UNIT-III

KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION:-

For the purpose of solving complex problems c\encountered in AI, we need both a large amount
of knowledge and some mechanism for manipulating that knowledge to create solutions to new
problems. A variety of ways of representing knowledge (facts) have been exploited in AI
programs. In all variety of knowledge representations , we deal with two kinds of entities.

A. Facts: Truths in some relevant world. These are the things we want to represent.

B. Representations of facts in some chosen formalism . these are things we will

actually be able to manipulate.

One way to think of structuring these entities is at two levels : (a) the knowledge level, at which
facts are described, and (b) the symbol level, at which representations of objects at the
knowledge level are defined in terms of symbols that can be manipulated by programs.

The facts and representations are linked with two-way mappings. This link is called
representation mappings. The forward representation mapping maps from facts to
representations. The backward representation mapping goes the other way, from representations
to facts.

One common representation is natural language (particularly English) sentences. Regardless of

the representation for facts we use in a program , we may also need to be concerned with an
English representation of those facts in order to facilitate getting information into and out of the
system. We need mapping functions from English sentences to the representation we actually use
and from it back to sentences.

Representations and Mappings

 In order to solve complex problems encountered in artificial intelligence, one needs both
a large amount of knowledge and some mechanism for manipulating that knowledge to
create solutions.
 Knowledge and Representation are two distinct entities. They play central but
distinguishable roles in the intelligent system.
 Knowledge is a description of the world. It determines a system’s competence by what it
knows.
 Moreover, Representation is the way knowledge is encoded. It defines a system’s
performance in doing something.
 Different types of knowledge require different kinds of representation.
Fig: Mapping between Facts and Representations
The Knowledge Representation models/mechanisms are often based on:
 Logic
 Rules
 Frames
 Semantic Net
Knowledge is categorized into two major types:
1. Tacit corresponds to “informal” or “implicit“
 Exists within a human being;
 It is embodied.
 Difficult to articulate formally.
 Difficult to communicate or share.
 Moreover, Hard to steal or copy.
 Drawn from experience, action, subjective insight
2. Explicit formal type of knowledge, Explicit
 Explicit knowledge
 Exists outside a human being;
 It is embedded.
 Can be articulated formally.
 Also, Can be shared, copied, processed and stored.
 So, Easy to steal or copy
 Drawn from the artifact of some type as a principle, procedure, process, concepts.
A variety of ways of representing knowledge have been exploited in AI programs.
There are two different kinds of entities, we are dealing with.
1. Facts: Truth in some relevant world. Things we want to represent.
2. Also, Representation of facts in some chosen formalism. Things we will actually be able
to manipulate.
These entities structured at two levels:
1. The knowledge level, at which facts described.
2. Moreover, The symbol level, at which representation of objects defined in terms of
symbols that can manipulate by programs
Framework of Knowledge Representation
 The computer requires a well-defined problem description to process and provide a well-
defined acceptable solution.
  Moreover, To collect fragments of knowledge we need first to formulate a description in
our spoken language and then represent it in formal language so that computer can
understand.
 Also, The computer can then use an algorithm to compute an answer.
So, This process illustrated as,

Fig: Knowledge Representation Framework

The steps are:
 The informal formalism of the problem takes place first.
 It then represented formally and the computer produces an output.
 This output can then represented in an informally described solution that user understands
or checks for consistency.
The Problem solving requires,
 Formal knowledge representation, and
 Moreover, Conversion of informal knowledge to a formal knowledge that is the
conversion of implicit knowledge to explicit knowledge.
Mapping between Facts and Representation
 Knowledge is a collection of facts from some domain.
 Also, We need a representation of “facts“ that can manipulate by a program.
 Moreover, Normal English is insufficient, too hard currently for a computer program to
draw inferences in natural languages.
 Thus some symbolic representation is necessary.
A good knowledge representation enables fast and accurate access to knowledge and
understanding of the content.
A knowledge representation system should have following properties.
1. Representational Adequacy
 The ability to represent all kinds of knowledge that are needed in that domain.
2. Inferential Adequacy
 Also, The ability to manipulate the representational structures to derive new
structures corresponding to new knowledge inferred from old.
3. Inferential Efficiency
 The ability to incorporate additional information into the knowledge structure that
can be used to focus the attention of the inference mechanisms in the most
promising direction.
4. Acquisitional Efficiency
 Moreover, The ability to acquire new knowledge using automatic methods
wherever possible rather than reliance on human intervention.
Knowledge Representation Schemes
Relational Knowledge
 The simplest way to represent declarative facts is a set of relations of the same sort used
in the database system.
 Provides a framework to compare two objects based on equivalent attributes. o Any
instance in which two different objects are compared is a relational type of knowledge.
 The table below shows a simple way to store facts.
 Also, The facts about a set of objects are put systematically in columns.
 This representation provides little opportunity for inference.

 Given the facts, it is not possible to answer a simple question such as: “Who is the
heaviest player?”
 Also, But if a procedure for finding the heaviest player is provided, then these facts will
enable that procedure to compute an answer.
 Moreover, We can ask things like who “bats – left” and “throws – right”.
Inheritable Knowledge
 Here the knowledge elements inherit attributes from their parents.
 The knowledge embodied in the design hierarchies found in the functional, physical and
process domains.
 Within the hierarchy, elements inherit attributes from their parents, but in many cases, not
all attributes of the parent elements prescribed to the child elements.
 Also, The inheritance is a powerful form of inference, but not adequate.
 Moreover, The basic KR (Knowledge Representation) needs to augment with inference
mechanism.
 Property inheritance: The objects or elements of specific classes inherit attributes and
values from more general classes.
 So, The classes organized in a generalized hierarchy.
  Boxed nodes — objects and values of attributes of objects.
 Arrows — the point from object to its value.
 This structure is known as a slot and filler structure, semantic network or a collection of
frames.
The steps to retrieve a value for an attribute of an instance object:
1. Find the object in the knowledge base
2. If there is a value for the attribute report it
3. Otherwise look for a value of an instance, if none fail
4. Also, Go to that node and find a value for the attribute and then report it
5. Otherwise, search through using is until a value is found for the attribute.
Inferential Knowledge
 This knowledge generates new information from the given information.
 This new information does not require further data gathering form source but does
require analysis of the given information to generate new knowledge.
 Example: given a set of relations and values, one may infer other values or relations. A
predicate logic (a mathematical deduction) used to infer from a set of attributes.
Moreover, Inference through predicate logic uses a set of logical operations to relate
individual data.
 Represent knowledge as formal logic: All dogs have tails ∀x: dog(x) → hastail(x)
 Advantages:
 A set of strict rules.
 Can use to derive more facts.
 Also, Truths of new statements can be verified.
 Guaranteed correctness.
 So, Many inference procedures available to implement standard rules of logic popular in
AI systems. e.g Automated theorem proving.
Procedural Knowledge
 A representation in which the control information, to use the knowledge, embedded in the
knowledge itself. For example, computer programs, directions, and recipes; these indicate
specific use or implementation;
 Moreover, Knowledge encoded in some procedures, small programs that know how to do
specific things, how to proceed.
 Advantages:
 Heuristic or domain-specific knowledge can represent.
 Moreover, Extended logical inferences, such as default reasoning facilitated.
 Also, Side effects of actions may model. Some rules may become false in time.
Keeping track of this in large systems may be tricky.
 Disadvantages:
 Completeness — not all cases may represent.
 Consistency — not all deductions may be correct. e.g If we know that Fred is a
bird we might deduce that Fred can fly. Later we might discover that Fred is an
emu.
 Modularity sacrificed. Changes in knowledge base might have far-reaching
effects.
 Cumbersome control information.

 How can these sentences be represented so that we can infer the third sentence from the
first two?
 Also, Propositional logic commits only to the existence of facts that may or may not be
the case in the world being represented.
 Moreover, It has a simple syntax and simple semantics. It suffices to illustrate the process
of inference.
 Propositional logic quickly becomes impractical, even for very small worlds.
Predicate logic
First-order Predicate logic (FOPL) models the world in terms of
 Objects, which are things with individual identities
 Properties of objects that distinguish them from other objects
 Relations that hold among sets of objects