resultant force
Alternative method for determining net work:
lifts the block through distance Δy.
0° ≤ θ < 90° ; +1 ≥cos θ > 0 1. Draw a free body showing only the forces acting on the object.
Work has been done to increase the F
potential energy of the block. Δy A force/force component in the opposite direction of the displacement does 2. Calculate the resultant (net) force acting on the object.
“Lifting” usually implies at a constant negative work on the object. The force decreases the energy of the 3. Calculate the net work using Wnet = FnetΔx cos θ
velocity. object. Step 1: Freebody diagram
Negative work means that energy is being removed from the FN
system.
W = Fx Δx cos θ
F
Fx = F cos θ Direc+on
of mo+on FA = 30 N Ff = -5 N
θ F θ Fg
Δx
Take left as positive:
Δx
90° < θ ≤ 180° ; 0 > cos θ ≥ −1 Step 2: Calculate Fnet Step 3: Net work
Work is only done in the direction of the displacement.
Work is done by the component of the force that is parallel Fnet = FA + Ff Wnet = Fnet Δx cos θ
to the displacement. The angle between the force and the = 30 − 5 = (25)(3)cos 0
displacement is θ. If no displacement takes place due to NB: Never use a – for F in the opposite direction. The cos θ = 25 N left = 75 J gained
the applied force, no work is done. makes provision for that.

WORK ENERGY THEOREM NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES POWER

(FT, FA, Ff, Fair resistance)
According to Newton’s Second Law of Motion, when a resultant force Power is the rate at which work is done OR the rate at
acts on an object, the object accelerates. This means there is a which energy is transferred.
change in velocity of the object, and therefore a change in kinetic A force is a non-conservative force if: W E
energy of the object, since Ek = ½ mv2
1. The work done by the force in moving an object from point A to P= =
WORK-ENERGY THEOREM: The work done by a net force on point B is dependent of the path taken.
Δt Δt
an object is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the P = power (watt)
object 2. The net work done in moving an object in a closed path which starts W = work (J)
and ends at the same point is not zero. Δt = time (s)
Wnet = ΔE K
1 EXAMPLE:
Fnet Δx cos θ = 2
m(v 2f − v 2i ) A non-conservative force does not conserve mechanical energy.
A certain amount of energy is converted into other forms such as internal Calculate the power expended by an engine when an object
CONSERVATIVE FORCES energy of the particles which the objects is made of. An example of a of mass 100 kg is lifted to a height of 2,2 m in a time of 3 s,
non-conservative force is the frictional force. at a constant velocity.
A force is a conservative force if:
Consider the crate on a rough surface being pushed with a constant
W NOTE:
1. The work done by the force in mov- EP = EP force FA from position 1 to position 2 along two different paths. P=
Δt
ing an object from point A to point B
is independent of the path taken. FA FA = FΔx cos θ
Fnet = 0 N
Ff Δt
∴ Wnet = 0 J
2. The net work done in moving an Ff =
(100)(9,8)(2,2)cos 0
3 ∴ Pnet = 0 W
object in a closed path which starts
and ends at the same point is zero. = 718,67 W
FA
AVERAGE POWER (CONSTANT VELOCITY)
1 Ff 2
Conservative force conserve mechanical energy. Example of We can calculate the average power needed to keep an object
conservative forces are gravitational force and spring force. The work done by FA is more when the longer path is taken. The work moving at constant speed using the equation:
done to overcome the friction will result in the surface of the crate be-
coming hotter. This energy is dissipated (as sound and/or heat) and is Paverage = Fvaverage
very difficult to retrieve, i.e. not conserved.
Δx
Paverage = F
Δt
Note: the total energy of the system is conserved in all cases, whether
the forces are conservative or non-conservative. EXAMPLE:
Wnc = ΔE K + ΔEP A man lifts a 50 kg bag of cement from ground level up to a
The work done by gravity on each ball is independent of the path 1 height of 4 m above ground level in such a way that the bag
taken. Only the h⟂ is considered. = 2
m(v 2f − v 2i ) + mgΔh of cement moves at constant velocity (i.e. no work is done to
change kinetic energy). Determine his average power if he
does this in 10 s.
EXAMPLE: ΔEP = mgΔh ΔE K = E Kf − E Ki
= mg(h f − h i ) =
1
m(v 2f − v 2i )
An 800 kg car traveling at
= (800)(9,8)(0 − 100 sin 30∘ )
2 Paverage = Fvaverage
15 m·s−1 down a 30° hill needs 1
100 = (800)(0 2 − 152 )
to stop within 100 m to avoid m = − 392 000 J 2 Δy
= F
an accident. Using energy calcu- = − 90 000 J Δt
lations only, determine the mag- Wnc = ΔE K + ΔE P 4m = (50)(9,8)( 10
4
)
nitude of the average force that FA Δx cos θ = ΔE K + ΔEP
must be applied to the brakes = 196 W
FA (100)cos 180 = − 90 000 − 392 000
over the 100 m. Assume that
− 482 000
the surface is frictionless. FA = −100
30° This cannot be used for object in freefall, unless the object has
FA = 4 820 N reached terminal velocity.

When to use which formulae

CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY ALTERNATIVE METHODS TO DETERMINE WORK DONE BY Fg ON A SLOPE
WITHOUT RESOLVING Fg INTO Fg⟂ AND Fg//
E MA = E MB
1. When an object moves up a slope 2. When an object moves down a slope
(E P + EK )A = (E P + EK )B with a known angle with a known angle

• When there are no external force (FA/Ff) present.

• Any track/pendulum with a curve that is not a straight line. 4m
4m 120° 120°
60° 60°
WORK-ENERGY PRINCIPLE 30°
Fg = 100 N
30°
Fg = 100 N

Wnet = ΔEK
1 1
= 2
mv 2f − 2 mv 2i Wg = Fg Δx cos θ Wg = Fg Δx cos θ
= (100)(4)cos 120∘ = (100)(4)cos 60∘
= −200 J = 200 J
• If an object is accelerating on a horizontal/incline plane.
Any of the following methods may be used:

FN
FA
3. When an object moves up a slope without a 4. When an object moves down a slope without a
given angle, but with specified height given angle, but with specified height

Fg 3m 3m
30°
A. Fnet → Wnet A. Wnet = ∑W Fg = 100 N Fg = 100 N
1. Determine Fnet separately 1. Determine W of each force seperately
Fnet = FA − F f − Fg // WA = FAΔx cos θ Wg = Fg Δx cos θ Wg = Fg Δx cos θ
Fnet = FA − Ff − Fg sin θ WN = FN Δx cos θ
= (100)(3)cos 180∘ = (100)(3)cos 0∘
Fnet = FA − Ff − (100 sin 30∘ ) Wg = Fg Δx cos θ
= −300 J = 300 J
Wf = Ff Δx cos θ

2. Apply Fnet to Wnet 2. Apply ∑W to Wnet

1 1 1 1
Wnet = Fnet Δx cos θ = m v 2 − m vi2 WA + Wf + Wg + WA = Wnet = m v 2 − m vi2
2 f 2 2 f 2

VARIABLES Calculations:
A racing car starting from rest on the grid, travels straight Position vs Time Velocity vs Time Acceleration vs Time
u vi initial velocity along the track and reaches the 400 m mark after 8,6 s.
a) What was its average acceleration? Stationary (velocity = 0 m·s−1)
v vf final velocity
a a acceleration

a (m·s−2)
v (m·s−1)
u vi 0 Let forward be positive.
s ∆x / ∆y displacement
1

x (m)
Δx = vi Δt + a t2
t ∆t change in time v vf / 2
1
EQUATIONS OF MOTION a a ? 400 = (0)(8,6) + 2 a8,62 Δt (s) Δt (s) Δt (s)
IEB preferred Alternative Leaves out −2
s ∆x 400 m a = 10,82 m ⋅ s forward
v = u + at vf = vi + a Δt s or Δx
Constant velocity (acceleration = 0 m·s−2)
1 1 t ∆t 8,6 s
s = ut+ a t2 Δx = vi Δt + a Δt 2 v or vf
2 2
v 2 = u 2 + 2a s vf2 = vi2 + 2a Δx t or Δt

a (m·s−2)
v (m·s−1)
b) What was its velocity at the 400 m mark?
1 1
s = (u + v)t Δx = (v + vf )Δt a vf = vi + aΔt

x (m)
2 2 i
Steps to using the equations: vf = 0 + (10,82)(8,6)
Δt (s) Δt (s) Δt (s)
vf = 93,05 m ⋅ s−1 forward
a) Draw a diagram of the motion of the object.
b) Identify each stage of the motion (where the accel- Increasing velocity (constant positive acceleration)
eration has changed). c) At the 400 m mark, the brakes are applied and the car
c) Choose a positive direction and use the same conven- slowed down at 2 m·s−2 to come to rest. Calculate the time it
tion throughout.

a (m·s−2)
v (m·s−1)
took for the car to stop.
d) Record the information given and value required by

x (m)
writing next to each variable. Check the unit and direc- NB! New stage of motion.
tion. Find the new value of each variable.
e) Select correct equation and solve for unknown. Δt (s) Δt (s) Δt (s)
f) Include units and direction in your answer.
Remember: u vi 93,05 m·s-1 Decreasing velocity (constant negative acceleration)
‘starting from rest’ means: u or vi = 0 Let forward be positive.
v vf 0
‘comes to a stop’ means: v or vf = 0 vf = vi + aΔt

a (m·s−2)
v (m·s−1)
Slowing down means: acceleration is negative (a < 0), a a -2 m·s−2 0 = 93,05 − 2t
while still moving in a positive direction. Δt (s)

x (m)
Constant velocity means: a =0, u = v or vi = vf
s ∆x / t = 46,53 s
Use a new set of variables for each stage of the motion. t ∆t ?
Conversion of units: 1 m.s-1 = 3,6 km.h-1.
Δt (s) Δt (s)

Displacement-Time Velocity-Time Acceleration-Time

• 1 is positive acceleration • 1 is positive acceleration • 1 is positive acceleration
• 2 is constant velocity • 2 is constant velocity • 2 is constant velocity (a = 0)
• 3 is negative acceleration • 3 is negative acceleration • 3 is negative acceleration

a (m·s–2)
• 4 is at rest • 4 is at rest, v = 0 m.s–1 • 4 is at rest or constant v
v (m·s–1)
x (m)

GRADIENT: GRADIENT: GRADIENT:

Velocity Acceleration n/a
AREA BELOW GRAPH: AREA BELOW GRAPH: AREA BELOW GRAPH:
n/a ΔDisplacement ΔVelocity
t (s) t (s)
t (s)
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Grade 12 Science Essentials
Vertical Projectile Motion SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©

PROJECTILE MOTION PARTS OF PROJECTILE PATH

Only vertical movement (up and down) is considered, no hori- EXAMPLE:
A projectile is an object that moves freely under the influ- zontal movement is taken into account. The path of projectile
An object is projected vertically upwards. 4 seconds later, it is caught at the same
ence of gravity only. It is not controlled by any mechanism motion can be analysed using the 4 sections as shown below.
height (point of release) on its way downwards. Determine how long it took the
(pulley or motor). The object is in free fall, but may move The combination of these 4 parts will depend on the actual
ball to pass a height of 8 m in the upward direction. Choose downward as posi-
upwards (thrown up) or downwards. path travelled by the projectile. Example: Dropped projectile is tive direction.
Forces on a projectile sections C and D only. Object thrown upwards and falls on roof 1
is sections A to C.
Δy = viΔt + 2
at 2
In the absence of friction, the gravitational force of the earth total time = 4 s
1
is the only force acting on a free falling body. This force al- ∴ t up = 2 s −8 = − 19,6t + 2
(9,8)t 2
ways acts downwards. Time:
tA = tD 0 = 4,9t 2 − 19,6t + 8
Because the gravitational force is always downward, a projec- vf = vi + aΔt
tile that is moving upward, must slow down. When a projec- tB = tC
tile is moving downward, it moves in the direction of the B C 0 = vi + (9,8)(2)
SAME Displacement:
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
gravitational force, therefore it will speed up. vi = − 19,6 t =
HEIGHT ΔyA = ΔyD 2a
Acceleration due to gravity ΔyB = ΔyC ∴ vi = 19,6 m ⋅ s −1 u p
−(−19,6) ± (−19,6) 2 − 4(4,9)(8)
All free falling bodies near the surface of the earth have the
A D Velocity: t = 2(4,9)
same acceleration due to gravity. This acceleration is 9,8
m·s−2 downward. viA = vfD
−b ± 2
b − 4a c t = 0,46 s OR 3,54*
vfA = viD x=
Ignoring air resistance/friction; If a marble and a rock are SAME ∴ t = 0,46 s *time for downward
viB = vfC 2a
released from the same height at the same time, they will VfB = ViC = 0 m·s−1 direction
strike the ground simultaneously, and their final velocity will HEIGHT
be the same.
GRAPHS OF PROJECTILE MOTION
Their momentum (mv) and kinetic energy (½mv2) are (Eg. A ball is thrown into the air and is caught at the same height.)
not the same, due to a difference in mass. Graph manipulation:
Area
If two objects are released from different heights, they have Change in positive direction:
the same acceleration, but they strike the ground at different Flip graph along x-axis Δy vs Δt v vs Δt a vs Δt
times and have different velocities. Change in reference position:
Shift x-axis (Δy-Δt only) Gradient
vf = vi + aΔt Nega%ve
a
Ne
ga

UP POSITIVE
Δy = displacement (m) %
vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔy Posi%ve
ve
a

v (m·s−1)

a (m·s−2)
Δt = time (s) Δy

Nega
ve v
Δy (m)
Δt (s) Δt (s)
vi = initial velocity (m·s−1) Ne Nega%ve
1

Posi%
Nega%ve Δv

%ve
ga Δy
Δy = viΔt + aΔt 2 %v
ea
vf = final velocity (m·s−1)

v
2
a = acceleration (m·s−2)
vi + vf (9,8 m·s−2 downwards) Δt (s)
Δy = ( )Δt Posi%ve
2 a
DOWN POSITIVE

a
ve
REMEMBER: si% Posi%ve

a (m·s−2)
o
Nega

ve v

v (m·s−1)
P Posi%ve Δv
Δy (m)

1. Draw a sketch diagram Δy

Δt (s) Δt (s)
Posi%

Nega%ve
%ve

2. Write down given variables Δy

3. Choose positive direction

4. Solve
Δt (s)

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Path of a Projectile
ALL EXAMPLES:
Grade 12 Science Essentials SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©
UP POSITIVE, POINT OF RELEASE IS REFERENCE
OBJECT DROPPED FROM HEIGHT (C+D) OBJECT THROWN DOWN FROM HEIGHT (D) OBJECT THROWN UP FROM HEIGHT (B+C+D)

vi = 0 m·s−1 vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 vi(down) = 0 m·s−1

vi ≠ 0 m·s−1

Δy (m)
Δy (m)

Δy (m)
vi(up) ≠ 0m·s−1

Δt (s) Δt (s)
Δt (s)
v (m·s−1) Δt (s) Δt (s)

v (m·s−1)
Δt (s)

v (m·s−1)
vf vf vf(down)
a (m·s−2)

Δt (s)

a (m·s−2)

a (m·s−2)
Also applies to objects Δt (s) Also applies to objects Δt (s)
dropped from a downward dropped from an upward
moving reference. moving reference.

OBJECT THROWN UP AND CAUGHT (A+B+C+D) OBJECT THROWN UP, LANDS AT HEIGHT (A+B+C) OBJECT THROWN UP FROM HEIGHT, BOUNCES (B+C+D)

vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 = vi(down) vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 = vi(down)

Δy (m)

Δy (m)
B
A
C
Δt (s)

Δy (m)
B D

v (m·s−1)
A
vf(down) D

C C
E
Δt (s) Δt (s) E
Δt (s)
Accera&on due to force
v (m·s−1)

by surface during bounce

v (m·s−1)
Δt (s) vi(up) ≠ 0m·s−1
Vi(up) = Vf(down)

a (m·s−2)
Δt (s)
Δt (s)
A B D E

C
a (m·s−2)

a (m·s−2)

Δt (s) Δt (s) If the collision is perfectly elastic, the downward velocity before the bounce
and the upward velocity after the bounce is equal in magnitude.
Treat the 2 projectile paths (before and after bounce) as separate paths.

HOT AIR BALLOON LIFT BOUNCING BALL – Ball falls from rest and bounces
Contact time
When an object is dropped Lift moving up Lift moving down
A C
from a moving reference B
D
(hot air balloon), the initial

Δy (m)
Δyli%

Δy (m)
velocity will be equal to that
of the reference. The accel-
eration of the object will be

li% height
D
downwards at B A C
Δt (s)
9,8 m·s−2, regardless of the

li% height
Δyball Δyball Δt (s) Contact time
acceleration of the refer-
ence.
Bounce
Apex

v (m·s−1)
v (m·s−1)
A B C D
A B C D Δt (s)
Δyli%
EXAMPLE: Apex
A hot air balloon ascends with a constant Δt (s) Bounce
Δyball = lift height + Δylift
velocity of 5 m·s−1. A ball is dropped from the
hot air balloon at a height of 50 m and falls gradient = g = +9,8 m.s–2 gradient = g = –9,8 m.s–2
EXAMPLE:
vertically towards the ground. Determine (a)
the distance between the hot air balloon and A lift accelerates upwards at a rate of 1,4 m·s−2. As the lift
ball after 2 seconds and (b) the velocity of the starts to move, a lightbulb falls from the ceiling of the lift. 10
ball when it reaches the ground. Determine how long it takes the lightbulb to reach the EXAMPLE:
lift’s floor. The height from the ceiling of the lift to its floor The velocity-time graph below represents the 5
(a) Take downwards as positive: Δt (s)

v (m·s−1)
Distance travelled by balloon : is 3m. bouncing movement of a 0,1 kg ball. Use the
graph to answer the questions that follow:
1 Take downwards as positive:
Δy = vi Δt + 2
aΔt 2
movement of lift :
1
= (−5)(2) + 2
(0)(22 ) Δylif t = vi Δt +
1
aΔt 2 a) Which direction of movement is positive?
−8
2
= − 10 Downwards
1
∴ Δy = 10 m up ylif t = (0)t + (−1,4)t 2
2 b) How many times did the ball bounce?
2 3 times
∴ ylif t = − 0,7t
Distance travelled by ball :
1 c) What does the gradient of the graph represent?
Δy = vi Δt + 2
aΔt 2 Acceleration of the ball
movement of bulb :
1
= (−5)(2) + 2
(9,8)(22 ) Δybu lb = vi Δt +
1
aΔt 2
d) Are the collisions between the ball and ground elastic or inelastic?
2 After each bounce there is a decrease in magnitude of the velocity of the ball,
= − 10 + 19,6 1 and therefore a change in kinetic energy. The collisions are inelastic as kinetic
3 + ylif t = (0)t + (9,8)t 2
∴ Δy = 9,6 m down 2 energy is not conserved.
3 − 0,7t 2 = 4,9t 2
∴ total distance = 10 + 9,6 e) If the ball is in contact with the ground for a duration of 0,08 s, determine the impulse on
= 19,6 m apart 3 = 5,6t 2 the ball
∴ t = 0,73s
Impulse = Δp
(b) Take downwards as positive: = m (vf − vi )
vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔy Simultaneous equation is needed be-
cause there are 2 unknown variables: = (0,1)(−8 − 10)
vf2 2
= (−5 ) + 2(9,8)(50) = − 1,8
•Distance that lift moved
∴ Impulse = 1,8 N ⋅ s upwards
vf = 25 + 980 •Time to reach floor
f) Predict why the ball stopped moving.
vf = 31,70 m ⋅ s−1 downwards
it was most likely caught

INDUCTION OF A MAGNETIC FIELD INDUCTION OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

When current passes through a conductor, a magnetic field is induced When a magnet is brought close to a metal wire, it causes movement Transformers can be used to increase (step-up trans-
around the wire. of charge in the wire. As a result, an EMF is induced in the wire. Only a former) or decrease (step-down transformer) the potential
change in magnetic flux will induce a current. difference of alternating current through mutual induc-
The direction of the magnetic field can be determined by the right hand
tion.
thumb rule. For a straight, single wire, point the thumb of your right hand The magnetic flux is the result of the product of the perpendicular com-
in the direction of the conventional current and your curled fingers will point ponent of the magnetic field and the cross-sectional area the field lines When alternating current flows through the primary coil, a
in the direction of the magnetic field around the wire. pass through. Magnetic flux density (B) is a representation of changing magnetic field is induced. The changing mag-
the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field. netic field induces a changing electric field in the secon-
dary coil, therefore inducing alternating current in the sec-
ɸ= magnetic flux (Wb)
I I I out of page I into page B= magnetic flux density (T)
ondary coil. Direct current can not be stepped up or down,
ϕ = BA cos θ A= area (m2)
as there is no change in magnetic field. The coils have to
be wrapped around a soft iron core.
θ= angle between magnetic field line and normal
The ratio between the number of windings in the primary
B and secondary coil, will determine the ratio between the
B Normal Normal
primary and secondary coil potential difference. In an ideal
B θ θ θ transformer, the input power is equal to the output power.
θ STEP-DOWN STEP-UP
For a wire loop, the magnetic field is the sum of the individual magnetic A=l ×b S
fields around the single wires at each end. Use the right hand rule for a sin- A=πr2 P S P
gle wire at each end of the loop. VP IP = VSIS
F F NS Vs
Faraday’s law states that the emf induced is directly propor- =
tional to the rate of change of magnetic flux (flux linkage). NP VP
Magnetic flux linkage is the product of the number of turns on
the coil and the flux through the coil.
FORCE ON A STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR
I NOTE THAT NO CALCULATIONS ARE REQUIRED,
ONLY RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, the conductor will experience a force.
F F ε = emf (V)
−NΔϕ NOTE THAT NO CALCULATIONS ARE REQUIRED,
N= number of turns/windings in coil
ε= Δɸ= change in magnetic flux (Wb)
ONLY RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES
Δt
Δt= change in time (s)
F = Iℓ Bsinθ
I DIRECTION OF INDUCED CURRENT
As a bar magnet moves into a solenoid, the needle of the galvanometer F = Force on current-carrying conductor (N)
is deflected away from the 0 mark. As the bar magnet is removed, the I = Current strength in conductor (A)
For a solenoid, curl your fingers around the solenoid in the direction of the needle deflects in the opposite direction. The magnetic energy is con- ℓ = Length of conductor (m)
conventional current and your thumb will point in the direction of the North verted to electrical energy. The direction of the induced current can be B = magnetic flux density/ field strength (T)
pole. This is know as the right hand solenoid rule. determined using Lenz’s law. θ = Angle between conductor and magnetic field
I Lenz’s Law states N

B that the induced S To increase the force on a conductor:

current flows in a
S •Increase the length of the conductor (multiple loops)
direction so as to •Increase the current through/emf across the conductor
N
set up a magnetic N •Increase the strength of the magnetic field
field to oppose •Place the conductor perpendicular to the magnetic
N
the change in S
flux (sin 90°)
magnetic flux. S

GENERATORS INCREASING THE INDUCED EMF

Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. A generator works on the principle of mechanically rotating a conductor in a magnetic −NΔϕ
ε=
field. This creates a changing flux which induces an emf in the conductor. Δt
Direct (Not IEB) Alternating From the equation, the induced emf can be increased by

A direct current generator uses a split ring commutator to connect the The alternating current generator is connected to the external circuit by 2 • Increasing the number of turns in the coil.
conductor to the external circuit instead of a slip ring. slip rings which are connected to the conductor. The slip rings make • Increasing the area of the coil.
contact with brushes which are connected to the external circuit. • Increasing the strength of the magnets.
• Decreasing the time it takes to change the magnetic flux.
B C B C

N S N S
A D A D

V V
The current in the external circuit does not change direction and is known The direction of the current changes with every half-turn of the coil. The
as direct current (DC). current that is produced is known as alternating current (AC).

B C B C B C B C
C B B C C B C B B C C B

C B C B C B C B

I I
ε

ε
Turns/ Rotations ½ ¾ Turns/ Rotations
0 ¼ ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1
1½ 0 ¼ 1¼ 1½

ɸ ɸ

FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND-DYNAMO (GENERATOR) RULE

The Right hand Rule is used to
predict the direction of the in-
duced emf in the coil. Using your F B C B C
right hand, hold your first finger,
second finger and thumb 90° to B
each other. Point your first finger
in the direction of the magnetic N S N S
A D A D
field (N to S), your thumb in the I
direction of the motion (or force)
of the conductor. The middle
finger will point in the direction V V
of the induced current.

MOTORS DIODES
Electric motors convert electrical energy to mechanical energy. It consists of a current carrying armature, connected to a Diodes are components that only allow current to flow in one direction. A
source by a commutator and brushes and placed in a magnetic field. single diode produces half wave rectification where either the positive or negative cur-
rent is able to pass through, while the other half is blocked, producing a pulsating out-
put in one direction. This is known as half-wave rectification, as the only half of the
Direct Alternating (Not IEB)
original wavefront passes through the load. The average potential difference of the
A direct current motor uses a split ring commutator to The alternating current motor is connected to the external output is lower.
connect the conductor to the external circuit instead of a circuit by a slip ring. The slip ring makes contact with
slip ring. brushes which are connected to the external circuit at-
tached to an alternating current source. LIGHT GREY- FORWARD BIAS:
Allows current to pass through.

DARK GREY- REVERSE BIAS:

Does not allow current to pass through.

Pd across the load with half-wave

difference (V)
rectification
The split ring commutator allows the current in the coil to The direction of the current in the coil is constantly chang-

Potential
alternate with every half turn, which allows the coil to con- ing, which allows the coil to continue to rotate in the same
tinue to rotate in the same direction. direction.
Δt (s)
When a charge moves in a magnetic field it experiences a force. The force experienced on both sides of the ar-
For full wave-rectification a bridge rectifier is used. Full wave rectification converts both
mature creates torque which makes it turn. The direction of the force can be explained using the left hand rule.
positive and negative currents to the same direction, producing an output with a
higher average potential difference that flows in one direction only (DC).
FLEMING’S LEFT HAND MOTOR RULE
The Left hand Rule is used to predict the direction of the movement of the coil in the motor. Using your left hand, hold
your first finger, second finger and thumb 90° to each other. Point your first finger in the direction of the magnetic field, Forward bias is applicable to di-
your second finger in the direction of the conventional current and your thumb will then point in the direction of the force. 4 1 odes 1 + 3, allowing current to
pass through. When the current

OUTPUT
direction reverses, diodes 2 + 4
3 2 are forward biased. The current
through the output is always in
the same direction, hence DC.
F B C
B

I
N S Full-wave rectification
A D

difference (V)
Potential
Δt (s)
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Grade 12 Science Essentials
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©

Every particle, with mass, in the universe attracts every other RATIOS CALCULATIONS
particle with a force which is directly proportional to the prod- 1. Write out the original formula. Gm1m2
uct of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of 2. Manipulate unknown as subject. The gravitational force can be calculated using F =
the distance between their centres. 3. Substitute changes into formula (Keep symbols!). r2
4. Simplify ratio number. REMEMBER:
Gm1m2 5. Replace original formula with unknown symbol. Mass in kg
F= EXAMPLE:
r2 Two objects, m1 and m2, are a distance r apart and experience a
Radius in m
force F. How would this force be affected if: Radius: centre of mass to centre of mass.
F = force of attraction between objects (N)
−11 2
G = universal gravitational constant (6,7 ×10 N·m ·kg ) −2 a) One mass is doubled and the distance between the masses is Direction is ALWAYS attractive.
m = object mass (kg) halved?
Both objects experience the same force.
r = distance between object centers (m) Gm1m2
F= Write out the formula (Newton’s Third Law of Motion)
r2
A uniform sphere of matter attracts a body that is outside the shell as if G(2m1)m2 EXAMPLE:
all the sphere’s mass was concentrated at its center. Fnew = Substitute changes into formula
( 1 r)2 The earth with a radius of 6,38 x 103 km is 149,6 x 106 km
2
away from the sun with a radius of 696 342 km. If the earth
2 Gm1m2 has a mass of 5,97 x 1024 kg and the sun has a mass of
= Simplify ratio number
1 r2 1,99 x 1030 kg, determine the force between the two bodies.
4
Gm1m2
= 8( )
Thus, the distance is determined between the centers of the two bodies. r2 r = 6,38 × 10 3 km + 149,6 × 106 km + 696 342 km
∴ Fnew = 8 F Replace original formula = 6,38 × 106 m + 149,6 × 109 m + 696 342 × 10 3 m

b) Both the two masses as well as the distance are doubled? = 1,5 × 1011 m
Gm1m2
F= Write out the formula
r2
rmoon Gm1m2
rman G(2m1)(2m2 ) F=
Fnew = Substitute changes into formula r2
NOTE: NOTE: (2r)2
6,7 × 10−11(5,97 × 10 24 )(1,99 × 10 30 )
The radius of the earth is added The radius of object 4 Gm1m2 F=
= Simplify ratio number (1,50 × 1011)2
to the distance between the (man) on the earth is 4 r2
earth and the moon. negligibly small. Gm1m2 F = 3,54 × 10 22 N attraction
= 1(
r2 ) The force of gravitational attraction is a vector, therefore all vec-
KNOW THE DIFFERENCE! ∴ Fnew = 1 F Replace original formula tor rules can be applied:
g vs G • Direction specific
DETERMINING GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION (g)
g: Gravitational acceleration (9,8 m·s−2 on earth) • Can be added or subtracted
Gm object mPlanet
g is the acceleration due to gravity on a specific planet. F = m object g and F=
r 2Planet
G: Universal gravitational constant (6,7×10−11 N·m2·kg−2)
Proportionality constant which applies everywhere in the universe. Gm o mP
m og =
r 2P Take right as positive:
Mass vs Weight
Gm o mP
Mass (kg) g= Fnet on satallite = Fm on s + Fe on s
m o r 2P
= −( )+ ( )
A scalar quantity of matter which remains constant everywhere in the Gm m m s Gm e m s
GmP
universe. ∴g= rms 2 res 2
r 2P
∴ ( )= ( )
Weight (N) [gravitation force] Gm m m s Gm e m s
Weight is the gravitational force the Earth exerts on any object. Weight Therefore the gravitational acceleration of an object only depends rms 2 res 2
differs from planet to planet. Fg = mg. Weight is a vector quantity. on the mass and radius of the planet. Object mass is irrelevant!

FLASHBACK!! Unit of charges: CALCULATIONS- Electrostatic force

Prefix Conversion Electrostatic force is a vector, therefore all vec- The force can be calculated using • Substitute charge magnitude only.
tor rules can be applied: • Direction determined by nature of
Principle of conservation of charge. centi− (cC) ×10−2 kq1q 2 charge (like repel, unlike attract).
• Direction specific F=
Q1 + Q2 milli− (mC) ×10 −3 r2 • Both objects experience the same
Q new = • Can be added or subtracted force (Newton’s Third Law of Motion).
2
micro− (µC) ×10−6
Principle of charge quantization. 1 Dimensional
nano− (nC) ×10−9
Q Determine the resultant electrostatic force on QB.
Ne− = pico− (pC) ×10−12
qe +
3 cm 5 cm
COULOMB’S LAW A B C
3
FAB FCB
Two point charges in free space or air exert forces on each other. The −2 nC +3 nC −1 nC
force is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between the charges. kq A q B kq C q B
1 FAB = 2 FCB = 4 Fnet = FAB + FCB
r2 r2
9 × 109 (2 × 10−9 )(3 × 10−9 ) 9 × 109 (1 × 10−9 )(3 × 10−9 )
= (−6 × 10−5) + (1,08 × 10−5)
This can be expressed mathematically as: = =
(3 × 10−2 ) 2 (5 × 10−2 ) 2 = − 4,92 × 10−5
kq1q 2 = 6 × 10−5 N left (A attracts B) = 1,08 × 10−5 N right (C attracts B) ∴ Fnet = 4,92 × 10−5 N left
F=
r2
2 Dimensional
F = force of attraction between charges q1 and q2 (N)
k = Coulomb’s constant (9×109 N·m2·C−2) Determine the resultant electrostatic force on QB.
Q = magnitudes of charge (C)
r = distance between charges (m) -10 μC +7 μC
15 mm 2 FCB FCB
RATIOS B C
θ θ
In ratio questions, the same process is used as with Newton’s Law of Uni-

10 mm
versal Gravitation. OR
EXAMPLE:
Fnet FAB FAB Fnet
Two charges experience a force F when held a distance r apart. How
would this force be affected if one charge is doubled, the other charge is
tripled and the distance is halved.
A
+5 μC PYTHAGORAS :
3
kq1q 2 F 2net = F 2AB + F 2BC
F=
r2 kq A q B
1 FAB = Fnet = 4 500 2 + 2 800 2
k(2q1)(3q 2 ) r2
= Fnet = 5 300 N
( 1 r)2 =
9 × 109 (5 × 10−6 )(10 × 10−6 )
2
(10 × 10−3) 2
6 kq1q 2
= = 4 500 N down (A attracts B) tanθ = o
1 r2 4 a
4 FAB
kq q θ = tan−1
= 24( 1 2 )
kq C q B FCB
FCB =
r2 r2 −1 4 500
θ = tan
= 24F 9 × 109 (7 × 10−6 )(10 × 10−6 ) 2 800
= θ = 58,11∘
(15 × 10−3) 2
= 2 800 N right (C attracts B) ∴ Fnet = 5 300 N at 58,11∘ clockwisefrom the positive x − axis

ELECTRIC FIELDS ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH

An electric field is a region of space in which an electric charge experiences a force. The magnitude of an electric field at any point in space is the force per unit charge experienced by a positive
test charge at that point.
The direction of the electric field at a point is the direction that a positive test
charge (+1C) would move if placed at that point.
F kQ
REMEMBER: Field lines leave a conducting surface at 90 o E= E=
q r2
Single point charges
E = electric field strength (N·C−1) E = electric field strength (N·C−1)
F = force on charge q (N) k = Coulomb’s constant (9×109 N·m2·C−2)
q = charge (C) Q = charge (C)
r = distance from charge Q (m)

+ − q is the charge that experiences the force. Q is the charge that creates the electric field.

Force due to
Unlike charges
charge Q Certain point
Q in space
r X
F
+ − Q
Charge experiencing
the electric field due Distance between
q to charge Q charge Q and point X
Like charges EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
Charge A experiences a force of 2 N due to charge B. Determine the electric field strength at point P due to
Determine the electric field strength at point B.
− +
charge Q.
− + Q
A B 5mm P
+2μC −5μC +3μC
Parallel plates
F kQ
E = q E =
r2
+ −
2
+ − = 9 × 109(3 × 10−6 )
+ − 2 × 10−6 =
(5 × 10−3) 2
+ −
= 4 × 10 N ⋅ C−1 to the right
6
+ − = 1,08 × 109 N ⋅ C−1 to the right
+ −

Charged hollow spheres DIRECTION OF E: DIRECTION OF E:

Direction that charge q would move Direction that point in space ( X )
IF it was positive. would move IF it was positive.
+ + − −
+ + − −
+ NOTE:
+ − −
+ + − − Electric field strength is a VECTOR. All vector rules and calculations apply.
(linear addition, 2D arrangement, resultant vectors, etc.)

SERIES PARALLEL CALCULATIONS (NO INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

If resistors are added in series, the If resistors are added in parallel, the total resistance will decrease Series circuit Parallel circuit
total resistance will increase and the and the total current will increase, provided the emf remains
total current will decrease provided constant. 10 V V1
V1
the emf remains constant.
CURRENT is the rate of flow of charge.
q
I=
t
I is the current strength, Q the charge in coulombs and t the time in seconds. SI unit is ampere (A). 3A A3
A1 A2 V2
A1 R1 A1 R1 R2

A1 R1 R2 A2 R1
2Ω 5Ω 4Ω
A2 R2 A2 R3
R1 R2 12 Ω
R2
IT = I1 = I2 IT = I1 + I2 IT = I1 + I2 a) Determine the total resistance.
I1 = IR1 = IR2 a) Determine the total resistance. 1 1 1
= +
Rp R1 R2
RESISTANCE is defined as the material’s opposition to the flow of electric current. Rtot = R1 + R2
1 1
V = IR = 2+ 5 = +
4 12
R is the electrical resistance of the conducting material, resisting the flow of charge through it. = 7Ω 1
=
Resistance (R) is the quotient of the potential difference (V) across a conductor and the current (I) in 3
it. The unit of resistance is called the ohm (Ω). ∴ Rp = 3Ω
b) Determine the reading on A1 and A2.
R1 R1 R2 V = IR b) Determine the reading on V1 and V2.
10 = I (7) V1 = IR
R1 R2
I = 1,43 A = (3)(3)
R2 R3 ∴ A1 = A2 = 1,43 A = 9V
∴ V1 = V2 = 9V
R s = R1 + R2 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = + Combination circuits
Rp R1 R2 Rp R1 + R2 R3
15 V
Consider the circuit given. (Internal resistance is negligible)
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (p.d.) is the work done per V2
NOTE: Calculate:
unit positive charge to move the charge from one point to an-
other. It is often referred to as voltage. 1. Emf ( ε ): voltage across cells when
W no current is flowing (open circuit). a) the effective resistance of the circuit.
V=
Q b) the reading on ammeter A1.
2. V term or pd: voltage across cells
V is Potential difference in V (volts), W is Work done or energy

R1
3Ω A1
when current is flowing. c) the reading on voltmeter V1.
transferred in J (joules) and Q is Charge in C (coulombs).
d) the reading on ammeter A2. 2Ω
V1 V1 V2 A2 R2
a)
1 1 1 4Ω
= +
R1 R1 R2 RP R2 R3 R3
1 1
V1 V2 = +
2 4 V1
R2 R3 3
=
R1 R2 4
V2 V3 4 b) c) d)
∴ Rp = = 1,33 Ω Vtot V1 V1
3 Rtot = RP = R2Ω =
I1 I1 I2
V4 Rtot = R3Ω + RP 15 V1 4,60
V3
4,33 = 1,33 = 2 =
= 3 + 1,33 I1 3,46 I2
Vs = V1 + V2 Vp = V1 = V2 = V3 Vp = V3 = V4 = (V1 + V2 ) = 4,33 Ω I1 = 3,46 A V1 = 4,60 V I2 = 2,30 A

OHM’S LAW INTERNAL RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS (WITH INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

Current through a conductor is directly proportional to the po- The potential difference across a bat- emf ε = Vload + Vint resistance
tential difference across the conductor at constant temperature. tery not connected in a circuit is the 6V
emf of the battery. PD of external PD of internal
V circuit resistance
R= Emf is the total energy supplied
I
per coulomb of charge by the cell.
How to prove Ohm’s law: Vext = IRext Vint = Ir
5V
A When connected in a circuit the poten-
The current in the circuit is changed tial difference drops due to the inter-
using the rheostat, thus current is the nal resistance of the cells.
independent variable and potential differ- ε = I(Rext + r)
ence is the dependent variable. It is In reality all cells have internal resis-
important that the temperature of the V tance (r). Internal resistors are al- EXAMPLE:
resistor is kept constant. ways considered to be connected in V
series with the rest of the circuit.
The resultant graph of potential difference vs current indicates if the con-
Determining the emf and internal resistance of a cell r
ductor is ohmic or non-ohmic.
Ohmic conductor Non-ohmic conductor V
V ε

• An Ohmic conductor is a conduc- • A Non-ohmic conductor is a

r y-intecept
tor that obeys Ohm’s law at all conductor that does not obey = Emf Lost volts
Gra 5Ω 3Ω
temperatures. Ohm’s law at all temperatures. ε = Ir
Int dien
V V A ern t =
al r Neg
• Constant ratio for I . • Ratio for I change with change esi
sta ative 4Ω
nce
in temperature.
• E.g. Nichrome wire I When the switch is open the reading on the voltmeter is 12 V.
• E.g. Light bulb When the switch is closed, the current through the 3 Ω resistor is 1 A.
V V a) Calculate the total current of the circuit.
Independent variable Current (I) b) Calculate the internal resistance of the battery.
e
nc c) How will the voltmeter reading change when the 4 Ω resistor is
is ta Dependent variable Potential difference (V)
es removed?
t =R a) Rtop = R5Ω + R3Ω b) 1 1 1
= +
i en Controlled variable Temperature Rp Rtop R 4Ω
ad = 5+ 3
Gr = 1
+ 1
COST OF ELECTRICITY = 8Ω 8 4
I I Rtop : R 4Ω 3
Electricity is paid for in terms of the amount of energy used =
8
POWER by the consumer. Electrical energy is measured in joules (J) 8 : 4 8
2 : 1 Rp = = 2,67 Ω
but is sold in units called kilowatt hours (kWh). 3
In general, power is the rate at which work is done, however, the
electrical power dissipated in a device is also equal to the product of ∴ Itop : I4Ω ε = I (R + r)
Note:
the potential difference across the device and the current flow- 1 kWh is the amount of energy used when 1 : 2 12 = 3(2,67 + r)
P in kW
ing through it. 1 kilowatt of electricity is used for 1 hour. r = 1,33 Ω
t in hours I4Ω = 2Itop
Cost of electricity = power × time × cost per unit c) When the 4 Ω resistor is re-
W P = power (W) = 2(1)
P = moved, the external resistance
Δt Example = 2A increases and the current de-
W = work (J)
A geyser produces 1200 W of power. Calculate the Itot = Itop + I4Ω creases. (I ∝ 1/R). Emf and
P = I2R Δt = time (s)
internal resistance are constant,
cost of having the geyser switched on for 24 hours, if = 1+ 2
I = current (A) the price of electricity is R1,55 per kWh. = 3A therefore a decrease in Vint (Ir)
P = VI will result in an increase in ex-
V = potential Cost = power × time × cost per kWh
ternal PD (Voltmeter reading)
V2 difference (V) = (1,2)(24)(1,55)
P =
R = R44,64 V = ε – Ir
R = resistance (Ω)

PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT THRESHOLD FREQUENCY (f0), WORK FUNCTION (W0) AND FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH
The photoelectric effect occurs when light is shone on a metal’s
ELECTRON ENERGY An increase in frequency will increase the kinetic energy of
surface and this causes the metal to emit electrons. The frequency required to provide enough energy to emit an electron is called the electrons. On a graph of Ek(max) vs frequency, the
x-intercept indicates the threshold frequency.
Metals are bonded in such a way that they share the threshold frequency (f0). The threshold frequency (f0) is the minimum
their valence electrons in a sea of delocalized frequency of incident radiation at which electrons will be emitted from
No emission Emission
electrons. In order to get an electron to be re- a particular metal. The work function (W0) is the minimum amount of
moved from the surface of a metal, it has to be energy needed to emit an electron from the surface of a metal. The work f < f0 f > f0

EK(max) (J)
provided with enough energy in order to escape function is material specific.
the bond. Each electron has to receive a photon If the energy of the photons exceed the work function (i.e. the frequency of light
of a minimum energy content. exceeds the threshold frequency), the excess energy is transferred to the liber-
ated electron in the form of kinetic energy only.
The energy that light provides enables the electron to escape from f0 f (Hz)
the surface and this phenomenon is called photoelectric effect. The kinetic energy of each electron can be determined by:
NOTE: Similarly, on the graph of Ek(max) vs wavelength, the
PHOTON ENERGY 1 x-intercept indicates the maximum wavelength of light
E = W0 + E K(max) = hf + m eV2 Sometimes work function is given in
2 eV. Convert from eV to J: that can emit an electron. Wavelength is inversely pro-
Photons are “little packets” of energy called quanta, which act as portional to frequency and energy.
1eV = 1 ×10−19 J (info sheet)
particles. The energy of the photon (light packet) can be calcu- f < f0 f = f0 f > f0 J = eV × 1,6×10−19
lated in one of two ways: Emission No emission
hc
E=

EK(max) (J)
E = hf OR c/! > f0 c/! < f0
λ
E = energy of the photon measured in joules (J) e-
EK(max) = ½ mv(max)2
h = Planck’s constant, 6,63 × 10−34 (J·s) e-
f = frequency measured in hertz (Hz) W0 = hf0
𝜆 = wavelength measured in meters (m) e- Maximum
! (m)
wavelength
c = speed of light, 3 × 108 (m·s−1)

INTENSITY AND FREQUENCY INTENSITY, FREQUENCY AND CURRENT

Increasing the intensity (brightness) of the light (radiation) means that there are more photons from the same frequency. This The higher the intensity of the radiation, the more electrons are emitted per sec-
will result in more electrons with the same amount of energy being emitted. Thus the number of electrons emitted per second ond. Therefore an increased intensity will increase the current produced (ammeter
increases with the intensity of the incident radiation. I = Q/t reading will increase).
Light
LOW INTENSITY HIGH INTENSITY The higher the frequency, the more kinetic energy is provided to the same number
source
Metal of electrons. The rate of electron flow STAYS THE SAME (constant ammeter read-
ing).
.
. ..
. . .

ejected per second (current)

. . .
f0
. . . . .
. .
. . .
. . .
. . .
High-intensity light
. .. .

Number of electrons
V Metal Electron Photon

Note that the energy of the electrons remain the same. If the frequency of the incident radiation is below the cut-off frequency, Low-intensity light
then increasing the intensity of the radiation has no effect, i.e. it does not cause electrons to be ejected. To increase the en-
ergy, the frequency of the radiant light needs to be increased, to reach the threshold frequency.

INCREASE INTENSITY AT CONSTANT FREQUENCY = INCREASE AMOUNT OF EMITTED ELECTRONS

INCREASE FREQUENCY AT CONSTANT INTENSITY = INCREASE KINETIC ENERGY OF EMITTED ELECTRONS Frequency of light on cathode (Hz)
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Grade 12 Science Essentials
Emission Spectra SCIENCE CLINIC 2022 ©

CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM ENERGY LEVELS

When white light shines through a prism, the light is dispersed into a spectrum The lines on the atomic spectrum (line emission spectrum) are as a result of
of light (phenomenon is called refraction). It is called the continuous spectrum. electron transitions between energy levels. As electrons gain energy (from
White light is made up of all the colours of the spectrum, and when dispersed heat, electricity or any other source) they move to a higher state of energy,
we are able to see all the components of white light. This is the same range as hence a higher energy level, further away from the nucleus. As the element
the visible spectrum, which we see as a rainbow. cools the electrons drop back down to the lower energy state and a position
closer to the nucleus. As they do this they emit the absorbed energy in the
R O Y G B I V form of light (photons). Therefore, each electron gives off a frequency of
red orange yellow green blue indigo violet light which corresponds with the line emission spectrum.
n=4

The white light is emitted from a bulb or any incandescent source, therefore the continu- n=3
ous spectrum is an emission spectrum.
ATOMIC EMISSION SPECTRA n=2

When an element in the gaseous phase is heated, it emits light. If the light
produced is passed through a prism, a spectrum is produced. However, this
n=1
spectrum is not continuous, but consists of only some lines of colour. This is
known as line emission spectrum and is unique for each element. Electrons in the n = 1 energy level are closest to the nucleus and have the
lowest potential energy. Electrons in the energy level furthest from the nu-
Each element has their own light signature as no two elements have the same cleus (eg. n = 4) has the highest potential energy. If an electron is free from
spectrum, like a bar code or finger print. the atom then it has zero potential energy. The potential energy is always
given as a negative value due to a decrease in potential as the electrons get
close to the nucleus.
As the electrons transition from their energized state back to their normal
state they give off energy that is equal to the difference in potential energy
between the energy levels.

ΔE = E 2 − E1
ΔE = difference in potential energy between two energy levels
E2 = the highest energy state
E1 = the lowest energy state
NB: Remember to use NEGATIVES for the values when substituting E1 and
E2 individually
The amount of energy that is released relates directly to a specific frequency
or wavelength (thus colour) of light.
hc
E = hf E=
λ
EXAMPLE:
A sample of hydrogen gas is placed in a discharge tube. The electron
from the hydrogen atom emits energy as it transitions from energy level
E6 (−0,61×10−19 J) to E2 (−5,46×10−19). Determine the wavelength of
light emitted.
E = hc
λ
ΔE = E 6 − E 2
−19 (6,63 × 10−34 )(3 × 108 )
BLUE RED = − 0,61 × 10−19 − (−5,46 × 10−19 ) 4,85 × 10 =
λ
= 4,85 × 10−19 J λ = 4,1 × 10−7 = 410 nm

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EXAMINATION DATA SHEET FOR THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES

TABLE 1 PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

NAME SYMBOL VALUE

TABLE 2 PHYSICS FORMULAE

FORCE AND MOMENTUM

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

IEB Copyright © 2021 PLEASE TURN OVER

GRAVITATIONAL AND ELECTRIC FIELDS

PHOTONS AND ELECTRONS

IEB Copyright © 2021

Momentum: The product of the mass and velocity of the object

Potential difference: The work done per unit positive charge

RESOLVING INTO Fx COMPONENTS ON A SLOPE

Normal force (FN) Friction (Ff or fs/fk)

Fg Fg fs(max) = maximum static friction (N) fk = kinetic friction (N)

μs = coefficient of friction (no unit) μk = coefficient of friction (no unit)

Objects suspended from a rope/string/cable have no

FA = m g sin θ + μk FN ∴a = 1,46 m ⋅ s−2 // up the slope

FAx + (−Ff ) = m a Fg + (−FN ) + FAy = 0

Lift stationary/constant velocity Lift accelerating Lift in freefall (cable snap)

Connected objects (e.g Pulley Systems) Objects attached by rope/cable

Fnet = m a Ff FA Ff Ff FAB Fnet = m a

MOMENTUM VECTOR NATURE OF MOMENTUM NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

Δp = (1000)(0) − (1000)(16) Δp = (0,2)(−50) − (0,2)(40) Fnet Δt = area under graph

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM NEWTON’S THIRD LAW AND MOMENTUM

When objects collide and move off

Object dropped vertically on a moving object Firearms/ cannons

ELASTIC VS INELASTIC COLLISIONS PENDULUMS

Elastic collision: a collision in which both momentum and kinetic

ENERGY PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

W = work (J) Fx = F cos θ If Wnet is positive, energy is added to the system.

WORK ENERGY THEOREM NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES POWER

When to use which formulae

• When there are no external force (FA/Ff) present.

2. Apply Fnet to Wnet 2. Apply ∑W to Wnet

Displacement-Time Velocity-Time Acceleration-Time

GRADIENT: GRADIENT: GRADIENT:

PROJECTILE MOTION PARTS OF PROJECTILE PATH

1. Draw a sketch diagram Δy

2. Write down given variables Δy

3. Choose positive direction

vi = 0 m·s−1 vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 vi(down) = 0 m·s−1

vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 = vi(down) vf(up) = 0 m·s−1 = vi(down)

by surface during bounce

INDUCTION OF A MAGNETIC FIELD INDUCTION OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

B that the induced S To increase the force on a conductor:

GENERATORS INCREASING THE INDUCED EMF

FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND-DYNAMO (GENERATOR) RULE

DARK GREY- REVERSE BIAS:

Pd across the load with half-wave

FLASHBACK!! Unit of charges: CALCULATIONS- Electrostatic force

ELECTRIC FIELDS ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH

Charged hollow spheres DIRECTION OF E: DIRECTION OF E:

SERIES PARALLEL CALCULATIONS (NO INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

OHM’S LAW INTERNAL RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS (WITH INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

• An Ohmic conductor is a conduc- • A Non-ohmic conductor is a

INTENSITY AND FREQUENCY INTENSITY, FREQUENCY AND CURRENT

ejected per second (current)

INCREASE INTENSITY AT CONSTANT FREQUENCY = INCREASE AMOUNT OF EMITTED ELECTRONS

CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM ENERGY LEVELS

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