UNIT – I

Armature Windings in Alternator & Types of Armature Windings

What are Armature Windings?

The winding through which a current is passed to produce the main flux is called the field
winding. The winding in which voltage is induced is called the armature winding.
For an alternator, the armature is kept stationary on the stator. The stationary armature has
its several advantages over rotating armature. The armature winding is placed on the slots of the
stator.

The armature winding of dc motor is of closed circuit type but in case of alternator, it is either
closed giving delta connection or open giving star connection. But however, the general
principles governing armature winding of dc machine and alternator are the same.

Some Basic terms related to the armature winding are defined as follows
1) Conductor: The part of the wire, which is under the influence of the magnetic field and
responsible for the induced emf is called active length of the conductor. The conductors are
placed in the armature slots.
2) Turn: A conductor in one slot, when connected to a conductor in another slot forms a turn. So
two conductors constitute a turn.This is shown in the below figure (a).

3) Coil: As there are a number of turns, for simplicity the number of turns are grouped together
to form a coil. Such a coil is called a multi-turn coil. A coil may consist of single turn called
single turn coil. Figure(b) shows a multi-turn coil.
4) Coil Side: Coil consists of many turns. Part of the coil in each slot is called coil side of acoil
as shown in the above figure(b).

5) Pole Pitch: It is centre to centre distance between the two adjacent poles. We have seen that
for one rotation of the conductors, 2 poles are responsible for 360° electrical ofemf, 4 poles are
responsible for 720° electrical of emf and so on. So 1 pole is responsible for 180° electrical of
induced emf.

Key Point: So 180° electrical is also called one pole pitch. Practically how many slots are
under one pole which is responsible for 180°electrical, are measured to specify the pole pitch.For
example let us consider 2 poles, 18 slots armature of an alternator. Then under slots are
responsible for producing a phase difference of 180° between the emfs induced in different
conductors.
This number of slots/pole is denoted as 'n'.
Pole pitch = 180° electrical
= slots per. Pole (no. of slots/P)
=n

COIL PITCH : The distance between the two sides of a coil is called the coil span or coil
pitch.

A pole pitch always 180 electrical degrees regardless of the number of poles on the
machine.
6) Slot angle (β): The phase difference contributed by one slot in degrees electrical iscalled slot
angle As slots per pole contributes 180° electrical which is denoted as 'n', wecan write,
1 slot angle = 180°/n
β = 180°/n
In the above example,
n = 18/2 = 9, while β = 180°/n = 20°
Note: This means that if we consider an induced e.m.f. in the conductors which areplaced in the
slots which are adjacent to each other, there will exist a phase difference ofin between
them.While if emf induced in the conductors which are placed in slots whichare 'n' slots distance
away, there will exist a phase difference of 180° in between them.

Types of Armature Windings in Alternator:

The different types of armature windings in alternators are,

1) Single layer and double layer winding

2) Full pitch and short pitch winding

3) Concentrated and distributed winding

1 )Single Layer and Double Layer Winding:

If a slot consists of only one coil side, winding is said to be a single layer. This is shown in
figure(a). While there are two coil sides per slot, one, at the bottom and one at the top the
winding is called double layer as shown in figure(b).A lot of space gets wasted in single layer
hence in practice generally double layer winding is preferred.
2)Full Pitch and Short Pitch Winding:

As seen earlier, one pole pitch is 180° electrical. The value of 'n', slots per pole indicates
how many slots are contributing 180° electrical phase difference. So if coil side in one slot is
connected to a coil side in another slot which is one pole pitch distance away from the first slot,
the winding is said to be full pitch winding and coil is called full pitch coil.

i.e

Coil Span = Pole pitch = 1800 electrical = Slots / Poles = Full pitch coil

For example, in 2 poles, 18 slots alternator, the pole pitch is n = 18/2 = 9 slots.

So (1+9 = 10 Slot) if coil side in slot No. 1 is connected to coil side in slot No. 10 such that two
slots No. 1 and No. 10 are one pole pitch or n slots or 180° electrical apart, the coil is called full
pitch coil.

Here we can define one more term related to a coil called coil span.

Coil Span:
It is the distance on the periphery of the armature, between two coil sides of a coil. It is usually
expressed in terms of number of slots or degrees electrical. So if coil span is 'n' slots or 180°
electrical the coil is called 180° full pitch coil. This is shown in the figure to left. As against this
if coils are used in such a way that coil span is slightly less than a pole pitch i.e. less than 180°
electrical, the coils are called, short pitched coils or fractional pitched coils.Generally, coils are
shorted by one or two slots.

Coil span = 1800-α(α is called short pitch angle or chording angle)

So in 18 slots, 2 pole alternatorinstead of connecting a coil side in slot No 1 to slot No.10, it is

connected to a coil side in slot No.9 or slot No. 8, the coil is said to be short pitched coil and
winding are called short pitch winding.This is shown in the below figure.

Fig: Short pitch coils

Advantages of Short Pitch Coils:

In actual practice, short pitch coils are used as it has following advantages,

1) The length required for the end connections of coils is less i.e. the inactive length of winding
is less. So less copper is required. Hence economical.
2) Short pitching eliminates high frequency harmonics which distort the sinusoidal nature of
e.m.f. Hence waveform of an induced e.m.f. is more sinusoidal due to short pitching.

3) As high frequency harmonics get eliminated, eddy current and hysteresis losses which depend
on frequency also get minimised. This increases the efficiency.

3) Concentrated and Distributed winding:

In three phase alternators, we have seen that there are three different sets of windings, each for a
phase. So depending upon the total number of slots and number of poles, we have certain slots
per phase available under each pole. This is denoted as 'm'.

m = Slots per pole per phase = n/number of phases

= n/3 (generally no. of phases is 3)

For example in 18 slots, 2 pole alternator

we have, n = 18/2 = 9 andm = 9/3

So we have 3 slots per pole per phase available. Now let 'x' number of conductors per phase are
to be placed under one pole. And we have 3 slots per pole per phase available. But if all 'x'
conductors per phase are placed in one slot keeping remaining 2 slots per pole per phase empty
then the winding is called concentrated winding.

Key Point: So in a concentrated winding, all conductors or coils belonging to a phase are
placed in one slot under every pole.

But in practice, an attempt is always made to use all the 'm' slots per pole per phase
available for distribution of the winding. So if 'x' conductors per phase are distributed amongst
the 3 slots per phase available under every pole, the winding is called distributed winding. So in
distributed type of winding all the coils belonging to a phase are well distributed over the 'm'
slots per phase, under every pole.Distributed winding makes the waveform of the induced e.m.f.
more sinusoidal in nature.Also in concentrated winding due to a large number of conductors per
slot, heat dissipation is poor.

Key Point: So in practice, double layer, short pitched and distributed type of armature
winding is preferred for the alternators.
Full pitch coils are to be used so if phase 1 says R is started in slot 1, it is to be connected to a
coil in slot 7. So that coil span will be 6 slots i.e. 'n' slots i.e. 1 pole pitch.As distributed
winding is to be used, both the slots per pole per phase (m = 2) available are to be used to place
the coils. And all coils for one phase are to be connected in series.

So from slot No.7 we have to connect it to coil slot No.2 and slot No.2 second end to slot No.8
and so on.After finishing all slots per phase available under the first pair of pole, we will connect
the coil to slot No.13 under next pole and winding will be repeated in a similar fashion. The
starting end Rs and final end Rf winding for R-phase are taken out finally. Connections for R-
phase only are shown in the below figure.

Now, we want to have a phase difference of 120° between 'R' and 'Y'. Each slot contributes 30°
as β = 30°.So start of 'Y' phase should be 120° apart from the start of 'R' i.e. 4 slots away from
the start of R. So start of 'Y' will be in slot 5 and will get connected to slot No.11 to have full
pitch coil. Similarly, the start of 'B' will be further 120° apart from 'Y' i.e. 4 slots apart start of 'Y'
i.e. will be in slot No.9 and will continue similar to 'R'.

Finally, all six terminals of three sets will be brought out which are connected either in star or
delta to get three ends R, Y and B outside to get three phase supply. The entire winding diagram
with star connected windings is shown in the below figure.

Integral Slot Winding:

The value of slots per pole per phase decides the class of the winding.
m = slots / pole / phase
Key Point: When the value of m is an integer, then the winding is called Integral slot winding.
Consider 2 pole, 12 slots alternator
hence, n = slots / pole = 12/2 = 6
Pole pitch = 180° = 6 slots
m = n/3 = 6/3 =2
As m is an integer, the type of winding is integral slot winding. This winding can be full pitch
winding or short pitch winding.
Let, the winding is full pitch winding. For integral slot winding, coils of one coil group lying
under one pole pair are connected in series. Thus the end of the first coil is connected to start of
the next coil lying to the right of the first coil.The alternate coil groups must be reversely
connected such that EMF is induced in them is additive in nature.Any slot contains the coil sides
which belong to the same phase.Such a winding is shown in the below figure.

Fig: Double layer integral slot winding

If the short pitch coils are used for integral slot winding then in each group of the slots per pole
phase, the coil sides of different phases exist.

Fractional Slot Winding:

This is another type of winding which depends on the value of m.

Key Point: The winding in which slots per pole per phase (m) is a fractional number is
called fractional slot winding.

In such a winding, the number of slots (S) must be divisible by 3. Thus slots per phase is an
integer which is necessary to obtain symmetrical three phase winding.But slots per pole (n) and
slots per pole per phase (m) both are fractional. As n is a fraction, the coils cannot be full pitch.
Thus if there are 54 slots and 8 poles then the slots per pole n = 54/8 = 6.75 hence coil span can
be 7 or 6. Generally, short pitch coils are used.Such a fractional slot winding can be easily
achieved with double layer winding.

In a balanced three phase winding, a basic unit under a pole pair (N and S) is repeated for
remaining pole pairs where m is an integer. In fractional slot winding, the m is reduced to an
irreducible fraction by taking out highest common factor in number of slots and poles.
Let

S = Number of slots
P = Number of poles
then for a 3 phase winding,

where

k = Highest common factor in S and P

Sk/Pk = Characteristic ratio

The number k indicates the number of repeatable units and number of possible parallel paths.
The characteristic ratio indicates that there are Sk coils per phase distributed
among Pk poles.Thus the winding is to be considered only of Pk poles out of P poles and for
other poles it is repeated.

Similarly, the winding arrangement is to be considered for Sk slots out of total S slots and for
other slots it is repeated.In a double layer winding, only the arrangement of the top layer is to be
considered. This gets repeated in the bottom layer in which the corresponding coil sides are
located one coil span away.

Advantages of Fractional slot Windings:

The various advantages of fractional slot winding are,

1. Though appearing to be complicated, easy to manufacture.

2. The number of armature slots (S) need not be an integral multiple of number of poles (P).
3. The number of slots can be selected for which notching gear is available, which is economical.
4. There is saving in machine tools.
5. High frequency harmonics are considerably reduced
6. The voltage waveform available is sinusoidal in nature.

Pitch Factor or Coil Span Factor

Pitch Factor or Coil SpanFactor is definite as the ratio of emf generated in short pitch coil to the
emf generated in full pitch coil. It is denoted by Kp and its value is always less than unity. This
factor basically represents the effect of short pitch winding on generated emf across the winding
terminals of electrical machine.
As per the definition, the formula for pitch factor is given as below.

Calculation of Pitch Factor or Coil Span Factor

To calculate the value of pitch factor, first of all we need to calculate the value of emf generated
in short pitch coil and that in full pitch coil.Let us now calculate the emf generated in a short
pitch coil. Figure below shows a short pitch coil.

Let E1, E2 and ER be the emf induced in coil side lying under North Pole, South Pole and
resultant of emf generated in both the active lengths of coil. As the two coil sides are separated
in space by an angle of (180-α) i.e. the coil span is (180-α), therefore the emf induced in these
coil sides will also be separated by this angle. This means, the angle between E 1 and E2 phasor
will be equal to α as shown in figure below.
Since the magnitude of emf generated in both the coil sides are equal, therefore E 1 = E2 = E
(say). As the resultant emf ER is the phasor sum of E1 and E2, therefore

Above expression gives the emf induced in a single turn short pitch coil with chording angle α.
Since the chording angle for full pitch coil is 0 degree, therefore from the above expression
(2),emf generated in a full pitch coil = 2E
Thus from (1),

Hence, pitch factor or coil span factor Kp = Cos(α/2).

For a full pitch coil, the value of pitch factor is unity whereas for its value is also unity for
concentrated coils.
The pitch factor or coil span factor rth harmonics is given as
Kp = Cos (r α/2)

The nth harmonic becomes zero, if,

Kp = Cos (r α /2)
Cos (r α/2) = 0 or r α/2 = 900
In 3 phase alternator, the 3rd harmonic is suppressed by star or delta connection as in the case of
3 phase transformer. Total attention is given for designing a 3 phase alternator winding design,
for 5th and 7th harmonics.
For 5th harmonic

For 7th harmonic

Hence, by adopting a suitable chording angle of α = 30 o, we make most optimized design

DISTRIBUTION FACTOR OR BREADTH FACTOR

The Distribution Factor or the Breadth Factor is defined as the ratio of the actual voltage
obtained to the possible voltage if all the coils of a polar group were concentrated in a single slot.
It is denoted by Kd and is given by the equation shown below.

If all the coil sides of any one phase under one pole are bunched in one slot, the winding
obtained is known as concentrated winding and the total emf induced is equal to the arithmetic
sum of the emfs induced in all the coils of one phase under one pole.

But in practical cases, for obtaining smooth sinusoidal voltage waveform, armature winding of
alternator is not concentrated but distributed among the different slots to form polar groups under
each pole. In distributed winding, coil sides per phase are displaced from each other by an angle
equal to the angular displacement of the adjacent slots. Hence, the induced emf per coil side is
not an angle equal to the angular displacement of the slots.

So, the resultant emf of the winding is the phasor sum of the induced emf per coil side. As it is
phasor sum, must be less than the arithmetic sum of these induced emfs.Resultant emf would be
an arithmetic sum if the winding would have been a concentrated one.

As per definition, distribution factor is a measure of resultant emf of a distributed winding in

compared to a concentrated winding.

We express it as the ratio of the phasor sum of the emfs induced in all the coils distributed in
some slots under one pole to the arithmetic sum of the emfs induced. Distribution factor is,

As pitch factor, distribution factor is also always less than unity.

Let the number of slots per pole is n.
The number of slots per pole per phase is m.
Induced emf per coil side is Ec.
Angular displacement between the slots,

Let us represent the emfs induced in different coils of one phase under one pole as AC, DC, DE,
EF and so on. They are equal in magnitude, but they differ from each other by an angle β.
If we draw bisectors on AC, CD, DE, EF ——–. They would meet at common point O.
Emf induced in each coil side,

From ∆AOP

Sin (β/2) = AP/OA

Sin (β/2) = (AC/2)/OA

AC/2 = OA Sin (β/2)

AC = 2 OA Sin (β/2)

As the slot per pole per phase is m, the total arithmetic sum of all induced emfs per coil sides per
pole per phase,

The resultant emf would be AB, as represented by the figure,

Hence, the resultant emf

Sin (mβ/2) = AQ/OA

Sin (mβ/2) = (AB/2)/OA

AB/2 = OA Sin (mβ/2)

AB = 2 OA Sin (mβ/2)

ER = 2 OA Sin (mβ/2)
mβ is also known as the phase spread in electrical degree.

The distribution factor Kd given by equation is for the fundamental component of emf.
If the flux distribution contains space harmonics the slot angular pitch β on the fundamental scale,
would become rβ for the rth harmonic component and thus the distribution factor for the r th
harmonic would be.
 UNIT-II
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Polyphase Induction Motors-Constructional Details of Cage and Wound Rotor

Machines-Production of Rotating Magnetic Field - Principle of Operation – Slip -
Rotor Emf and Rotor Frequency - Rotor Reactance, Rotor Current and Power factor
at Standstill and under running conditions - Rotor Power Input, Rotor Copper Loss
and Mechanical Power Developed and Their Inter Relationship.
Three Phase Induction Motor Definition & Working Principle
An electrical motor is such an electromechanical device which converts electrical
energy into a mechanical energy. In case of three phase AC operation, most widely
used motor is three phase induction motor as this type of motor does not
require any starting device or we can say they are self-starting induction motors.

The stator of the motor consists of overlapping winding offset by an electrical angle
of 120o. When we connect the primary winding, or the stator to a 3 phase AC
source, it establishes rotating magnetic field which rotates at the synchronous
speed.
According to Faraday’s law an emf induced in any circuit is due to the rate of
change of magnetic flux linkage through the circuit. As the rotor winding in an
induction motor are either closed through an external resistance or directly shorted
by end ring, and cut the stator rotating magnetic field, an emf is induced in the
rotor copper bar and due to this emf a current flows through the rotor conductor.
Here the relative speed between the rotating flux and static rotor conductor is the
cause of current generation; hence as per Lenz’s law, the rotor will rotate in the
same direction to reduce the cause, i.e., the relative velocity.

Thus from the working principle of three phase induction motor, it may be
observed that the rotor speed should not reach the synchronous speed produced by
the stator. If the speeds become equal, there would be no such relative speed, so
no emf induced in the rotor, and no current would be flowing, and therefore no
torque would be generated. Consequently, the rotor cannot reach the synchronous
speed. The difference between the stator (synchronous speed) and rotor speeds is
called the slip. The rotation of the magnetic field in an induction motor has the
advantage that no electrical connections need to be made to the rotor.
Thus the three phase induction motor is:
 Self-starting.
 Less armature reaction and brush sparking because of the absence of
commutators and brushes that may cause sparks.
 Robust in construction.
 Economical.
 Easier to maintain.
Rotating Magnetic Field

A three phase induction motor consists of three phase winding as its stationary part
called stator. The three phase stator winding is connected in star or delta. The
three phase windings are displaced from each other by 120 o. The windings are
supplied by a balanced three phase a.c. supply. This is shown in the Fig. 1. The
three phase windings are denoted as R-R’ , Y-Y’ and B-B’.

Fig. 1 Star or delta connected 3phase winding

The three phase currents flow simultaneously through the windings and are
displaced from each other by 120o electrical. Each alternating phase current
produces its own flux which is sinusoidal. So all three fluxes are sinusoidal and are
separated from each other by 120 o. If the phase sequence of the windings is R-Y-B,
then mathematical equations for the instantaneous values of the three fluxes Φ R ,
ΦY and ΦB can be written as,

ΦR = Φm sin(Φt) = Φm sin θ .............................................................. (1)

ΦY = sin (Φt – 120o) = Φm sin (θ – 120o) ....................... (2)
ΦB = Φm sin (Φt – 240o) = Φm sin (θ – 240o) ................... (3)
As winding are identical and supply is balanced, the magnitude of each flux is Φ m.
Due to phase sequence R-Y-B, flux lags behind Φ R by 120o and ΦB lags ΦY by 120o.
So ΦB ultimately lags ΦR by 240o. The flux ΦR is taken as reference while writing the
equations.

The Fig. 2(a) shows the waveforms of three fluxes in space. The Fig.2 (b) shows
the Phasor diagram which clearly shows the assumed positive directions of each
flux. Assumed positive direction means whenever the flux is positive it must be
represented along the direction shown and whenever the flux is negative it must be
represented along the opposite direction to the assumed positive direction.

Let ΦR, ΦY and ΦB be the instantaneous values of the three fluxes. The resultant flux
ΦT is the Phasor addition of ΦR, ΦY and ΦB.

Let us find ΦT at the instants 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown in the Fig. 2(a) which
represents the values of Φ as 0o, 60o, 120o and 180o respectively. The Phasor
addition can be performed by obtaining the values of ΦR, ΦY and ΦB by substituting
values of Φ in the equation (1), (2) and (3).

Fig. 2

Case 1 : θ = 0o
Substituting in the equations (1), (2) and (3) we get,
ΦR = Φm sin 0o = 0
ΦY = Φm sin(-120o ) = -0.866 Φm
ΦB = Φm sin (-240o) = + 0.866 Φm
 Fig. 3(a) Vector diagram of Φ = 0o

The phasor addition is shown in the Fig. 3(a). The positive values are are shown in
assumed positive directions while negative values are shown in opposite direction to
the assumed positive directions of the respective fluxes. Refer to assumed positive
directions shown in the Fig 3(b).

BD is drawn perpendicular from B on ΦT. It bisects ΦT.

... OD = DA = ΦT/2

In triangle OBD  300

... cos 30o = OD/OB = (ΦT/2)/(0.866 Φm )
... ΦT = 2 x 0.866 Φm x cos 30o
= 1.5 Φm
So magnitude of ΦT is 1.5 Φm and its position is vertically upwards at Φ = 0 o.

Case 2 θ = 60o
Equation (1),(2) and (3) give us,
ΦR = Φm sin 60o = +0.866 Φm
ΦY = Φm sin (-60o) = -0866 Φm
ΦB = Φm sin (-180o) = 0

So ΦR is positive and ΦY is negative and hence drawing in appropriate directions we

get phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 3(b).
 Fig 3(b) Vector diagram of Φ = 60o

Doing the same construction, drawing perpendicular from B on at D we get the

same result as,

ΦT = 1.5 Φm

But it can be seen that though its magnitude is 1.5 Φm it has rotated through 60 o in
space, in clockwise direction, from its previous position.

Case 3 θ = 120o
Equations (1),(2) and (3) give us,
ΦR = Φm sin 120o = +0.866 Φm
ΦY = Φm sin 0o = 0
ΦB = Φm sin (-120o ) = -0.866 Φm

So ΦR is positive and ΦB is negative. Showing ΦR and ΦB in the appropriate

directions, we get the Phasor diagram as shown in the Fig.3 (c).

Fig. 3(c) Vector diagram of Φ = 120o

After doing the construction same as before i.e. drawing perpendicular from B on
ΦT, it can be provided again that, ΦT = 1.5 Φm

But the position of ΦT is such that it has rotated further through 60 o from its
previous position, in clockwise direction. And from its position at Φ = 0 o, it has
rotated through 120o in space, in clockwise direction.

Case 4 : θ = 180o
From equations (1),(2) and (3),
ΦR = Φm sin (180o) = 0
ΦY = Φm sin (60o) = +0.866 Φm
ΦB = Φm sin (-60o) = -0.866 Φm

Fig. 3(d) Vector diagram of Φ = 180o

So ΦR = 0 , ΦY is positive and ΦB is negative. Drawing ΦY and ΦB in the appropriate

directions, we get the phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 3(d).

From phasor diagram, it can be easily proved that,

ΦT = 1.5 Φm

Thus the magnitude of ΦT once again remains same. But it can be seen that it has
further rotated through 60 o from its previous position in clockwise direction.

So for an electrical half cycle of 180o, the resultant ΦT has also rotated through.
This is applicable for the windings from the above discussion we have following
conclusions:
 a) The resultant of the three alternating fluxes, separated from each other by,
has constant amplitude of 1.5 Φm where Φm is maximum amplitude of an
individual flux due to any phase.
b) The resultant always keeps on rotating with a certain speed in space.

Speed of R.M.F.

There exists a fixed relation between frequency f of a.c. supply to the windings, the
number of poles P for which winding is wound and speed N r.p.m. of rotating
magnetic field. For a standard frequency whatever speed of R.M.F. results is called
synchronous speed, in case of induction motors. It is denoted as

Where

f = Supply frequency in Hz
P = Number of poles for which winding is wound

Constructional Details

The three basic parts of an induction motor are the stator, rotor, and enclosure.

The stator and the rotor are electrical circuits that perform as electromagnets.

STATOR

▣ The stator is the stationary electrical part of the motor.

▣ The stator core of a induction motor is made up of several hundred thin

laminations.

▣ Stator laminations are stacked together forming a hollow cylinder. Coils of

insulated wire are inserted into slots of the stator core.

▣ Each grouping of coils, together with the steel core it surrounds, form an
electromagnet. The stator windings are connected directly to the power
source.
ROTOR

It is the part of the motor which will be in a rotation to give mechanical output for a
given amount of electrical energy. The rated output of the motor is mentioned on
the nameplate in horsepower. It consists of a shaft, short-circuited
copper/aluminum bars, and a core.

The rotor core is laminated to avoid power loss from eddy currents and hysteresis.
Conductors are skewed to prevent cogging during starting operation and gives
better transformation ratio between stator and rotor.

The rotor is the rotating part of the electromagnetic circuit.

It can be found in two types:

 Squirrel cage
 Wound rotor(Slip ring)

However, the most common type of rotor is the “squirrel cage” rotor.

SQUIRREL CAGE ROTOR

 Rotor winding is composed of copper bars embedded in the rotor slots and
shorted at both end by end rings
 Simple, low cost, robust, low maintenance
Application of Squirrel cage induction motors

These are commonly used in many industrial applications. They are particularly
suited for applications where the motor must maintain a constant speed, be self-
starting, or there is a desire for low maintenance.

 These motors are commonly used in:

 Centrifugal pumps

 Industrial drives (e.g. to run conveyor belts)

 Large blowers and fans

 Machine tools

 Lathes and other turning equipment

Advantages of Squirrel Cage Induction Rotor

1. Its construction is very simple and rugged.

2. As there are no brushes and slip ring, these motors requires less maintenance.
WOUND ROTOR (SLIP RING)

 Rotor winding is wound by wires.

 The winding terminals can be connected to external circuits through slip rings
and brushes.
 Easy to control speed, more expensive.

Application of Slip Ring Induction Motor

Slip ring induction motor are used where high starting torque is required
 Hoists
 Cranes
 elevator etc.
Advantages of Slip Ring Induction Motor
1. It has high starting torque and low starting current.
2. Possibility of adding additional resistance to control speed.
Difference between Slip Ring and Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

Slip ring or phase wound Induction motor Squirrel cage induction motor

Construction is complicated due to presence of

Construction is very simple
slip ring and brushes

The rotor consists of rotor bars which

The rotor winding is similar to the stator
are permanently shorted with the help
winding
of end rings
 Since the rotor bars are permanently
We can easily add rotor resistance by using
shorted, its not possible to add
slip ring and brushes
external resistance

Due to presence of external resistance high Staring torque is low and cannot be
starting torque can be obtained improved

Slip ring and brushes are present Slip ring and brushes are absent

Frequent maintenance is required due to

Less maintenance is required
presence of brushes

The construction is complicated and the The construction is simple and robust
presence of brushes and slip ring makes the and it is cheap as compared to slip
motor more costly ring induction motor

Due to its simple construction and low

This motor is rarely used only 10% industry
cost. The squirrel cage induction
uses slip ring induction motor
motor is widely used

Rotor copper losses are high and hence less Less rotor copper losses and hence
efficiency high efficiency

Speed control by rotor resistance method is Speed control by rotor resistance

possible method is not possible

Slip ring induction motor are used where high Squirrel cage induction motor is used
starting torque is required i.e in hoists, cranes, in lathes, drilling machine, fan, blower
elevator etc printing machines etc

Slip

Slip in Induction Motor is the relative speed between the rotating magnetic
flux and rotor expressed in terms of per unit synchronous speed. It is a
dimensionless quantity. The value of slip in induction motor is can never be zero

If Ns and Nr being the synchronous speed of rotating magnetic flux and rotor speed
respectively, then the relative speed between them is equal to (Ns – Nr). Therefore,
slip is defined as

Slip (s) = (Ns – Nr) / Ns

As we know that, the speed of rotor cannot be equal to synchronous speed i.e. Nr <
Ns, the value of slip s is always less than one. For induction motor, 0<s<1.

Value of Slip (s) Significance

Zero slip means that rotor speed is equal

to synchronously rotating magnetic flux.
Under this condition, there will not be any
relative motion between the rotor coils
and rotating magnetic flux. Therefore,
there will not be any flux cutting action of
rotor coils. Hence, no emf will be
s = 0 (Zero Slip)
generated in rotor coils to produce rotor
current. This means no electromagnetic
torque will be produced. Induction motor
will not work. Therefore, it very important
for induction motor to have a positive
value of slip. This is the reason; slip is
never zero in an induction motor.

s = 1 (Slip equal to 1) Slip = 1, means that rotor is stationary.

Negative value of slip in induction motor

can be achieved when the rotor speed is
more than the synchronously rotating
magnetic flux. This is only possible, when
the rotor is rotated in the direction of
s = Negative (Negative Slip)
rotating magnetic flux by some prime
mover. Under this condition, the machine
operates as an Induction Generator.
Read Torque Slip Characteristics for
detail.
 Slip more than 1 implies that, rotor is
rotating in a direction opposite to the
direction of rotation of magnetic flux. This
means if magnetic flux is rotating in
clockwise direction, then rotor is rotating
s > 1 (Slip greater than 1) in anticlockwise direction or vice versa.
Therefore, the relative speed between
them will be (Ns + Nr). In Plugging or
Braking of Induction motor, slip more
than 1 is achieved to quickly bring the
rotor at rest.

Losses and Efficiency of Induction Motor

There are two types of losses occur in three phase induction motor. These losses
are,
1. Constant or fixed losses,
2. Variable losses.
1. Constant or Fixed Losses

Constant losses are those losses which are considered to remain constant over
normal working range of induction motor. The fixed losses can be easily obtained
by performing no-load test on the three phase induction motor. These losses are
further classified as-
a) Iron or core losses,
b) Mechanical and Brush friction losses.
a) Iron or Core Losses

Iron or core losses are further divided into hysteresis and eddy current losses. Eddy
current losses are minimized by using lamination on core. Since by laminating the
core, area decreases and hence resistance increases, which results in decrease in
eddy currents. Hysteresis losses are minimized by using high grade silicon steel.
The core losses depend upon frequency of the supply voltage. The frequency of
stator is always supply frequency, f and the frequency of rotor is slip times the
supply frequency, (sf) which is always less than the stator frequency. For stator
frequency of 50 Hz, rotor frequency is about 1.5 Hz because under normal running
condition slip is of the order of 3 %. Hence the rotor core loss is very small as
compared to stator core loss and is usually neglected in running conditions.

b) Mechanical and Brush Friction Losses

Mechanical losses occur at the bearing and brush friction loss occurs in wound rotor
induction motor. These losses are zero at start and with increase in speed these
losses increases. In three phase induction motor the speed usually remains
constant. Hence these losses almost remains constant.

2.Variables Losses

These losses are also called copper losses. These losses occur due to current
flowing in stator and rotor windings. As the load changes, the current flowing in
rotor and stator winding also changes and hence these losses also changes.
Therefore these losses are called variable losses. The copper losses are obtained by
performing blocked rotor test on three phase induction motor.
Power Flow Diagram of Induction Motor

The main function of induction motor is to convert an electrical power into

mechanical power. During this conversion of electrical energy into mechanical
energy the power flows through different stages.

This power flowing through different stages is shown by power flow diagram. As we
all know the input to the three phase induction motor is three phase supply. So, the
three phase supply is given to the stator of three phase induction motor.

Let, Pin = electrical power supplied to the stator of three phase induction motor,
VL = line voltage supplied to the stator of three phase induction motor,
IL = line current,
Cosφ = power factor of the three phase induction motor.
Electrical power input to the stator,
Pin = √3VLILcosφ
A part of this power input is used to supply stator losses which are stator iron loss
and stator copper loss.
The remaining power i.e (input electrical power – stator losses) are supplied to
rotor as rotor input.
So, rotor input P2 = Pin – stator losses (stator copper loss and stator iron loss).
Now, the rotor has to convert this rotor input into mechanical energy but this
complete input cannot be converted into mechanical output as it has to supply rotor
losses. As explained earlier the rotor losses are of two types rotor iron loss and
rotor copper loss. Since the iron loss depends upon the rotor frequency, which is
very small when the rotor rotates, so it is usually neglected. So, the rotor has only
rotor copper loss. Therefore the rotor input has to supply these rotor copper losses.
After supplying the rotor copper losses, the remaining part of Rotor input, P 2 is
converted into mechanical power, Pm.

Let Pc be the rotor copper loss,

I2 be the rotor current under running condition,
R2 is the rotor resistance,
Pm is the gross mechanical power developed.
Pc = 3I2R2
Pm = P2 – Pc

Now this mechanical power developed is given to the load by the shaft but there
occur some mechanical losses like friction and windage losses. So, the gross
mechanical power developed has to be supplied to these losses. Therefore the net
output power developed at the shaft, which is finally given to the load is P out.
Pout = Pm – Mechanical losses (friction and windage losses).
Pout is called the shaft power or useful power.
Efficiency of Three Phase Induction Motor

Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the output to that of input,

Rotor efficiency of the three phase induction motor ,

= Gross mechanical power developed / rotor input

Three phase induction motor efficiency,

Three phase induction motor efficiency

Relation between P2, PC and PM

The rotor input P2, rotor copper loss Pc and gross mechanical power developed
Pm are related through the slip s. Let us derive this relationship.

Let T = Gross torque developed by motor in N-m.

We know that the torque and power are related by the relation,
P=Txω
where P = Power
ω = angular speed
= (2πN)/60, N = speed in r.p.m.
Now input to the rotor P2 is from stator side through rotating magnetic field which is
rotating at synchronous speed Ns.
So torque developed by the rotor can be expressed interms of power input and
angular speed at which power is inputted i.e. ω s as,
P 2 = T x ωs where ωs = (2πNs)/60 rad/sec
P2 = T x (2πNs)/60 where Ns is in r.p.m .......................... (1)
The rotor tries to deliver this torque to the load. So rotor output is gross mechanical
power developed Pm and torque T. But rotor gives output at speed N and not N s. So
from output side Pm and T can be related through angular speed ω and not ω s.
Pm= T x ω where ω = (2πN)/60
Pm = T x (2πN)/60 ...................................................................................... (2)
The difference between P2 and Pm is rotor copper loss Pc.

Pc = P2 - Pm = T x (2πNs/60) - T x (2πN/60)
 Pc = T x (2π/60)(Ns - N) = rotor copper loss ....................... (3)
Dividing (3) by (1),

Pc/P2 = s
Pc = s x P2
Thus total rotor copper loss is slip times the rotor input.
Now P 2 - Pc = Pm
P2 - sP2 = Pm
(1 - s)P2 = Pm
Thus gross mechanical power developed is (1 - s) times the rotor input
The relationship can be expressed in the ratio from as,

The ratio of any two quantities on left hand side is same as the ratio of
corresponding two sides on the right hand side.

This relationship is very important and very frequently required to solve the
problems on the power flow diagram.
Torque Equation of Three Phase Induction Motor

The torque produced by three phase induction motor depends upon the following three factors:

1. The magnitude of rotor current

2. The flux which interact with the rotor of three phase induction motor and is responsible
for producing emf in the rotor part of induction motor
3. The power factor of rotor of the three phase induction motor.

Combining all these factors, we get the equation of torque as-

T 𝖺 ɸ I2r cosƟ2r T
= k ɸ I2r cosƟ2r
where, ɸ = flux per stator pole,
I2 = rotor current at standstill,
Ɵ2 = angle between rotor emf and rotor current,
k = a constant.
The flux φ produced by the stator is proportional to stator emf E 1.
i.e ɸ 𝖺 E1
We know that transformation ratio K is defined as the ratio of secondary voltage (rotor voltage)
to that of primary voltage (stator voltage).

Rotor current I2 is defined as the ratio of rotor induced emf under running condition , sE 2 to total
impedance, Z2 of rotor side,
I2r=E2r/Z2r

and total impedance Z2 on rotor side is given by ,

Putting this value in above equation we get,

s = slip of induction motor

We know that power factor is defined as ratio of resistance to that of impedance. The power
factor of the rotor circuit is

Putting the value of flux φ, rotor current I2, power factor cosθ2 in the equation of torque we get,

Combining similar term we get,

Removing proportionality constant we get,

Where, ns is synchronous speed in r. p. s,

ns = Ns / 60.
So, finally the equation of torque becomes,

Starting torque

The torque developed at the instant of starting of a motor is called as starting torque. Starting
torque may be greater than running torque in some cases, or it may be lesser.
We know that at the start the rotor speed, N is zero.

So, the equation of starting torque is easily obtained by simply putting the value of s = 1 in the
equation of torque of the three phase induction motor,

The starting torque is also known as standstill torque.

Maximum Torque Condition for Three-Phase Induction Motor

In the equation of torque,

The rotor resistance, rotor inductive reactance and synchronous speed of induction motor remain
constant. The supply voltage to the three phase induction motor is usually rated and remains
constant, so the stator emf also remains the constant. We define the transformation ratio as the
ratio of rotor emf to that of stator emf. So if stator emf remains constant, then rotor emf also
remains constant.

If we want to find the maximum value of some quantity, then we have to differentiate that
quantity concerning some variable parameter and then put it equal to zero. In this case, we have
to find the condition for maximum torque, so we have to differentiate torque concerning some
variable quantity which is the slip, s in this case as all other parameters in the equation of torque
remains constant.
So, for torque to be maximum
Now differentiate the above equation by using division rule of differentiation. On differentiating
and after putting the terms equal to zero we get,

Neglecting the negative value of slip we get

R
s 2
X2
So, when slip s = R2 / X2, the torque will be maximum and this slip is called maximum slip S m
and it is defined as the ratio of rotor resistance to that of rotor reactance.

NOTE: At starting S = 1, so the maximum starting torque occur when rotor resistance is
equal to rotor reactance.
Equation of Maximum Torque

The equation of torque is

The torque will be maximum when slip S m = R2 / X2

In order to increase the starting torque, extra resistance should be added to the rotor circuit at
start and cut out gradually as motor speeds up.
Conclusion
From the above equation it is concluded that
 The maximum torque is directly proportional to square of rotor induced emf at the standstill.
 The maximum torque is inversely proportional to rotor reactance.
 The maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance.
 The slip at which maximum torque occur depends upon rotor resistance, R 2. So, by varying
the rotor resistance, maximum torque can be obtained at any required slip.
Torque Slip Characteristics of Induction Machine
Torque Slip Characteristics is the graphical relationship between the torque and slip of an
Induction Machine. This characteristic is very useful for the stability analysis of the machine.
Electromagnetic torque in an Induction Machine is given as
From the above equation, the variation of electromagnetic torque can be plotted for different
values of slip while assuming that the motor is connected to a constant frequency voltage source.
This plot so obtained, also called Torque Slip Characteristics, is shown in figure below.

From the above, torque slip characteristics, it can be said that, there are three regions of
operation of induction machine i.e. when s <0 , s>1 and 0<s<1. We will consider each of the
regions in the following discussion.
Case1: 0<s<1 i.e. Motoring Mode
As the slip is less than 1, this means that the speed of rotor is less than synchronous speed and
the rotor is rotating in the direction of rotating magnetic field. Also, electromagnetic torque for
this region of operation of induction motor is positive as clear from the characteristics. This
means that, this region of operation, is the normal operation of machine and that too, as
Induction Motor.

It must be noted that, when s = 0, electromagnetic torque is zero just because the machine rotor is
rotating at the synchronous speed in the direction of rotating magnetic flux, hence the relative
speed between them is zero which causes no emf to be developed in the rotor and hence no
torque is produced.

Also, note that, at the starting i.e. s = 1, there exists some finite torque, this finite torque
corresponds to the no load torque requirement of the machine due to inertia of rotor and
windage, friction and bearing losses.
Case2: s<0 i.e. Generating Mode
As the name suggest, the machine should be producing electrical power. But electrical energy
can only be produced if we supply input mechanical energy, this means in Generating mode, we
must be using prime mover to rotate the rotor and stator is connected to constant frequency
voltage source. Now if the rotor is rotated at a speed more than the synchronous speed, the slip
will be negative and as per equation (1), electromagnetic torque will be negative which means
that electromagnetic torque is opposing the prime mover torque. This opposition is necessary for
the conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy.

It shall be noted that, even though rotor is rotated a super synchronous speed but stator is not
connected to constant voltage source then there will not be any generation action.

Case3: s>1 i.e. Braking Mode

Slip more than 1 means the rotor is revolving opposite to the direction of rotating magnetic field;
this means the electromagnetic torque will act in a direction opposite to the direction of rotation
of rotor. But how can we achieve s>1?

Well, we can use prime mover and can rotate the rotor in a direction opposite to the rotating
magnetic field. But this method is rarely used. Rather the practical application of s>1 is exploited
in quick stopping to induction motor by just changing any of the two phase leads.

Suppose the rotor of induction motor is revolving in clockwise direction which means magnetic
flux is also rotating in clockwise direction. Meanwhile we change any two phase leads. Changing
the phase leads will cause change in direction of rotation of magnetic field i.e. anticlockwise
direction. This change in direction of magnetic flux will cause electromagnetic torque to reverse
its direction but due to inertia the rotor will continue to rotate in clockwise direction. Thus,
electromagnetic torque is anticlockwise and rotor is rotating in clockwise direction. Therefore
rotor will rotate in deceleration and will soon come to a stop. But as soon as the motor come to a
stop, the stator must be disconnected from supply else the rotor will start rotating in
anticlockwise direction. This method of Braking is known as Plugging. The Braking region in
torque slip characteristics is marked in the figure below.
Equivalent Circuit

Induction motor is a well-known device which works on the principle of transformer. So it is

also called the rotating transformer.
That is, when an voltage is supplied to its stator, then as a result of electromagnetic induction, a
EMF is induced in its rotor. So an induction motor is said to be a transformer with rotating
secondary. Here, primary of transformer resembles stator winding of an induction motor and
secondary resembles rotor.
The equivalent circuit of any machine shows the various parameter of the machine such as its
ohmic losses and also other losses.
The losses are modeled just by inductor and resistor. The copper losses are occurred in the
windings so the winding resistance is taken into account. Also, the winding has inductance for
which there is a voltage drop due to inductive reactance and also a term called power factor
comes into the picture.

Basic Equivalent Circuit

Here,
• R1 is the winding resistance of the stator.
 • X1 is the inductance of the stator winding.
• R0 is the core loss component.
• X0 is the magnetizing reactance of the winding.
If we draw the circuit with referred to the stator then the circuit will look like-

Here

• R2’ is the rotor winding resistance with referred to stator winding.

• X2’ is the rotor winding inductance with referred to stator winding.
• R2’(1 - s) / s is the resistance which shows the power which is converted to mechanical
• Power output or useful power.
• The power dissipated in that resistor is the useful power output or shaft power.
• The phasor diagram of loaded induction motor is similar to the loaded transformer. The
only difference is the secondary of induction motor is rotating and short circuited while
transformer secondary is stationary and connected to load.
• The load on induction motor is mechanical while load on transformer is electrical. Still
by finding electrical equivalent of mechanical load on the motor, the phasor diagram of
induction motor can be developed.

Phasor Diagram of Induction Motor

The phasor diagram of loaded induction motor is similar to the loaded transformer. The only
difference is the secondary of induction motor is rotating and short circuited while transformer
secondary is stationary and connected to load. The load on induction motor is mechanical while
load on transformer is electrical. Still by finding electrical equivalent of mechanical load on the
motor, the phasor diagram of induction motor can be developed.
Let Φ = Magnetic flux links with both primary and secondary
E1 = Self induced e.m.f. in the stator
E2r = Mutually induced e.m.f. in the rotor.
R1 = Stator resistance per phase.
X1 = Stator reactance per phase
The stator voltage per phase V1 has to counter balance self induced e.m.f. E1 and has to supply
voltage drops I1 R1 and I1 X1. So on stator side we can write,

The rotor induced e.m.f. in the running condition has to supply the drop across impedances as
rotor short circuited.

The value of E2r depends on the ratio of rotor turns to stator turns.
The rotor current in the running condition is I2r which lags E2r by rotor p.f. angle Φ2r.
The reflected rotor current I2r' on stator side is the effect of load and is given by,
I2r' = K I2r
The induction motor draws no load current Io which is phasor sum of Ic and Im. The total stator
current drawn from supply is,
Ī1 = Īo + Ī2r'
The Φ1 is angle between V1 and I1 and cos Φ1 gives the power factor of the induction motor.
Thus using all above relations the phasor diagram of induction motor on load can be obtained.
The steps to draw phasor diagram are,
1. Takes Φ as reference phasor.
2. The induced voltage E1 lags Φ by 90o.
3. Show - E1 by reversing voltage phasor.
4. The phasor E2r is in phase with E1. So I2r show lagging E2r i.e. E1 direction by Φ2r.
5. Show I2r R2 in phase with I2r and I2r X2r leading the resistive drop by 90o, to get exact
location of.
6. Reverse I2r to get I2r'.
7. Im is in phase with Φ while Ic is at leading with. Add Im and Ic to get Io.
8. Add Io and I2r' to get I1.
9. From tip of - E1 phasor, add I1 R1 in phase with I1 and I1X1 at 90o leading to I1 to V1 get
phasor.
10. Angle between V1 and I1 is Φ1.
The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig.

Crawling of Induction Motor

Sometimes, squirrel cage induction motors exhibit a tendency to run at very slow speeds (as low
as one-seventh of their synchronous speed). This phenomenon is called as crawling of an
induction motor. This action is due to the fact that, flux wave produced by a stator winding is not
purely sine wave.
The resultant speed is nearly 1/7th of its synchronous speed. Now the question arises why this
happens? This action is due to the fact that harmonics fluxes produced in the gap of the stator
winding of odd harmonics like 3rd, 5th, 7th etc. These harmonics create additional torque fields
in addition to the synchronous torque.
The torque produced by these harmonics rotates in the forward or backward direction at Ns/3,
Ns/5, Ns/7 speed respectively. Here we consider only 5th and 7th harmonics and rest are
neglected. The torque produced by the 5th harmonic rotates in the backward direction. This
torque produced by fifth harmonic which works as a braking action is small in quantity, so it can
be neglected. Now the seventh harmonic produces a forward rotating torque at synchronous
speed Ns/7. Hence, the net forward torque is equal to the sum of the torque produced by 7th
harmonic and fundamental torque. The torque produced by 7thharmonic reaches its maximum
positive value just below 1/7 of Ns and at this point slip is high. At this stage motor does not
reach up to its normal speed and continue to rotate at a speed which is much lower than its
normal speed.
This causes crawling of the motor at just below 1/7 synchronous speed and creates the racket.
The other speed at which motor crawls is 1/13 of synchronous speed.
Methods to overcome crawling
 In cage rotor motors cogging and crawling can be reduced by proper choice of coil span
and skewing (slightly twisting the rotor teeth).

 By choosing proper combination of stator and rotor slots we can minimize crawling.
Cogging of Induction Motor

The phenomenon of Magnetic Locking between the stator and the rotor teeth is called
Cogging or Teeth Locking. Even after applying full voltage to the stator winding, the rotor of a 3
phase induction motor fails to start.

Sometimes it happens because of low supply voltage. But the main reason for starting problem in
the motor is because of cogging in which the slots of the stator get locked up with the rotor slots.
As we know that there is series of slots in the stator and rotor of the induction motor. When the
slots of the rotor are equal in number with slots in the stator, they align themselves in such way
that both face to each other and at this stage the reluctance of the magnetic path is minimum and
motor refuse to start. This characteristic of the induction motor is called cogging. Apart from
this, there is one more reason for cogging.
If the harmonic frequencies coincide with the slot frequency due to the harmonics present in the
supply voltage then it causes torque modulation. As a result, of it cogging occurs. This
characteristic is also known as magnetic teeth locking of the induction motor.
Methods to overcome Cogging
This problem can be easily solved by adopting several measures. These solutions are as follows:
 The number of slots in rotor should not be equal to the number of slots in the stator. 
 Skewing of the rotor slots, that means the stack of the rotor is arranged in such a way that
it angled with the axis of the rotation. 
NO LOAD AND BLOCKED ROTOR TESTS
These two tests are performed to predetermine the performance characteristics of the motor at
any load. Predetermine means finding or estimating the performance of motor at any specified
load without actually loading it. Actually by performing the no-load and blocked rotor test where
we supply only a small amount of energy to supply core loss and copper loss, we can obtain the
parameters of the equivalent circuit of the motor, from which we obtain its performance
characteristics.

No-Load test or Open-Circuit Test:

 The no-load test of an induction motor is similar to the open-circuit test of a transformer.
 The motor is not connected from its load, and the rated voltage at the rated frequency is
applied to the stator to run the motor without a load.
 The 2-wattmeter method measures the input power of the system.

Figure: Circuit diagram for no-load test on a 3-phase induction motor.

 The voltmeter measures the standard-rated supply voltage and an ammeter measures the no-
load current.
 Since the motor is running at no-load, total power is equal to the constant iron loss, friction
and winding losses of the motor.

 Since the power factor of the induction motor under a no-load condition is generally less than
0.5, one wattmeter will show a negative reading. Therefore, it is, necessary to reverse the
direction of current-coil terminals to take the reading.
Vo = input line voltage
Wo = total 3-phase input power at no-load
Io = input line current.
Win = √3 Vo Io cosΦo
Iw = Io cosΦ0
Iµ = Io sinΦ0
Ro = Vo/ Iw
Xo = Vo/ Iµ
Blocked Rotor or Short-Circuit Test:
 The blocked rotor test of an induction motor is same as the short-circuit test of a transformer.
 In this test, the shaft of the motor is connected so that it cannot move and rotor winding is
short-circuited.
 In a slip-ring motor, the rotor winding is short-circuited through slip-rings and in cage
motors, the rotor bars are permanently short-circuited. This test is also called the locked-
Rotor test.
If under short circuit condition
 ⇒ Primary is excited with rated voltage ⇒ A large short circuit current can flow which is
dangerous from the windings point of view.

 So similar to the transformer short circuit test ⇒ The reduced voltage (about 5 to 10% of
rated voltage) just enough such that stator carries rated current is applied. 
Vsc = Short circuit reduced voltage (Line value)
Isc = Short circuit current (Line value)
Wsc = Short circuit input power
Wsc = √3 Vsc Isc Cos Φsc
⇒ Cos Φsc = Wsc / √3 Vsc Isc
This is the short circuit power factor.

Figure: Circuit diagram for blocked rotor test

⇒ Wsc = 3 (Isc)2 R1e Where Isc per phase value.

⇒ (Equivalent resistance referred to stator)
R1e = Wsc / 3 (Isc)2
Z1e = Vsc (Per phase) / Isc (Per phase)
⇒ (Equivalent reactance referred to stator)
X1e = √(Z1e)2 – (R1e)2
Features of Motor Starters
Today, motor starters are used on a large scale due to their list of beneficial features. The
following are some features of these highly useful electrical devices:
1. They facilitate the starting and stopping of the motor.
2. The starters are rated by power (horsepower, kilowatt) and current (amperes).
3. They provide the necessary overload protection for the motor.
4. The electrical device facilitates remote on/off control feature.
5. These devices allow you to make and break current rapidly (plugging and jogging).
Fundamental Functions of Motor Starters
The following are the most fundamental functions that a starter has to perform:
1. Control: The control function is mainly carried out by the contactor component of a
starter. It is controlling the opening and closing of the power electrical circuit. The
switching is done by the main contacts (poles) of the contactor. An electromagnetic coil
is energized, which open or close the contacts. This electromagnetic coil has a nominal
control voltage, and can either be an AC or DC voltage.
2. Short-Circuit Protection: In industrial applications, normal load current can be up to
thousands of amperes. In the case of a short-circuit fault, the fault current can go over
100,000 amperes. This can cause severe damage to the equipment. The short-circuit
protection disconnects the supply and prevents the potential damage in a safe manner.
Short circuit protection is provided by fuses or circuit breakers in a Combination Motor
Controller.
3. Overload Protection: When a motor draws more current than it is designed to, an
overload condition is caused. The main objective of an overload relay is to detect the
excess currents. When an overload is detected, the auxiliary contact of the overload relay
opens the circuit and prevents the motor from burning out or overheating. Electronic or
electromechanical overload relays are used in combination with a contactor to provide the
required overload protection.
4. Disconnecting and Breaking: In order to prevent an unintended restart, it is required to
disconnect the motor from the main power circuit. In order to safely perform maintenance
on a motor or starter, a motor must be able to switch off and be isolated from the power.
The disconnect switch of the circuit provides this function. Disconnecting and breaking is
provided by a disconnect switch or circuit breaker in a Combination Motor Controller (or
can be installed remotely from the starter).
NECESSITY OF A STARTER IN A THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The three phase induction motors are self starting due to rotating magnetic field. But the motors
have a tendency to draw very high current at the time of starting. Such a current can be five to
eight times the rated current and can damage the motor winding. Hence a starter is used
which can limit such high starting current. In a three phase induction motor, the magnitude of an
induced e.m.f. in the rotor circuit depends on the slip of the induction motor. This induced e.m.f.
effectively decides the magnitude of the rotor current. The rotor current in the running condition
is given by,

At start, the speed of the motor is zero and slip is at its maximum i.e. unity. So magnitude of
rotor induced e.m.f. is very large at start. As rotor conductors are short circuited, the large
induced e.m.f. circulates very high current through rotor at start. In a three phase induction
motor, when rotor current is high, the stator draws a very high current from the supply. This
current can be of the order of 5 to 8 times the full load current, at start.
Due to such heavy inrush of current at start

• There is possibility of damage of the motor winding.

• Causes large line voltage.
• Other appliances connected to the same line may be subjected to voltage spikes which
may affect their working.
To avoid such effects, it is necessary to limit the current drawn by the motor at start. The starter
is a device which is basically used to limit high starting current by supplying reduced voltage to
the motor at the time of starting. Such a reduced voltage is applied only for short period and once
rotor gets accelerated, full normal rated voltage is applied.
Functions of a Starter:
 limits the starting current
 provides the protection against overloading
 Provides the protection against low voltage situations.
 provides protection against single phasing
FOUR TYPES OF STARTING METHODS ARE EMPLOYED:

There are primarily two methods of starting the induction motor:-

a) Full voltage starting.

b) Reduced voltage starting.

Full voltage starting methods consist of:-

i) DOL (Direct-on-line) starting

Reduced voltage starting methods consists of:-

i) Stator resistor starting.

ii) Auto-transformer starting.
iii) Star-delta starting.

For slip ring Induction motor:-

i) Rotor resistance starting

Squirrel Cage Induction Motor Slip Ring Induction Motor

 DOL (Direct-on-line) starting  DOL (Direct-on-line) starting

 Stator resistor starting (Primary  Stator resistor starting (Primary
resistors) resistors)
 Auto-transformer starting  Auto-transformer starting
 Star-delta starting.  Star-delta starting.
 Rotor resistance starting

i. DOL (Direct-on-line starting)

Working Of Direct On Line Starter

If large rating induction motors are connected directly to the supply, a heavy starting current can
damage the motor and also cause disturbance of voltage, i.e., voltage dip on mains supply. This
can lead malfunctioning of other equipments connected to the same supply.

Thus DOL starters are limited to small rating motors where distribution system (mains supply)
can withstand high starting currents without excessive voltage dips.

DOL starter consists of MCCB, contactor, and overload relay. It acts as a switch under normal
working condition by providing the means to switch ON and switch OFF the motor.
The wiring diagram for a DOL stater is shown below. A direct online starter consits of two
buttons, a GREEN button for starting and a RED for stopping purpose of the motor. The DOL
starter comprises of an MCCB or circuit breaker, contactor and an overload relay for protection.
These two buttons, i.e. Green and Red or start and stop buttons control the contacts.

When the start button is pressed, current will flow through one phase to the control circuit and
the contactor coil to the other phase. This current energizes the contactor coil which makes to
close the contacts thereby three phase supply is connected to the motor. Since the start button is
of pushbutton, when it is released the control circuit still maintains the supply through hold-on
contact.
If we press the stop button, the current through the contact becomes discontinued, hence supply
to the motor will not be available, and the similar thing will happen when the overload relay
operates. Since the supply of motor breaks, the machine will come to rest. The contactor coil
(Magnetizing Coil) gets supply even though we release start button because when we release
start button, it will get supply from the primary contacts as illustrated in the diagram of the
Direct Online Starter.
The thermal overload protection relay operates depending on the heating effect of the load
current. When the load current heats the thermal coils, bimetallic strip inside of it expands such
that it trips out the spring-loaded contact in the control circuit. The speed at which relay operates
decided by the current adjustment. Typically it will be four to five times the rated motor current.
Advantages of DOL Starter
1. Simple and most economical starter.
2. More comfortable to design, operate and control.
3. Provides nearly full starting torque at starting.
4. Easy to understand and troubleshoot.
5. DOL starter connects the supply to the delta winding of the motor.
Disadvantages of DOL Starter
1. High starting current (5-8 times of full load current).
2. DOL Starter causes a significant dip in voltage, hence suitable only for small motors.
3. DOL Starter reduces the lifespan of the machine.
4. Mechanically tough.
5. Unnecessary high starting torque
DOL Starter Applications
 The applications of DOL starters are primarily motors where a high inrush current does
not cause excessive voltage drop in the supply circuit (or where this high voltage drop is
acceptable).
 Direct on line starters are commonly used to start small water pumps, conveyor belts,
fans, and compressors. In the case of an asynchronous motor (such as the 3-phase
squirrel-cage motor) the motor will draw a high starting current until it has run up to full
speed.
i. Stator resistor starting.
In order to apply the reduced voltage to the stator of the induction motor, three resistances are
added in series with each phase of the stator winding. Initially the resistances are kept maximum
in the circuit. Due to this, large voltage gets dropped across the resistances. Hence a reduced
voltage gets applied to the stator which reduces the high starting current. The schematic diagram
showing stator resistances is shown in the Fig.
When the motor starts running, the resistances are gradually cut-off from the stator circuit. When
the resistances are entirely removed from the stator circuit i.e. rheostats in RUN position then
rated voltage gets applied to the stator Motor runs with normal speed.
  The starter is simple in construction and cheap.
 It can be used for both star and delta connected stator.
 Large power losses due to resistances.
 The starting torque of the motor reduces due to reduced voltage applied to the stator.
Given below is the figure for the starting resistor method:

 In this method we add resistor or a reactor in each phase as shown in the diagram (between
the motor terminal and the supply mains).Thus by adding resistor we can control the supply
voltage.
 Only a fraction of the voltage (x) of the supply voltage is applied at the time of starting of the
induction motor. The value of x is always less than one.
 Due to the drop in the voltage the starting torque also decreases.
 We will derive the expression for the starting torque in terms of the voltage fraction x in
order to show the variation of the starting torque with the value of x.
 As the motor speeds up the reactor or resistor is cut out from the circuit and finally the
resistors are short circuited when the motor reaches to its operating speed.
 Now let us derive the expression for starting torque in terms of full load torque for the stator
resistor starting method.
 Here various quantities that involved in the expression for the starting torques are written
below:

Ts as starting torque
Tf as full load torque
If as per phase rotor current at full load
Is as per phase rotor current at the time of starting
Sf as full load slip
Ss as starting slip
R2 as rotor resistance
Ns as synchronous speed of the motor

 Now we can directly write the expression for torque of the induction motor as

From the help of the above expression we write the ratio of starting torque to full load torque as

 Here we have assumed that the rotor resistance is constant and it does not vary with the
frequency of the rotor current.
 From the above equation we can have the expression for the starting torque in terms of the
full load torque.

Now at the time of starting the per phase voltage is reduced to xV 1, the per phase starting current
is also reduced to xIs. On substituting the value of Is as xIs in equation 1. We have

This shows the variation of the starting torque with the value of x. Now there are some
considerations regarding this method. If we add series resistor then the energy losses are
increased so it’s better to use series reactor in place of resistor because it is more effective in
reducing the voltage however series reactor is more costly than the series resistance.

The Advantages of Using Stator Resistance Motor Starters:

 They are suitable for use in speed control applications.
 They have extremely flexible starting characteristics.
 They provide smooth acceleration.
ii. Auto Transformer Starting Method
As the name suggests in this method we connect auto transformer in between the three phase
power supply and the induction motor as shown in the given diagram:

 An Auto transformer Starter is suitable for both star and delta connected motors.
 In this method, the starting current is limited by using a three-phase auto transformer to
reduce the initial stator applied voltage.
 The figure above shows the motor with the Auto transformer starter.
 It is provided with a number of tappings. The starter is connected to one particular tapping to
obtain the most suitable starting voltage.
 A double throw switch S is used to connect the auto transformer in the circuit for starting.
 When the handle H of the switch S in the START position.
 The primary of the auto transformer is connected to the supply line, and the motor is
connected to the secondary of the auto transformer.
 When the motor picks up the speed of about 80 percent of its rated value, the handle H is
quickly moved to the RUN position. Thus, the auto transformer is disconnected from the
circuit, and the motor is directly connected to the line and achieve its full rated voltage. The
handle is held in the RUN position by the under voltage relay.
 If the supply voltage fails or falls below a certain value, the handle is released and returns to
the OFF position. Thermal overload relays provide the overload protection.
The Advantages of Using Auto Transformer Motor Starters:
 They can be used for manual speed control, but with limited options.
 They have extremely flexible starting characteristics.
 They have a high output torque.
iii. Star Delta Starter
The Star Delta Starter is a very common type of starter and is used extensively as compared to
the other type of starting methods of the induction motor. A star delta is used for a cage motor
designed to run normally on the delta connected stator winding. The connection of a three-phase
induction motor with a star delta starter is shown in the figure below.
When the switch S is in the START position, the stator windings are connected in the star as
shown below.

When the motor picks up the speed, about 80 percent of its rated speed, the switch S is
immediately put into the RUN position. As a result, a stator winding which was in star
connection is changed into DELTA connection now. The delta connection of the stator winding
in shown in the figure below.

Firstly, the stator winding is connected in star and then in Delta so that the starting line current of
the motor is reduced to one-third as compared to the starting current with the windings connected
in delta. At the starting of an induction motor when the windings of the stator are star connected,
each stator phase gets a voltage VL/√3. Here VL is the line voltage.
Since the developed torque is proportional to the square of the voltage applied to an induction
motor. Star delta starter reduces the starting torque to one-third that is obtained by direct delta
starting.
The Advantages of Using Star Delta Motor Starters:
 They are ideal for long acceleration times.
 They have a lower input surge current when compared to other starters.
 They have a simpler construction as compared to other starters.
i. Rotor resistance starting

 In a slip-ring (wound rotor) induction motor, resistance can be inserted in the rotor circuit via
slip rings, so as to increase the starting torque.
 The starting current in the rotor winding is

 The input (stator) current is proportional to the rotor current as shown earlier. The starting
current (input) reduces, as resistance is inserted in the rotor circuit.
 But the starting torque,

increases, as the total resistance in the rotor circuit is increased.

 Though the starting current decreases, the total resistance increases, thus resulting in increase
of starting torque.
 If the additional resistance is used only for starting, being rated for intermittent duty, the
resistance is to be decreased in steps, as the motor speed increases. Finally, the external
resistance is to be completely cut out, i.e. to be made equal to zero, thus leaving the slip-rings
short-circuited.
 Here, also the additional cost of the external resistance with intermittent rating is to be
incurred, which results in decrease of starting current, along with increase of starting torque,
both being advantageous.
 Also it may be noted that the cost of a slip-ring induction is higher than that of IM with cage
rotor, having same power rating.
 So, in both cases, additional cost is to be incurred to obtain the above advantages. This is
only used in case higher starting torque is needed to start IM with high load torque.

The Advantages of Using Rotor Resistance Motor Starters:

 They are cost-effective.
 They have a simple speed control method.
 They provide low starting current, large starting torque, and large pull-out torque.
SPEED CONTROL OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

 An Induction motor is practically a constant speed motor that means, for the entire loading
range, change in speed of the motor is quite small.
 Speed of a DC shunt motor can be varied very easily with good efficiency, but in case of
Induction motors, speed reduction is accompanied by a corresponding loss of efficiency and
poor power factor.
 The speed control of induction motor is done at the cost of decrease in efficiency and low
electrical power factor.
 As induction motors are widely being used, their speed control may be required in many
applications.
We know that
NS  N
S
NS
N  NS (1  S )
120 f
NS 
P
120 f
N (1  S )
P
N = Rotor speed or speed of Induction motor
NS = Synchronous speed
Speed of Induction motor depends on
i) slip
ii) Frequency of supply
iii) Number of poles for which the windings are made
Different speed control methods of induction motor are explained below.
The speed control of three phase induction motor from stator side is classified as:
1. Controlling supply voltage (SCIM and SRIM)
2. Constant V / f control or frequency control (SCIM and SRIM)
3. Changing the number of stator poles (SCIM)
4. Adding rheostat in the stator circuit. (SCIM and SRIM)

The speed controls of three phase induction motor from rotor side are classified as:
1. Adding external resistance on rotor side (SRIM)
2. Cascade control method.
3. Injecting slip frequency emf into rotor side (SRIM)

SPEED CONTROL FROM STATOR SIDE

1. Controlling Supply Voltage
The torque produced by running three phase induction motor is given by

Rotor resistance R2 is constant and for low slip region (sX)2 is very very small as compared
to R2. So, it can be neglected.
So torque becomes

Since rotor resistance, R2 is constant so the equation of torque further reduces to

We know that Rotor induced emf E2 𝖺 V.

So, T 𝖺 sV2
 The equation above clears that if we decrease supply voltage torque will also decrease. But
for providing the same load torque, the torque must remain the same, and it is only possible if
we increase the slip and if the slip increases the motor will run at a reduced speed.
 This method, though the cheapest and the easiest, is rarely used because
 A large change in voltage is required for a relatively small change in speed
 Due to reduction in voltage, current drawn by the motor increases. Due to increased current,
the motor may get overheated.
 This large change in voltage will result in a large change in the flux density thereby seriously 
disturbing the magnetic conditions of the motor.
2. V / f Control or Frequency Control
Whenever three phase supply is given to three phase induction motor rotating magnetic field is
produced which rotates at synchronous speed given by

In three phase induction motor emf is induced by induction similar to that of transformer which
is given by
E1 = V = 4.44Ø f N1K w
V
Ø=
4.44 f N1K w
Where N1 is the number of series turns per phase in stator (constant)
f is supply frequency
Kw is winding factor (constant)
V
Ø
f
 Now if we change frequency synchronous speed changes but with decrease in frequency
flux will increase and this increase in value of flux causes saturation of rotor and stator
cores which will further cause increase in no load current of the motor .
 So, it is important to maintain flux, φ constant and it is only possible if we change voltage. i.e
if we decrease frequency flux increases but at the same time if we decrease voltage flux will
also decrease causing no change in flux and hence it remains constant.
 So, here we are keeping the ratio of V/f as constant. Hence its name is V/ f method. For
controlling the speed of three phase induction motor by V/f method we have to supply
variable voltage and frequency which is easily obtained by using converter and inverter set.
3. Changing the number of stator poles:
The stator poles can be changed by two methods
a. Consequent poles method
b. Multiple stator winding method.
c. Pole amplitude modulation method (PAM)
a. Consequent poles method
In this method, connections of the stator winding are changed with the help of simple switching.
Due to this, the number of stator poles gets changed in the ratio 2:1. Hence either of the two
synchronous speeds can be selected.
Consider the pole formation due to single phase of a three phase winding, as shown in the Fig.
There are three tapping points to the stator winding. The supply is given to two of them and third
is kept open.

Fig.1

Fig.2
The current in all the parts of stator coil is flowing in one direction only. Due to this, 8 poles get
formed as shown in the Fig.1 So synchronous speed possible with this arrangement with 50 Hz
frequency is N = 750 r.p.m.
If the two terminals to which supply was given earlier are joined together and supply is given
between this common point and the open third terminal, the poles are formed as shown in the
Fig.2
The direction of current through two coils is different than the direction of current through
remaining two. Thus upward direction is forming say S pole and downward say N. In this case
only 4 poles are formed. So the synchronous speed possible is 1500 r.p.m. for 50 Hz frequency.
Disadvantage
1. The speed change is in step and smooth speed control is not possible.
2. The method can be used only for the squirrel cage type motors as squirrel cage rotor adjusts
itself to same number of poles as stator which is not the case in slip ring induction motor.
Applications
Elevators, traction motors and small motors to drive machine tools.

b. Multiple Stator Winding Method

In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor, we provide two separate
windings in the stator. These two stator windings are electrically isolated from each other and are
wound for two different numbers of poles. Using a switching arrangement, at a time, supply is
given to one winding only and hence speed control is possible. Disadvantages of this method are
that the smooth speed control is not possible. This method is more costly and less efficient as two
different stator windings are required. This method of speed control can only be applied to
squirrel cage motor.
Limitations
1. Can be applied to only squirrel cage motor.
2. Smooth speed control is not possible. Only step changes in speed are possible.
3. Two different stator windings are required to be wound which increases the cost of the motor.
4. Complicated from the design point of view.
c. Pole Amplitude Modulation Method (PAM)
In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor the original sinusoidal mmf wave
is modulated by another sinusoidal mmf wave having the different number of poles.
Let
f1 (θ) be the original mmf wave of induction motor whose speed is to be controlled.
f2 (θ) be the modulation mmf wave.
P1 be the number of poles of induction motor whose speed is to be controlled.
P2 be the number of poles of modulation wave.

After modulation resultant mmf wave

So we get, resultant mmf wave

Therefore the resultant mmf wave will have two different number of poles

Therefore by changing the number of poles we can easily change the speed of three phase
induction motor.
4. Adding Rheostat in Stator Circuit
In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor rheostat is added in the stator
circuit due to this voltage gets dropped.In case of three phase induction motor torque produced is
given by T 𝖺 sV22. If we decrease supply voltage torque will also decrease. But for supplying the
same load, the torque must remains the same and it is only possible if we increase the slip and if
the slip increase motor will run reduced speed.
SPEED CONTROL FROM ROTOR SIDE
1. Adding External Resistance on Rotor Side

In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor external resistance are added on
rotor side. The equation of torque for three phase induction motor is

The three-phase induction motor operates in a low slip region. In low slip region term (sX) 2
becomes very very small as compared to R2. So, it can be neglected. And also E2 is constant.
So the equation of torque after simplification becomes,

Now if we increase rotor resistance, R2 torque decreases but to supply the same load torque must
remain constant. So, we increase slip, which will further result in the decrease in rotor speed.
Thus by adding additional resistance in the rotor circuit, we can decrease the speed of the three-
phase induction motor.
Advantage
 By increasing the rotor resistance R2 speeds below normal value can be achieved.
 The starting torque of the motor increases proportional to rotor resistance.
Disadvantage
 The large speed changes are not possible. This is because for large speed change, large
resistance is required to be introduced in rotor which causes large rotor copper loss to
reduce the efficiency.
 The method cannot be used for the squirrel cage induction motors.
 The speeds above the normal values cannot be obtained.
 Large power losses occur due to large 12R loss.
 Sufficient cooling arrangements are required which make the external rheostats bulky and
expensive.
 Due to large power losses, efficiency is low.
2. Cascade Control Method
In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor, the two three-phase induction
motors are connected on a common shaft and hence called cascaded motor. One motor is the
called the main motor (motor A), and another motor is called the auxiliary motor (motor B). The
three-phase supply is given to the stator of the main motor and the other motor is fed from the
induced emf in first motor via slip-rings. The arrangement is as shown in following fig.
Let, Ns1 = Synchronous Speed of motor A

Ns2 = Synchronous Speed of motor B

P1 = number of poles stator of motor A

P2 = number of stator poles of motor B

N = speed of the set and same for both motors

f = frequency of the supply

f1 = S1f = frequency of rotor induced emf of motor A

f1 = S1f = frequency of emf (voltage) applied to stator of motor B

Now,

Ns1 = (120f) / P1 (1)

Slip of motor A,

S1 = (Ns1 - N) / Ns1

frequency of the rotor induced emf in motor A,

f1 = S1f

Now, auxiliary motor B is supplied with the rotor induce emf

therefore, Ns2 = (120f1) / P2

Ns2 = (120S1f) / P2 ------------------------------------- (2)

now putting the value of S1 = (Ns1 - N) / Ns1 in equation (2)

With this method, four different speeds can be obtained
1. when only motor A works, corresponding speed = .Ns1 = 120f / P 1
2. when only motor B works, corresponding speed = Ns2 = 120f / P 2
3. if commulative cascading is done, speed of the set = N = 120f / (P 1 + P2)
4. if differential cascading is done, speed of the set = N = 120f (P 1 - P2)
• Low weight
• Low maintenance
• Construction is simple
• Robust
• More compact
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of an alternator are
• Alternators need transformers
• Alternators will overheat if the current is high
Construction of Synchronous generator or alternator:
In Synchronous generator or alternatorthe stationary winding is called 'stator' while the rotating
winding is called 'Rotor'.
Stator:
The stator in the synchronous generator is a stationary armature.This consists of a core and the
slots to hold the armature winding similar to the armature of a d.c generator.The stator core uses
a laminated construction.It is built up of special steel stampings insulated from each other with
varnish or paper.The laminated construction is basically to keep down eddy current losses.

Generally choice of material is steel to keep down hysteresis losses.The entire core is fabricated
in a frame made of steel plates.The core has slots on its periphery for housing the armature
conductors.The frame does not carry any flux and serves as the support to the core.Ventilation is
maintained with the help of holes cast in the frame.
Rotor:
There are two types of rotors used in the synchronous generators or alternators:
1) Salient pole rotor
2) Smooth cylindrical rotor
1) Salient pole rotor:
This is also called projected pole type as all the poles are projected out from the surface of the
rotor.The poles are built up of thick steel laminations.The poles are bolted to the rotor as shown
in the figure.The pole face has been given a specific shape.The field winding is provided on the
pole shoe.These rotors have large diameters and small axial lengths.

The limiting factor for the size of the rotor is the centrifugal force acting on the rotating member
of the machine. As the mechanical strength of salient pole type is less, this is preferred for low-
speed alternators ranging from 125 r.p.m to 50 r.p.m.The prime movers used to drive such rotor
are generally water turbines and I.C. engines.
2) Smooth cylindrical rotor:
This is also called non-salient type or non-projected pole type or round rotor.This rotor
consists of a smooth solid steel cylinder, having a number of slots to accommodate the field
coil.These slots are covered at the top with the help of steel or manganese wedges.The unslotted
portions of the cylinder itself act as the poles.The poles are not projecting out and the surface of
the rotor is smooth which maintains a uniform air gap between stator and rotor.
These rotors have small diameters and large axial lengths.This is to keep peripheral speed within
limits.The main advantage of this type is that these are mechanically very strong and
thus preferred for high-speed alternators ranging between 1500 to 3000 r.p.m. Such high-speed
alternators are called 'turbo-alternators'.The prime movers used to drive such type of rotors are
generally steam turbines, electric motors.
ARMATURE REACTION OF ALTERNATOR:
The effect of armature (stator) flux on the flux produced by the rotor field poles is called
armature reaction.
The effect of armature reaction depends on the power factor i.e the phase relationship between
the terminal voltage and armature current.
When there is no load connected to an alternator or synchronous generator there will be no
induced voltage in the armature. Hence, the flux present in the air-gap is only due to field
ampere-turns. Once an alternator is loaded it starts supplying the load current and there will be
an induced voltage in the armature windings. Since, the induced voltage is of three-phase, the
armature current setups its own rotating magnetic field. Now there will be two magnetic fluxes in
the air-gap of the machine setup be field and armature winding.
The flux produced by the armature winding is in such a way that either it opposes or add-up with
the field flux causing decrease or increase in the air-gap flux. This causes a change in the
performance of the machine. The nature of the effect of armature flux on the field flux depends
upon the nature of the power factor of the load. Let us see the effect of armature reaction at
different power factor loads.
Consider an individual armature coil moving towards the right relative to the field system. Each
coil side has the maximum emf induced in it when it is opposite to a pole center.
Armature Reaction of Alternator at Unity Power Factor :
Consider an alternator is supplying to a purely resistive load. The current is in phase with the
voltage i.e., unity power factor, and therefore the position of the coil for maximum current will
be the same as the position for maximum voltage. The armature current produces armature flux
lags behind the main flux by 90° and it magnetizes the trailing half of the main pole and de-
magnetizes the leading half. However, these two effects neutralize each other and average field
strength remains the same. The net effect is that the main field is distorted as shown below.
The below shows the phasor diagram at unity power factor load with a phase difference of 90°
between the field flux and armature winding flux. The effect on the alternator due to the
armature reaction for unity power factor load causes a small terminal voltage drop of an
alternator. The effect of armature reaction under unity power factor load is called the 'Cross
Magnetising Effect' of armature reaction.
Armature Reaction of Alternator at Zero Power Factor Lagging :
When the load is purely inductive the current lags 90° behind the voltage, and therefore, the coil
has to advance 90° ( electrical ) from the earlier position as shown in the below figure. Hence
armature flux lags behind the main flux by a pole.
From the phasor diagram, it is seen that the fluxes due to armature winding and main field
winding are completely in opposite direction. Comparing the armature and main fluxes, we see
that with an inductive load the effect of armature reaction reduces the main flux. This results in
less emf in generation due to the weakening of main flux. To keep up the same emf, field
excitation has to be increased to compensate weakening effect. Since the effect of armature
reaction due to inductive load causes demagnetizing of main field flux. The effect is called as
'Demagnetising Effect' of armature reaction.
Armature Reaction of Alternator at Zero Power Factor Leading :
In this case, the current leads the voltage by 90°. so that the coil carries its maximum current by
90° before it reaches the position as shown below.

When the load connected to the alternator is of purely capacitive type. The armature current due
to emf induced by main field flux leads by 90° as shown in the below phasor diagram. Thus the
armature winding flux and main field flux will be in the same direction and add-up each other.
Hence, in this case, the armature reaction exerts a wholly magnetizing effect due to the addition
of both fluxes. This results in greater induced emf, and the terminal voltage of the alternator. To
keep up the same emf the excitation to the field has to be reduced. Since the armature flux assists
field flux, therefore the effect is called as 'Magnetising effect' of armature reaction.
Nature of Armature Reaction :
The effect of armature reaction on the terminal voltage generated by alternator at various power
factor loads is shown in the below figure.

At unity power factor i.e., when a load is of purely resistive type, there will be a small change in
the terminal voltage compared to inductive and capacitive loads.
Generally, most of the loads on an alternator is resistive-inductive type. When a load is
disconnected suddenly from the transmission line connected to the alternator this causes
capacitive loading on the alternator. If there are no proper preventive measures incorporated, the
capacitive loading rises the terminal voltage and may create a desperate situation for the
alternator.
Therefore, the change in terminal voltage due to the armature reaction effect at zero lagging and
leading power factor is more.
Also, in addition to the armature reaction, there will be a voltage drop due to winding resistance
and leakage reactance. Therefore, the total voltage drop in an alternator when it is loaded is the
combination of drops due to winding resistance, leakage reactance, and armature reaction effect.
The induced emf in the alternator has to supply the above drops while supplying the load.
Therefore the equation for terminal voltage of an alternator is given as,
Eph = Vph + IaRa + IaXs volt
From the above voltage equation, let us draw the phasor diagram of a synchronous generator
operating at different load power factors. The relation between terminal voltage and current for
power factor analysis can be done by the phasor diagram.
Let,
Eph = Induced emf on load per phase.
Vph = Terminal voltage per phase
Ia = Armature current
φ = Phase angle between Ia and Vph (i.e., p.f.)
Ra = Armature resistance per phase
Xs = Synchronous reactance ( leakage reactance + armature reaction reactance )

Taking Vph as the refernce phasor. The phase relationship between armature induced emf E due
to field flux φf and the current flowing through the armature Ia depends upon the power factor of
the load.
Phasor Diagram at Unity Power Factor Load :
When the alternator is driving a unity power factor load ( resistive ) i.e., cos φ = 1. The armature
current Ia will be in phase with Vph as shown below.

From the triangle OBC, the expression for induced emf Eph is given as,

At unity power factor cos φ = 1 and sin φ = 0. The equation is modified as,

Phasor Diagram at Lagging Power Factor Load :

For lagging power factor loads the current Ia will lag the terminal voltage Vph with an angle φ. At
zero lagging power factor ( pure inductive ) the current Ia lags the voltage Vph exactly by 90°.
The below shows the phasor diagram for the lagging power factor.
The armature resistance drop IaRa is due to armature current Ia. Hence it always lies in phase with
current Ia i.e., DE. Therefore, from the triangle OCE,

Phasor Diagram at Leading Power Factor Load :

Similar to the lagging power factor the current Ia leads the voltage Vph by φ at leading power
factor loads as shown below. At zero leading power factor ( pure capacitive ) current Ia lead Vph
exactly by 90°.
 From triangle OCE,

From the above, we can conclude that,

 For unity and lagging p.f. the sign of IaXs will be positive. Because the armature reaction
effect in Xs will be demagnetizing and cross-magnetizing effect at unity and lagging
power factor.
 For leading p.f. the sign of IaXs will be negative. Thus Vph is more than Eph due to the
magnetizing effect of armature reaction.

The impedance ZS in the above equation (7) is the Synchronous Impedance, and XS is
the Synchronous Reactance.
Load Characteristics of Synchronous Generator:
While the exciting current and the speed remain constant, the terminal voltage changes with the
load current in the armature and the relationship between the terminal voltage and load current of
an alternator is known as its load characteristics.
When the armature current increases, the terminal voltage drops. This is mainly due to
(a) Resistance and reactance of armature winding, and
(b) Armature reaction.
The load characteristics of an alternator is shown in the figure.

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF AN ALTERNATOR

Thus in the equivalent circuit shown,

Eph = induced e.m.f. per phase on no load
Vtph = terminal voltage per phase on load
Iaph = armature resistance per phase
Zs = synchronous impedance per phase
REGULATION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in its terminal voltage when full
load is removed, keeping field excitation and speed constant, divided by the rated terminal
voltage.
 The value of the regulation not only depends on the load current but also on the power
factor of the load.
 For lagging and unity p.f. conditions there is always drop in the terminal voltage hence
regulation values are always positive.
 While for leading capacitive load conditions, the terminal voltage increases as load
current increases. Hence regulation is negative in such cases.
 The relationship between load current and the terminal voltage is called load
characteristics of an alternator.
 Determination of Voltage Regulation
 In the case of small machines, the regulation may be found by direct loading.
 The alternator is driven at synchronous speed and the terminal voltage is adjusted to its rated
value V.
 The load is varied until the wattmeter and ammeter (connected for the purpose) indicate the
rated values at desired p.f. Then the entire load is thrown off while the speed and field
excitation are kept constant.
 The open-circuit or no-load voltage E0 is read.

V = Rated terminal voltage, E0= No load induced e.m.f.

 In the case of large machines, the cost of finding the regulation by direct loading
becomes prohibitive.
 Hence, other indirect methods are used as discussed below.
Methods ofdetermining voltage regulation
1. Synchronous Impedance method or E.M.F method
2. The Ampere-turn or M.M.F. Method.
3. Zero Power Factor or Potier Method.
4. A.S.A. method

1. SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE METHOD OR E.M.F METHOD

Generally, we use this Synchronous Impedance Method for high-speed or synchronous

generator. This method is also known as EMF method.The Synchronous Impedance Method or
Emf Method is based on the concept of replacing the effect of armature reaction by an imaginary
reactance. The method requires following data to calculate the regulation.Before calculating the
voltage regulation we need to calculate the following data.
1. Armature Resistance per phase [Ra]
2. Open Circuit characteristics which is a graph between open circuit voltage [Vo.c.] and
field current.
3. Short circuit characteristics which is a graph between short circuit current [Is.c.] and
field current.
1. Armature Resistance per phase
Armature Resistance per phase can be obtained by conducting stator resistance test on the
alternator. It is done by connecting the dc voltage supply to the stator armature winding and the
corresponding current is measured.

By doing so, the dc stator resistance is calculated and then by using the formula R ac = 1.6 Rdc the
ac stator resistance is determined.

2. Open Circuit Characteristics(OCC)

 Open circuit characteristics is obtained by conducting open circuit test in the Alternator. To
do that, the connections are given as per the following circuit diagram.

 To perform this test, the stator windings are kept open.

 The Alternator was made to run at synchronous speed by adjusting the field rheostat of the dc
motor.

 The field current of the alternator was varied in steps until the machine attains its maximum
voltage. The corresponding readings were noted down.

 From the readings, a graph is drawn as below, where OCC represents the open circuit
characteristics.
Experiment to determine the voltage regulation by EMF method

3. Short Circuit Characteristics (SCC)

 Short circuit characteristics is obtained by conducting short circuit test in the Alternator. To
do that, the connections are given as per the above circuit diagram.

 The stator windings of alternator are Shorted and an ammeter is connected to measure the
current flow.

 The Alternator was made to run at synchronous speed by adjusting the field rheostat of the dc
motor.

 The field current of the Alternator was adjusted so that the armature current reaches its
maximum rated value.

 Note the corresponding current readings and draw the graph. SCC in the graph below
represents the short circuit characteristics.

Determination of Zs from the graph

Model Graph for determining the voltage regulation by EMF method

The value of Zs to be determined for the “SAME VALUE OF FIELD EXCITATION”.

 Follow the simple procedure to draw the graph and obtain the voltage regulation.

1. Plot the OCC and SCC curve in a graph.

2. For the rated full load current (Isc) of alternator [which is to be found from the rating of
alternator], draw a line that cuts the SCC curve, from that draw a vertical line towards the x-axis
and find the field current(If).

3. For that field current, extend the line so that it cuts the OCC curve and find the open circuit
voltage Voc volts (phase value).

4. Now, we know the open circuit voltage Voc volts and short circuit current Isc. From this,
determine the value of ZS using the formula,

5. From the known resistance value and determined ZS found the value of Xs using the formula,

6. Now, using the following formulas, obtain the value for Eph, [obtained from phasor diagram]

For Lagging Power factor,

For Leading Power factor,

7. Finally the voltage regulation of alternator can be determined from the formula,
Find voltage regulation at full load means, from given machine rating we have to find Ia
There for Ia=Isc
Advantages and Limitations of Synchronous Impedance Method:
Advantage:
synchronous impedance Zs for any load condition can be calculated. Hence regulation of the
alternator at any load condition and load power factor can be determined.
Limitations:
The main limitation of this method is that the method gives large values of synchronous
reactance. This leads to high values of percentage regulation than the actual results. Hence this
method is called pessimistic method.
This is all about synchronous Impedance method for calculation voltage regulation of
synchronous machine.
2. MMF METHOD (AMPERE TURNS METHOD)
This method of determining the regulation of an alternator is also called Ampere-turn method or
Rothert's M.M.F. method.
The method is based on the results of open circuit test and short circuit test on an alternator. For
any synchronous generator i.e. alternator, it requires M.M.F. which is product of field current
and turns of field winding for two separate purposes.
It must have an M.M.F. necessary to induce the rated terminal voltage on open circuit.
2. It must have an M.M.F. equal and opposite to that of armature reaction m.m.f.
In this method, drop due to leakage reactance is considered as drop due to additional armature
reaction
Data required for this method,

 Armature resistance
 Open circuit characteristics
 Short circuit characteristics
1. When the armature resistance is neglected
2. then Fo is to be calculated from OCC such that Fo represents the excitation (field current)
required to produce a rated terminal voltage Vph at output terminals
3. But if effective armature resistance Raph is given
4. then Fo is to be calculated from OCC such that Fo represents the excitation (field current)
required to produce a voltage of Vph+IaphRaCosΦ
5. Far is field mmf required to circulate full load current (IL or Iaph) is to be calculated from
SCC
6. (Fr)2=( Fo)2+(Far)2-2 Fo Far cos(Fo ʌ Far)
7. Fo ʌ Far =90+Φ if Φ is lagging Fo ʌ Far =90-Φ if Φ is leading
8. Once the Fr is known, obtain the corresponding induced emf Eph required to get rated
terminal voltage Vph from OCC.
3. ZERO POWER FACTOR (ZPF) FOR REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR

1. Plot open circuit characteristics on a graph paper as shown in the below figure.
2. Draw the tangent to O.C.C. through origin which is line OB as shown dotted in below
figure. This is called the airline.
3. Plot ZPF Curve using two points:
a) Plot the excitation corresponding to zero terminal voltage i.e. short circuit full load zero
power factor armature current. This point is shown as A on the x-axis.
b) Another point is the rated voltage when the alternator is delivering full current at zero p.f.
lagging. This point is P as shown in the below figure.
4. On ZPF Curve from Point P, Draw the horizontal line PQ parallel and equal to OA.
5. From the point, Q draw the line parallel to the airline which intersects O.C.C. at point R.
Join RQ and join PR. The triangle PQR is called Potier triangle.
6. From point R, drop a perpendicular on PQ to meet at point S.
7. The perpendicular RS gives the voltage drop due to the armature leakage reactance i.e. IaphXL
8. The length PS gives field current necessary to overcome the demagnetising effect of armature reaction
at full load.

9. The length SQ represents field current required to induce an EMF for balancing leakage reactance drop
RS.
These values can be obtained from any Potier triangle such as OAB, PQR and so on.

10. Phasor sum of Vph rated, Iph Raph and Iph XLph gives the e.m.f. which is say E1ph.

E1ph = Vph +Iph Raph +Iph XLph

11. Obtain the excitation corresponding to E1ph from OCC which is drawn. Let this excitation be Ff1.
This is excitation required for inducing EMF which does not consider the effect of armature reaction

12. The field current required to balance armature reaction can be obtained from Potier triangle method,
which is say FAR.
FAR = l (PS) = I (AC) ........

13. The total excitation Fr required is the vector sum of the Ff1 and FAR. This can be obtained exactly
similar to the procedure used in MMF method.

(Fr)2=( Ff1)2+(Far)2-2 Ff1 Far cos(Ff1 ʌ Far)

Ff1 ʌ Far =90+Φ if Φ is lagging Ff1 ʌ Far =90-Φ if Φ is leading

14. Once the total excitation is known which is FR, the corresponding induced emf Eph can be obtained
from OCC.

Once Eph is known, the regulation of an alternator can be predicted as,

With the help of neat sketch, explain the two reaction theory of an synchronous machine.

BLONDEL TWO REACTION THEORY (THEORY OF SALIENT POLE MACHINE):

It is known that in case of nonsalient pole type alternators the air gap is uniform. Due to uniform
air gap, the field flux as well as armature flux very sinusoidally in the air gap. In nonsalient rotor
alternators, air gap length is constant and reactance is also constant. Due to this the m.m.f.s of
armature and field act upon the same magnetic circuit all the time hence can be added
vectorially. But in salient pole type alternators the length of the air gap varies and the reluctance
also varies. Hence the armature flux and field flux cannot vary sinusoidally in the air gap. The
reluctances of the magnetic circuits on which m.m.fs act are different in case of salient pole
alternators.
Hence the armature and field m.m.f.s cannot be treated in a simple way as they can be in a
nonsalient pole alternators.
The theory which gives the method of analysis of the distributing effects caused by salient
pole construction is called two reaction theory. Professor Andre Blondel has put forward the two
reaction theory.
Note : According to this theory the armature m.m.f. can be divided into two components as,
1. Components acting along the pole axis called direct axis
2. Component acting at right angles to the pole axis called quadrature axis.
The component acting along direct axis can be magnetising or demagnetising. The component
acting along quadrature axis is cross magnetising. These components produces the effects of
different kinds.
The Fig. 1 shows the stator m.m.f. wave and the flux distribution in the air gap along direct axis
and quadrature axis of the pole.
 Fig. 1 Flux distribution in air gap for salient pole machine

The reluctance offered to the m.m.f. wave is lowest when it is aligned with the field pole axis.
This axis is called direct axis of pole i.e. d-axis. The reluctance offered is highest when the
m.m.f. wave is oriented at 90 to the field pole axis which is called quadrature axis i.e. q-axis. The
air gap is least in the centre of the poles and progressively increases on moving away from the
centre. Due to such shape of the pole-shoes, the field winding wound on salient poles produces
the m.m.f. wave which is nearly sinusoidal and it always acts along the pole axis which is direct
axis.
Let Ff be the m.m.f. wave produced by field winding, then it always acts along the direct
axis. This m.m.f. is responsible to produce an excitation e.m.f. Ef which lags Ff by an angle
90o .
When armature carries current, it produces its own m.m.f. wave FAR. This can be resolved
in two components, one acting along d-axis (cross-magnetising). Similarly armature
current Ia also can be divided into two components, one along direct axis and along quadrature
axis. These components are denoted as,
Fd = Component along direct axis
FAR : }
 Fq = Component along quadrature axis

Id = Component along direct axis

Ia : }
Iq = Component along quadrature axis

The positions of FAR, Fd and Fq in space are shown in the Fig. 2. The instant chosen to show
these positions is such that the current in phase R is maximum positive and is lagging E f by
angle Ψ.

Fig. 2 M.M.F. wave positions in salient pole machine

The phasor diagram corresponding to the positions considered is shown in the Fig. 3.
The Ia lags Ef by angle Ψ.
It can be observed that Fd is produced by Id which is at 90o to Ef while Fq is produced
by Iq which is in phase with Ef .
The flux components of ΦAR which are Φd and Φq along the direct and quadrature axis
respectively are also shown in the Fig.3. It can be denoted that the reactance offered to flux along
direct axis is less than the reactance offered to flux along quadrature axis. Due to this, the flux
ΦAR is no longer along FAR or Ia. Depending upon the reluctances offered along the direct and
quadrature axis, the flux ΦAR lags behind Ia.
 Fig 3 Basic phasor diagram for salient pole machine
We know that, the armature reaction flux ΦAR has two components, Φd along direct axis and
Φq along quadrature axis. These fluxes are proportional to the respective m.m.f. magnitudes and
the permeance of the flux path oriented along the respective axes.
.. . Φd = Pd Fd
where Pd = permeance along the direct axis
Permeance is the reciprocal of reluctance and indicates ease with which flux can travel along
the path.
But Fd = m.m.f. = Kar Id in phase with Id
The m.m.f. is always proportional to current. While Kar is the armature reaction coefficient.
.. . Φd = Pd Kar Id
Similarly Φq = Pq Kar Iq
As the reluctance along direct axis is less than that along quadrature axis, the permeance
Pd along direct axis is more than that along quadrature axis, (P d < Pq ).
Let Ed and Eq be the induced e.m.f.s due to the fluxes Φd and Φq respectively. Now Ed lags
Φd by 90o while Eq lags Φq by 90o .
 where Ke = e.m.f. constant of armature winding
The resultant e.m.f. is the phasor sum of Ef, Ed and Eq.

Substituting expressions for Φd and Φq

Now Xard = Equivalent reactance corresponding to the d-axis component of armature

reaction
= Ke Pd Kar
and Xarq = Equivalent reactance corresponding to the q-axis component of armature
reaction
= Ke Pq Kar

For a realistic alternator we know that the voltage equation is,

where Vt = terminal voltage

XL = leakage reactance
Substituting in expression for ĒR ,

where Xd = d-axis synchronous reactance = XL + Xard ..................................................................... (2)

and Xq = q-axis synchronous reactance = XL + Xarq .................................................................. (3)
It can be seen from the above equation that the terminal voltage V t is nothing but the voltage left
after deducing ohmic drop Ia Ra, the reactive drop Id Xd in quadrature with Id and the reactive
drop Iq Xq in quadrature with Id, from the total e.m.f. Ef.
The phasor diagram corresponding to the equation (1) can be shown as in the Fig. 1. The current
Ia lags terminal voltage Vt by Φ. Then add Ia Ra in phase with Ia to Vt. The drop Id Xd leads Id by
90o as in case purely reactive circuit current lags voltage by 90o i.e. voltage leads current by 90o .
Similarly the drop Iq Xq leads Xq by 90o . The total e.m.f. is Ef.
In the phasor diagram shown in the Fig. 4, the angles Ψ and δ are not known, through V t, Ia and
Φ values are known. Hence the location of Ef is also unknown. The components of Ia, Id and Iq
can not be determined which are required to sketch the phasor diagram.

Fig. 4
Let us find out some geometrical relationships between the various quantities which are involved
in the phasor diagram. For this, let us draw the phasor diagram including all the components in
detail.
We know from the phasor diagram shown in the Fig. 4 that,
Id = Ia sin Ψ........................................................ (4)
 Iq = Ia cos Ψ ........................................................... (5)
cosΨ = Iq/Ia .........................................................................................(6)
The drop Ia Ra has two components which are,
Id Rd = drop due to Ra in phase with Id
Iq Ra = drop due to Ra in phase with Iq
The Id Xd and Iq Rq can be drawn leading Id and Iq by 90o respectively. The detail phasor
diagram is shown in the Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 Phasor diagram for lagging p.f.

In the phasor diagram,
OF = Ef
OG = Vt
GH = Id Ra and HA = Iq Ra
GA = Ia Ra
AE = Id Xd and EF = Iq Xa
Now DAC is drawn perpendicular to the current phasor Ia and CB is drawn perpendicular to
AE.
The triangle ABC is right angle triangle,

But from equations (6), cosΨ = Iq/Ia

Thus point C can be located. Hence the direction of E f is also known.
Now triangle ODC is also right angle triangle,

Now OD = OI + ID = Vt cos Φ + Ia Ra
and CD = AC + AD = Ia Xq + Vt sinΦ

As Ia Xq is known, the angle Ψ can be calculated from equation (10). As Φ is known we can
write,
δ = Ψ - Φ for lagging p.f.

Hence magnitude of Ef can be obtained by using equation (11).

Note : In the above relations, Φ is taken positive for lagging p.f. For leading p.f., Φ must be
taken negative.
Infinite Bus: The bus whose voltage and frequency remains constant even after the variation in
the load is known as the infinite bus. The alternators operating in parallel in a power system is
the example of the infinite bus.
Characteristics of Infinite bus:
1. Infinite bus possess very large rotational inertia due to which it avoids any incoming
machine to alter the speed. Hence frequency remains constant.
2. Infinite bus maintains constant terminal voltage because the incoming machines are of
low ratings.
3. As the infinite bus system possess number of alternators connected in parallel, the
synchronous impedance is small
Operating Characteristics of an Alternator connected to Infinite bus:
4. Real power supplied by the alternator to the infinite bus is controlled by governer settings
5. The infinite bus system controls the frequency and terminal voltage of an alternator
6. The reactive power supplied by the alternator to the infinite bus is controlled by field
excitation of alternator.
PARALLEL OPERATION OF ALTERNATOR
Interconnection of the electric power systems is essential from the economical point of view
and also for reliable and Parallel Operation. Interconnection of AC power systems requires
synchronous generators to operate in parallel with each other. In generating stations, two or
more generators are connected in parallel. The alternators are located at different locations
forming a grid connected system.
They are connected parallel by means of transformer and transmission lines. Under normal
operating conditions all the generators and synchronous motors in an interconnected system
operate in synchronism with each other. A machine has to be adjusted for optimum operating
efficiency and greater reliability if the generators are connected in parallel.

As the load increases beyond the generated capacity of the connected units, additional generators
are parallel to carry the load. Similarly, if the load demand decreases, one or more machines are
taken off the line as per the requirement. It allows the units to operate at a higher efficiency.

Reasons of Parallel Operation

Alternators are operated in parallel for the following reasons:

  Several alternators can supply a bigger load than a single alternator.
 One or more alternators may shut down during the period of light loads. Thus, the
remaining alternator operates at near or full load with greater efficiency.
 When one machine is taken out of service for its scheduled maintenance and inspection,
the remaining machines maintain the continuity of the supply.
 If there is a breakdown of the generator, there is no interruption of the power supply.
 Number of machines can be added with disturbing the initial installation according to the
requirement to fulfill the increasing future demand of the load.
 Parallel operation of the alternator, reduces the operating cost and the cost of energy
generation.
 It ensures the greater security of supply and enables overall economic generation.

Condition for Parallel Operation of Alternator

There are some conditions to be satisfied for parallel operation of the alternator. Before entering
into that, we should understand some terms which are as follows.

The process of connecting two alternators or an alternator and an infinite bus bar system in
parallel is known as synchronizing.

Running machine is the machine which carries the load.

Incoming machine is the alternator or machine which has to be connected in parallel with the
system.

The conditions to be satisfied are

 The phase sequence of the incoming machine voltage and the bus bar voltage should be
identical.
 The RMS line voltage (terminal voltage) of the bus bar or already running machine and
the incoming machine should be the same.
 The phase angle of the two systems should be equal.
  The frequency of the two terminal voltages (incoming machine and the bus bar) should
be nearly the same. Large power transients will occur when frequencies are not nearly
equal.
Departure from the above conditions will result in the formation of power surges and current. It
also results in unwanted electro-mechanical oscillation of rotor which leads to the damage of
equipment.

Advantages of Parallel Operating Alternators

 When there is maintenance or an inspection, one machine can be taken out from service and
the other alternators can keep up for the continuity of supply.
 Load supply can be increased.
 During light loads, more than one alternator can be shut down while the other will operate in
nearly full load.
 High efficiency.
 The operating cost is reduced.
 Ensures the protection of supply and enables cost-effective generation.
 The generation cost is reduced.
 Breaking down of a generator does not cause any interruption in the supply.
 Reliability of the whole power system increases.

SYNCHRONIZATION OF ALTERNATOR
The process of connecting two alternators or an alternator and an infinite bus bar system in
parallel is known as synchronizing. Running machine is the machine which carries the load.
Incoming machine is the alternator or machine which has to be connected in parallel with the
system.
Method of Synchronization of Alternator
1. Three Dark Lamps Method
2. Two Bright and One Dark Lamp Method
3. Synchroscope Method

1. Three Dark Lamps Method

The figure above shows the circuit for bright lamp method used to synchronize the alternators.
Assume that alternator is connected to the load supplying rated voltage and frequency to it. Now
the alternator-2 is to be connected in parallel with alternator-1.

Three lamps (each of which is rated for alternator terminal voltage) are connected across the
switches of the alternator-2. From the figure it is clear that the moment when all the conditions of
parallel operation are satisfied, the lamps should be more or less dark.

1. To synchronize the alternator-2 with bus bar, the prime mover of the alternator-2 is driven at
speed close to the synchronous speed decided by the bus bar frequency and number of poles
of the alternator.
2. Now the field current of the generator-2 is increased till voltage across the machine terminals
is equal to the bus bar voltage (by observing the readings on voltmeters).
3. If lamps glow ON and OFF concurrently, indicating that the phase sequence of alternator-2
matches with bus bar. On the other hand, if they ON and OFF one after another, it resembles
the incorrect phase sequence.
4. If this is not the case, then this means phase sequences are not correct.In order to correct the
phase sequence, two leads of the line of the incoming machine should be interchange.
5. The frequency of the incoming machine is adjusted until the lamps flicker at a very slow rate,
less than one dark period per second. after the finally adjusting the incoming voltage , the
synchronizing switch is closed in the middle of their dark period.

Advantage of the dark lamp method

1. the method is cheap

2. the proper phase sequence is easily determined

Disadvantages of the dark lamp method

1. The lamps become dark at about half their rated voltage, it is possible that the synchronizing
switch might be closed where there is a considerable phases difference between machines.
This may result in high circuilating current to damage the machines.
2. The lamps filament might burn out.
3. The flicker of the lamps does not indicate which machine has the higher frequency.

Suppose, if the bus bar frequency is 50Hz, the rate of flickering of lamps is same when the
frequency of the alternator is either 51 or 49 Hz, as the difference in these two cases is 1Hz.

2. Two Bright and One Dark Lamp Method

Consider an alternator B is to be synchronized. In this case lamp L1 is connected across R – R’,

lamp L2 is connected across Y – B’ and lamp L3 is connected across B – Y’ as shown in Figure.

Method of Synchronization of Alternator

Here I am describing the ‘two bright and one dark lamp method’ of synchronization of
alternators. This method is generally used in colleges to demonstrate this process to students.

Consider an alternator B is to be synchronized. In this case lamp L1 is connected across R – R’,

lamp L2 is connected across Y – B’ and lamp L3 is connected across B – Y’ as shown in Figure.
If the voltages are equal, the frequencies are identical, and the phase sequence is correct then the
voltage across L1 will be zero and across L2 and L3 will be line voltage.

Under this condition, the lamp L1 will be completely dark, and the lamp L2 and L3 will be
equally bright. This is the ideal condition for closing the synchronizing switch.

When the frequency of the incoming alternator is different from that of bus bar frequency and the
remaining conditions are fulfilled, then the three lamps will flicker alternatively (i.e. one after the
other in sequence).

The flickering of the lamps will indicate the difference in speed of the incoming alternator.
Accordingly, the speed is adjusted to minimize the flickering of the lamps.

However, if the phase sequence is not correct, all the three lamps will flicker in unison. Then the
phase sequence should be corrected by interchanging any two leads of the incoming alternator at
the synchronizing switch.

If the voltage of the incoming alternator is not equal to that of bus bar voltages and the other
conditions are satisfied, all the lamps will glow with different brightness and will continue to
 UNIT-III
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Single-phase a.c supply is commonly used for lighting purpose in shops, offices, houses,
schools etc..Hence instead of d.c motors, the motors which work on single-phase a.c. supply are
popularly used. These a.c motors are called single-phase induction motors. A large no. of
domestic applications use single-phase induction motors.
The power rating of these motors is very small. Some of them are even fractional
horsepower motors, which are used in applications like small toys, small fans, hairdryers etc.

Construction of Single Phase Induction Motors:

The schematic diagram of two-pole single phase induction motor is shown in the below figure:

Similar to a d.c motor, single-phase induction motor also has two main parts, one
rotating and other stationary. The stationary part in single-phase induction motors is
Stator and the rotating part is Rotor.
Stator
 The stator has laminated construction, made up of stampings. The stampings are slotted on its
periphery to carry the winding called stator winding or main winding.
 This is excited by a single-phase a.c supply.
 The laminated construction keeps iron losses to the minimum. The stampings are made up of
material from silicon steel which minimizes the hysteresis loss.
 The stator winding is wound for a certain definite number of poles means when excited by
single-phase a.c supply, stator produces the magnetic field which creates the effect of the
certain definite number of poles.
 The number of poles for which stator winding is wound decides the synchronous speed of
the motor. The synchronous speed is denoted as Ns and it has a fixed relation with supply
frequency f and number of poles P. The relation is given by,

Ns = 120f/p rpm

The induction motor never rotates with the synchronous speed but rotates at a speed that is
slightly less than the synchronous speed.

Rotor

o The rotor construction is of squirrel cage type.

o This rotor consists of uninsulated copper or aluminium bars, placed in the slots.
o The bars are permanently shorted at both the ends with the help of conducting rings called
end rings.
o The entire structure looks like cage hence it is called a squirrel cage rotor. The construction
of single-phase induction motors is shown in below figure:

 As the bars are permanently shorted to each other, the resistance of the entire rotor is very
very small. The air gap between stator and rotor is kept uniform and as small as possible.
 The main feature of this rotor is that it automatically adjusts itself for the same the number of
poles as that of the stator winding.

Working Principle of Single Phase Induction Motors:

 For the motoring action, there must exist two fluxes which interact with each other to
produce the torque.
 In the single-phase induction motor, single-phase a.c supply is given to the stator winding.
The stator winding carries an alternating current which produces the flux which is also
alternating in nature. This flux is called the main flux.
 This flux links with the rotor conductors and due to transformer action e.m.f gets induced in
the rotor. The induced emf drives current through the rotor as the rotor circuit is the closed
circuit.
 This rotor current produces another flux called rotor flux required for the motoring action.
Thus second flux is produced according to the induction principle due to induced e.m.f hence
the motor is called induction motor.

As against this in d.c motor a separate supply is required to the armature to produce
armature flux. This is an important difference between d.c motor and an induction motor.
Double Revolving Field Theory in single-phase induction motors:
 According to this theory, any alternating quantity can be resolved into two rotating
components which rotate in opposite directions and each having magnitude as half of the
maximum magnitude of the alternating quantity.
 In case of single-phase induction motors, the stator winding produces an alternating
magnetic field having the maximum magnitude of Φ1m.
 According to double-revolving field theory, consider the two components of the stator flux,
each having magnitude half of maximum magnitude of stator flux i.e (Φ1m/2). Both these
components are rotating in opposite directions at the synchronous speed Ns which is
dependent on frequency and stator poles.
 Let Φf is forward component rotating in anticlockwise direction while Φb is the
backward component rotating in a clockwise direction.
 The resultant of these two components at any instant gives the instantaneous value of the
stator flux at that instant. So resultant of these two is the original stator flux. The below
figure shows the stator flux and its two components Φf and Φb.
 At the start, both the components are shown the opposite to each other in figure (a). Thus the
resultant ΦR = 0. This is nothing but the instantaneous value of stator flux at the start.
 After 90°, as shown in figure (b), the two components are rotated in such a way that both are
pointing in the same direction.
 Hence the resultant ΦR is the algebraic sum of the magnitudes of the two components. So
ΦR = (Φ1m/2) + (Φ1m/2) =Φ1m.
 This is nothing but the instantaneous value of the stator flux at θ = 90° as shown in figure (c).
 Thus continuous rotation of two components gives the original alternating stator flux.
Both the components are rotating and hence get cut by the motor conductors. Due to cutting of flux,
e.m.f. gets induced in rotor which circulates rotor current. The rotor current produces rotor flux. This
flux interacts with forward component Φf to produce a torque in one particular direction say
anticlockwise direction. While rotor flux interacts with backward component Φb to produce a torque
in the clockwise direction. So if anticlockwise torque is positive then clockwise torque is negative.

At start these two torque are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Each torque tries to
rotate the rotor in its own direction. Thus net torque experienced by the rotor is zero at start. And
hence the single phase induction motors are not self starting.
Torque speed characteristics
The two oppositely directed torques and the resultant torque can be shown effectively with the
help of torque-speed characteristics. It is shown in the Fig.2.

It can be seen that at start N = 0 and at that point resultant torque is zero. So single phase motors
are not self starting.
However if the rotor is given an initial rotation in any direction, the resultant average torque
increase in the direction in which rotor initially rotated. And motor starts rotating in that
direction. But in practice it is not possible to give initial torque to rotor externally hence some
modifications are done in the construction of single phase induction motors to make them self
starting.
Equivalent Circuit:
The equivalent circuit of a single phase induction motor can be developed on the basis of two
revolving field theory. To develop the equivalent circuit it is necessary to consider standstill or
blocked rotor conditions. The motor with a blocked rotor merely acts like a transformer with its
secondary short circuited and its equivalent circuit will be as shown in fig: 1.6 (a), Em being
e.m.f. induced in the stator.

Fig: 1.6 (a) Equivalent Circuit of a Single Phase Induction Motor

The motor may now be viewed from the point of view of the two revolving field theory. The two
flux components induce e.m.f. Emf and Emb in the respective stator winding. Since at standstill
the two oppositely rotating fields are of same strength, the magnetizing and rotor impedances are
divided into two equals halves connected in series as shown in figure:1.6 (b)

Fig: 1.6 (b) Equivalent Circuit of Single Phase Induction Motor at Standstill on the basis of
Two Revolving Field Theory
When the rotor runs at speed N with respect to forward field, the slip is S w.r.t. forward field and
(2-S) w.r.t. backward field and the equivalent circuit is as shown in fig:1.6(c)

Fig:1.6 (c) Equivalent Circuit of a Single Phase Induction Motor Under Normal Operating
Conditions
If the core losses are neglected the equivalent circuit is modified as shown in fig:1.6(d). The core
losses, here, are handled as rotational losses and subtracted from the power converted into
mechanical power; the amount of error thus introduced is relatively small.

Fig:1.6 (d) Approximate Equivalent Circuit of a Single Phase Induction Motor Under
Normal Operating Conditions
SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Single-phase induction motors are made self-starting by providing additional flux by some
supplementary means.
Single-phase induction motors are classified depending on how this additional flux is generated:
1. Split phase induction motor.
2. Capacitor-start inductor motor.
3. Capacitor-start capacitor-run induction motor (two-value capacitor method. Used to both
start and run the motor).
4. Permanent split capacitor (PSC) motor.
5. Shaded pole induction motor.
Split Phase Induction Motor
In addition to the main winding or running winding, a single-phase induction motor’s stator
carries another winding called auxiliary winding or starting winding. A centrifugal switch is
connected in series with auxiliary winding.
This switch aims to disconnect the auxiliary winding from the main circuit when the motor
attains a speed up to 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed.
We know that the running winding is inductive in nature. We aim to create the phase difference
between the two winding, and this is possible if the starting winding carries high resistance.
n the figure below, the variables represent:
 Irun is the current flowing through the main or running winding,
  Istart is the current flowing in starting winding,
 VT is the supply voltage.

For a highly resistive winding, the current is almost in phase with the voltage, and for a highly
inductive winding, the current lag behind the voltage by a large angle.
The starting winding is highly resistive so, the current flowing in the starting winding lags
behind the applied voltage by a very small angle and the running winding is highly inductive in
nature so, the current flowing in running winding lags behind applied voltage by a large angle.
The resultant of these two current is IT—the resultant of these two current produce rotating
magnetic field which rotates in one direction.
In a split-phase induction motor, the starting and main current get split from each other by
some angle, so this motor got its name as a split-phase induction motor.
The torque-speed characteristics of split phase motors is shown in the Fig

Applications of Split Phase Induction Motor

Split phase induction motors have low starting current and moderate starting torque.
These motors are used in fans,
  Blowers,
 Centrifugal pumps,
 Washing machines,
 Grinders,
 lathes,
 Air conditioning fans, etc.
These motors are available in size ranging from 1/20 to 1/2 KW.
Capacitor Start Motor
In the capacitor start motor capacitor C is of large value such that the motor will give high
starting torque. Capacitor employed is short time duty rating. The capacitor is of electrolytic
type. Electrolytic capacitor C is connected in series with the starting winding along with
centrifugal switch S as shown in the diagram.

When the motor attains the speed of about 75% of synchronous speed starting winding is cut-off.
The construction of the motor and winding is similar to usual split phase motor.
The capacitor start motor is used where high starting torque is required like refrigerators.
Characteristics of Capacitor Start Motor
 Speed is constant within 5% slip.
 Capacitor start motor develops high starting torque about 4 to 5 times the full load torque
and reduces the starting current. 
  The direction of rotation can be changed by interchanging the connection of supply to the
either of the winding.
These motors are used for the loads of higher inertia where frequent starting is required. Used in
 Pumps
 Compressors.
 Refrigerators
 Air Conditioner Compressors
 Conveyors
 Machine Tools.
Capacitor Run Motor Working
Connection scheme for the capacitor run motor is the same as the capacitor start motor except for
the absence of centrifugal switch S.
The capacitor is of paper type. The capacitor is permanently connected to the starting winding. In
case of the paper capacitor, the value of the capacitance is small since it is difficult and becomes
uneconomical to manufacture paper capacitor of higher value.
The electrolytic capacitor cannot be used since this type of capacitor is used for only short time
rating and hence cannot be permanently connected to the winding. Both main as well as starting
winding is of equal rating
Characteristics of Capacitor Run Motor

 Starting torque is lower about 50% of full load torque. Power factor is improved. It may
be about unity. Efficiency is improved to about 75%.
 The direction of rotation can be reversed as written in case of capacitor start motor. 
  The capacitor run motor is used in fans, room coolers, portable tools and other domestic
and commercial electrical appliances. 

Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor

Two capacitors are used in capacitor start capacitor run motor or two value capacitor motor,
one for starting purpose and other for running purpose. Starting purpose capacitor is of
electrolytic type and is disconnected from the supply when the motor attains 75% of synchronous
speed with the help of centrifugal switch S, connected in series with Cs. The value of the
two capacitors is different. Starting capacitor Cs, which is electrolytic type, is of high value.
Characteristics of Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor

 The capacitor start capacitor run motor gives the best running as well as starting
conditions. Such motors operate as two-phase motors giving the best performance. 
  Starting torque is high, starting current is reduced and gives better efficiency, better p.f.
The only disadvantage is high cost.
 Direction can be reversed by interchanging the connection of supply to either of the main
winding or starting winding.
Capacitor start capacitor run induction motors are used in applications like

 Compressors,

 Conveyors,

 Refrigerators,

 Air Conditioners,

 Ceiling Fans Etc.

SHADED POLE INDUCTION MOTOR
Shaded pole induction motor is constructed with salient poles in the stator. Each pole has its
own exciting coil. A 1/3rd portion of each pole core is surrounded by a strap of copper forming a
closed loop called the shading coil. The rotor is a usual squirrel cage type.

Shaded Pole Induction Motor Working Principle

1. During the portion OA of the alternating-current cycle, the flux begins to increase and an
EMF is induced in the shading coil. This flux induces voltage and hence current in the
copper ring, and by Lenz’s law, the direction of current is such that it opposes the flux
entering the coil. Hence, in the beginning, the greater portion of flux passes through the
unshaded side of each pole.
2. During the portion AB of the alternating-current cycle, the flux has reached almost
maximum value and is not changing. Consequently, the flux distribution across the pole
is uniform since no current is flowing in shading coil.
3. As the flux decreases (portion BC of the alternating-current cycle) the current induced in
shading coil now tends to prevents the flux linking with shading coil from decreasing and
hence the greater portion of flux passes through the shaded side of each pole.
4. Thus the flux reaches its maximum value first at the shaded side of the pole and
later reaches its maximum on the unshaded side of the pole. This gives a motion of
flux across the pole face in the direction of arrow (in the direction of rotation of
rotor) as shown in the figure above.
5. Under the influence of this flux small starting torque is produced. As soon as this torque
starts to revolve the rotor, additional torque is produced for running because of the single
phase induction motor action. The shaded pole motor accelerates to a speed slightly
below synchronous speed and runs as single phase motor.
Characteristics of Shaded Pole Induction Motor
1. Shaded pole induction motor produces very small starting torque about 50% of full
load torque.
2. Efficiency of shaded pole motor is low because of continuous power loss in shading coil.
3. Used for small fans and small appliances.
4. The direction of rotation of shaded pole motor depends upon the position of shading
coil i.e. which half of pole is wrapped with shading coil. Therefore, the direction of
rotation cannot be reversed unless the machine is constructed so that the shading coil can
be shifted to another half of the pole.
RELUCTANCE MOTOR
The reluctance motor has basically two main parts called stator and rotor. the stator has a
laminated construction, made up of stampings.
The stampings are slotted on its periphery to carry the winding called stator winding. The stator
carries only one winding. This is excited by single-phase a.c. supply. The laminated construction
keeps iron losses to a minimum. The stampings are made up of material from silicon steel which
minimises the hysteresis loss. The stator winding is wound for certain definite number of poles.
The rotor has a particular shape. Due to its shape, the air gap between stator and rotor is not
uniform.No d.c supply is given to the rotor. The rotor is free to rotate. The reluctance i.e., the
resistance of the magnetic circuit depends on the air gap. More the air gap, more is the reluctance
and vice-versa. Due to the variable air gap between stator and rotor, when the rotor rotates,
reluctance between stator and rotor also changes.
The stator and rotor are designed in such a manner that the variation of the inductance of the
windings is sinusoidal with respect to the rotor position.
The construction of Reluctance Motor is shown in figure (a) while the practical rotor
of Reluctance Motor is shown in figure(b) below.

Working Principle of Reluctance Motor:

The stator consists of a Single Winding called main winding. But single winding cannot
produce rotating magnetic field. So for production of rotating magnetic field, there must be at
least two windings separated by the certain phase angle. Hence stator consists of an additional
winding called auxiliary winding which consists of a capacitor in series with it.
Thus there exists a phase difference between the currents carried by the two windings and
corresponding fluxes. Such two fluxes react to produce the rotating magnetic field. The
technique is called split phase technique of production of the rotating magnetic field. The speed
of this field is the synchronous speed which is decided by the number of poles for which stator
winding is wound.
The rotor carries the short-circuited copper or aluminium bars and it acts as a squirrel-cage rotor
of an induction motor. If an iron piece is placed in a magnetic field, it aligns itself in a
minimum reluctance position and gets locked magnetically. Similarly, in the reluctance motor,
rotor tries to align itself with the axis of rotating magnetic field in a minimum reluctance
position. But due to rotor inertia, it is not possible when the rotor is standstill.
So rotor starts rotating near synchronous speed as a squirrel cage induction motor. When
the rotor speed is about synchronous, stator magnetic field pulls rotor into synchronism i.e.
minimum reluctance position and keeps it magnetically locked. Then rotor continues to rotate
with a speed equal to synchronous speed. Such a torque exerted on the rotor is called the
reluctance torque. Thus finally the reluctance motor runs as a synchronous motor. The
resistance of the rotor must be very shall and the combined inertia of the rotor and the load
should be small to run the motor as a synchronous motor.
Torque - speed characteristics of Reluctance Motor:
The torque speed characteristics are shown in below figure. The starting torque is highly
dependent on the position of the rotor.

Reluctance Motor Advantages:

The reluctance motor has the following advantages,
1) No d.c. supply is necessary for the rotor.
2) Constant speed characteristics.
3) Robust construction.
4) Less maintenance.
Reluctance Motor Disadvantages:
The reluctance motor has following limitations,
1) Less efficiency
2) Poor power factor
3) Need of very low inertia rotor
4) Less capacity to drive the loads
Applications of Reluctance Motor:
Reluctance motor is used in

 Signalling Devices

 Control Apparatus

 Automatic regulators

 Recording Instruments

 Clocks

 All timing devices

 Teleprinters

 Gramophones

STEPPER MOTOR
The dc motor rotates continuously when it supplied by the DC source. The direction of rotation
depends on the polarity of the supply. But the stepper motor rotations are not continuously. The
rotor of this motor rotates in discrete steps.
The stepper motor is a special kind of motor which designed to rotate through a specific angle.
There are two advantages to the stepper motor. The first one is that the stepper motor is
compatible with digital systems and the second one is that, there is no need for any sensors for
position and speed sensing.

Working:
The control circuit used to generate digital pulses. These digital pulses are given to the driver
circuit. The driver circuit generates steps according to the pulses.
The number of steps generated by the driver circuit is the same as the number of steps generates
by the control circuit.
The rotor rotates in the angular motion. Therefore, this step is known as the step angle. Step
angle is nothing but the angular movement of the rotor when the control circuit generates one
pulse. For example, the step angle is 15 degrees. So, if the control circuit generates one pulse, the
motor rotates 15 degrees.
Stepper motors have multiple toothed electromagnets and it energized by the driver circuit. A
gear-shaped piece of an iron place in the center of electromagnets.
When the electromagnets energized, it attracts the teeth of a gear. Hence, the gear’s teeth are
aligned to the first electromagnet. The next electromagnet placed at some angle. When the next
electromagnet energized, it attracts the teeth of the gear and tries to align with the next
electromagnet.
This is how the stepper motor rotates. According to the working principle, there are three types
of the stepper motor.
Types of Stepper Motor: Stepper motors classified into three types;
• Variable reluctance stepper motor
• Permanent magnet stepper
• Hybrid synchronous stepper
BRUSHLESS DC (BLDC) MOTOR
A Brushless DC motor or BLDC motor is a type that is most suitable for applications that require high
reliability, high efficiency, more torque per weight, etc. This article explains about BLDC motors in
details.
Construction of A BLDC Motor
A commutator-brushes arrangement helps in achieving unidirectional torque in a typical dc motor.
Obviously, commutator and brush arrangement is eliminated in a brushless dc motor. Here, an integrated
inverter/switching circuit is used to achieve unidirectional torque. That is why these motors are,
sometimes, also referred as 'electronically commutated motors'.
Just like any other electric motor, a BLDC motor also consists of two main parts a stator and a rotor.
Permanent magnets are mounted on the rotor of a BLDC motor, and the stator is wound for a specific
number of poles. Also, a control circuit is connected to the stator winding. Most of the times, the
inverter/control circuit or controller is integrated into the stator assembly. This is the basic constructional
difference between a brushless motor and a typical dc motor.
A typical controller provides a three-phase frequency-controlled supply to the stator winding. The supply
is controlled by logical control circuits and energizes specific stator poles at a specific point of time. This
can be understood from the below animations about working of BLDC motors.
Types of BLDC Motors
There are two types of BLDC motors based on their construction/design: (i) inner rotor design & (ii) outer
rotor design. Regardless of these types, note that the permanent magnets are always mounted on the rotor
and winding on the stator.
1. Inner rotor design (inrunner): this is a conventional design, where the rotor is located at the core
(center) and stator winding surrounds it.
 Fig: Inner rotor BLDC motor working
2. Outer rotor design (outrunner): In this configuration, the rotor is external. i.e. stator windings are
located at the core while the rotor, carrying permanent magnets, surrounds the stator.

Fig: Outer rotor BLDC motor working

BLDC Motor Working:
Stator windings of a BLDC motor are connected to a control circuit (an integrated switching circuit or
inverter circuit). The control circuit energizes proper winding at the proper time, in a pattern which rotates
around the stator. Permanent magnets on the rotor try to align with the energized electromagnets of the
stator, and as soon as it aligns, the next electromagnets are energized. Thus, the rotor keeps running.
Advantages of BLDC Motors
Since BLDC Motors are electronically commutated, there are several advantages over traditional
Brushed DC Motors. Some of them are:
  No wear and tear (due to absence of brushes)
 High efficiency
 Better speed vs torque characteristics
 Long life
 Less noise or noiseless operation 
 Significantly higher RPM
Disadvantages
 Complex operation
 Requires maintenance
 A controller is required
 Costly
 Sensors are required
Applications of BLDC Motors
BLDC motors fulfill many requirements that a brushed DC motor does. But as they require a
complicated control circuit and due to cost considerations, they haven’t yet completely replaced
brushed DC motors, especially in low-cost applications. Despite this, there are many applications
where BLDC motors dominate –
 Consumer electronics – computer hard drives, small cooling fans, cd/dvd players, etc. and
also in modern appliances where quiet operation is desired – such as washing machines, air
conditioners, etc.
 Electric Vehicles – many electric vehicles including electric and hybrid cars, electric bikes
use BLDC motors.

 They have a wide range of applications in many other areas including robotics, industrial,
motion control systems, etc.