GAS EXCHANGE AND

CIRCULATION
 Transport System - CIRCULATION

´In this unit, you will be able to:

a. compare the transport systems of plants with that of the animals;

b. identify the parts involved in substance transport in both plants and animals;

c. illustrate the movement of substances through the plant systems; and

d. trace the pathway of blood through the pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit.
 Plant transport
Substance transport involves movement of water plus
macronutrients and micronutrients through the cells and the vascular
system. Water taken up by the roots has to reach all parts of the
plant, usually up to the growing stem. The photosynthates or food
synthesized by the leaves (source) also have to be moved to all parts
including the sink such as root tips.
*Short distance *Long distance
movement movement
Routes of Absorption of Water and Minerals
across Plant roots (short distance)
A. Symplast route- through plasmodesmata –cell junction
that connects cytoplasm of adjacent plant cell.
B. Apoplast route- along all cell walls
https://www.youtube.com/watch
?v=o32jqyIpoHg
 Long Distance Movement
´ Xylem Transport - The movement is controlled by pressure potential (hydraulic pressure).
*Imagine this process similar to sucking water from a straw.
´ How are water and minerals pulled through the xylem?

Water is mainly pulled by transpiration from leaves. (Cohesion-tension-transpiration pull Model)

a. Water Properties- The mutual attraction between water molecules called cohesion, the
attraction of water molecules to polar surfaces called adhesion and the surface tension which
is a tendency to occupy the least possible surface area.

b. Tension- the release of water from the leaves creates tension in the xylem sap, causing upward
flow of water from the stems towards the leaves

c. Transpiration - evaporation of water from stomata in leaves which pulls water and minerals up
stems and provides evaporative cooling, but results in tremendous loss of water, which must be
controlled.

d. Guttation-with high humidity and wet soils some plants will even have water pushed out of the
leaves
´ Phloem Transport
´ It functions for translocation, the transport of food nutrients such as glucose
and amino acids from the leaves (source) to all other cells (sink) of the plant.

´ Since the source to sink relationship is variable, the direction of movement in the
phloem can be upwards or downwards, bi-directional. Unlike the one-way flow of water
in transpiration, food in phloem sap can be transported in any required direction so long
as there is a source of sugar and a sink able to use, store or remove the sugar

Pressure Flow or Mass

Flow Hypothesis

https://www.youtube.com/wa
tch?v=9FTafxnbwHQ
Animal Circulatory System
 Functions:

• Transport of nutrients and respiratory gases to

every part of the body.
• Collection of waste products of metabolism and
excess substances bringing them to organs for
their proper elimination.
• Protection against diseases by way of phagocytosis
and antibody production of the blood cells.
 Two Types of the Circulatory System
• Open circulatory system- blood does not stay in the blood vessel, poured directly into the body tissues

– most arthropods, some cephalopods, mollusks

• Closed circulatory system- blood passes via the blood vessels; it does not come in direct contact with the
body tissues

– echinoderms, cephalopod, mollusks, annelids, vertebrates

Components
Human Circulatory System
 General Components of the Circulatory
System
• Blood
§the circulating fluid
• Heart
§a pumping organ that circulates blood
through the body
• Blood vessels
§ tubes through which the blood can
circulate through out the body
 Functions of the circulatory system
The circulatory system has these functions:

1. Transporting substances around the body.

These include oxygen, glucose, carbon
dioxide, nutrients, water and waste products.

2. Controlling body temperature.

3. Protecting the body. Blood contains

cells and anti-bodies that fight infection
and clotting agents to stop bleeding.
Vascular tissue (Blood)

- specialized form of connective tissue

- components:
- blood cells (several types)
- plasma (extracellular matrix)
 What’s in
digested food
red blood cells white blood cells

oxygen waste (urea)

carbon dioxide platelets

plasma hormones
 Blood
Blood is the body’s means of transporting substances around. It
transports:
oxygen from the lungs to the heart and then to the body’s
tissues
carbon dioxide from the tissues to the heart and then to the
lungs to be expired
materials like hormones from one organ to another
nutrients (especially glucose) and minerals from the
intestines to the tissues
waste products to the kidneys.
Relative Amounts of Blood Cells
 Red blood cells
Blood is made up of a number of different elements.
The most common cell in blood is the red blood cell.

Also called erythrocytes.

Disc-shaped.
Made in the bone marrow.
Contain a red-colored compound
called hemoglobin which bonds with
oxygen to form oxyhemoglobin.
Transport oxygen to the tissues.
Red Blood Cells
contain hemoglobin, a
a biconcave disc that molecule specially
is round and flat designed to hold oxygen
without a nucleus and carry it to cells that
need it.

can change shape to an

amazing extent, without
breaking, as it squeezes
single file through the
capillaries.
Erythrocytes (RBCs)
´ Small, biconcave discs

´ Transport oxygen and CO2,

cytoplasm is full of
hemoglobin molecules

´ Have no nuclei or organelles

´ Pick up O2 at lung capillaries

and release it at body tissue
capillaries

´ Survive for ~100-120 days in

the circulation. Worn out RBCs
are removed by macrophages
of the spleen and liver.
White blood cells
Blood also contains white blood cells.

Also called leucocytes.

They are bigger than red
blood cells and have large
nuclei.
Act as the body’s defense
system.
Some white blood cells surround and consume
harmful microbes.
Some produce antibodies that fight infection.
White Blood Cells
there are many different types
and all contain a big nucleus.

the two main ones are the

lymphocytes and the
macrophages.

macrophages ‘eat’ and digest

micro-organisms .

some lymphocytes fight disease by making antibodies to

destroy invaders by dissolving them.
other lymphocytes make antitoxins to break down poisons.
Leukocytes (WBCs)
´Originate in the bone marrow and released
continuously into the blood

´Travel in bloodstream but function mainly

outside of the bloodstream (in loose CT)

´5 types organized into 2 groups

´Granulocytes
´Neutrophils
´Eosinophils
´Basophils
´Agranulocytes
´Lymphocytes
´Monocytes
Leukocytes (6-10,000 per µL)
´Granulocytes (polymorphonuclear
leukocytes)
´neutrophils 60-70%
´eosinophils 2-4%
´basophils 0.5-1%
´Agranulocytes (mononuclear leukocytes)
´lymphocytes 20-30%
´monocytes 3-8%
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Monocytes
Lymphocytes
 Platelets
Platelets are also carried in the blood.

Formed in red bone marrow.

Produce thrombokinase –
a chemical needed for blood clotting.
Platelets help to repair tissues
and close wounds both
internally and externally.
When needed, they grow into irregular
shapes and stick together to form a
plug over the wound.
Platelets

Platelets are bits of cell

broken off larger cells.

Platelets produce tiny

fibrinogen fibres to form a
net. This net traps other
blood cells to form a
blood clot.
 Thrombocytes (Platelets)
´ Disc-shaped, plasma
membrane enclosed
fragments of cytoplasm
´ Broken off from larger
cells called
megakaryocytes
´ Aids in clotting
´ Release secretory
granules that help
recruit other platelets
 Blood clotting
´ Platelets aggregate at the site of
a wound.
´ Broken cells and platelets release
chemicals to stimulate thrombin
production.
´ Thrombin converts the protein
fibrinogen into sticky fibrin, which
binds the clot.
Human Blood Smear
Human Blood Smear
Summary of Formed Elements
Summary of Formed Elements

Table 17.2
Plasma
The blood cells and platelets are suspended in a substance called plasma.
Plasma is made up of:

90% water
inorganic salts
glucose
antibodies
plasma
urea and other waste products
plasma proteins.
Plasma can be
separated from the other
components of blood
using a centrifuge.
Plasma It also contains
useful things like;

• carbon dioxide
• glucose
A straw-
coloured • amino acids
liquid that
carries the • proteins
cells and the
platelets • minerals
which help
• vitamins
blood clot.
• hormones
• waste materials
like urea.
Components of Plasma
´Water (~90%)
´Nutrients
´Waste products (CO2, ammonia, urea)
´Hormones
´Oxygen
´Proteins
´including fibrinogen, a clotting factor

Serum = everything in plasma,

minus the clotting factors
Bone Marrow and Hematopoiesis

´Red bone marrow actively generates

blood cells
´In adults, found only in vertebrae and
girdles, and in the proximal epiphysis of
the humerus and femur

´Yellow marrow is dormant; only

makes blood cells in emergencies
´Fat storage
´Long bone marrow cavities
Hemophila

• A well-known blood-clotting disorder

• Absence of a particular clotting factor

Hematopoietic cells

• adult stem cells that become the various

types of blood cells

• located in the bone marrow

Agglutination

•clumping of red blood cells

•can cause blood to stop circulating in small

blood vessels

•leads to organ damage

•followed by hemolysis (bursting of RBC), which if

extensive, can cause the death of the individual
The Heart
´Size and
position:
´cone shaped
´situated
between the
two lungs
´ size of a
man’s closed
fist
Covering of the heart:
–Pericardium/pericardial membrane
•a tough sac, double walled (with
visceral and parietal layers)
–Pericardial fluid
•fluid secreted by the pericardial
membrane.
importance:
• reduces the friction between the
heart wall and surrounding
tissues when the heart is beating
Anatomy and Physiology of the
Heart (Man)
Cardiac system
The four chambers of the heart have special names:

An upper chamber is called an atrium (plural: atria).

right
atrium left
atrium

right left
ventricle ventricle

A lower chamber is called a ventricle.

Cardiac system
Here are some other important parts of the heart:

The walls are The semi-lunar

made of valves prevent
cardiac expelled blood
muscle. flowing back into
the heart.

The wall Bicuspid (mitral)

dividing the valve
left and right
sides of the Tricuspid valve
heart is called
the septum.
These two valves prevent
blood flowing back into
the atria from the
ventricles.
 Chambers of the heart

´Atria (sing. Atrium)

´two chambers left and right
´located at the base of the heart
´receives blood from the body
´with thin muscular walls for
pumping blood into the ventricles
•Ventricles
–compose of two chambers left and
right
–located at the apex of the heart
–with thick muscular walls
 Walls of the Heart:

´Epicardium
´outer covering of the heart
´Myocardium
´thick inner layer of cardiac muscles
´Endocardium
´thin inner layer of the heart
´ may fold and form the cardiac
papillae
 Heart Valves
´flaps of tissue in the heart and veins
´ prevent the backflow of blood
Types:
Atrioventricular valves
Øtricuspid valve
´separates the right atrium from
the right ventricle
´prevents backflow of blood into
the right atrium
Ø bicuspid/mitral valve
•separates the left atrium from the
left ventricle
•prevents backflow of blood into
the left atrium
Semilunar valves
§pulmonary valve
•prevents the backflow of
blood to the right ventricle
§aortic valve
•prevents the backflow of
blood to the left ventricle
 Blood Vessels Associated with the Heart

´Superior and Inferior Vena Cavae

´return deoxygenated blood from
the body to the right atrium.
´Pulmonary arteries
´left and right; convey
deoxygenated blood from the right
ventricle to the lungs, for
oxygenation.
•Pulmonary veins
– left and right
– convey oxygenated blood
from the lungs to the left
ventricle
•Aorta
–convey oxygenated blood
pump to the left ventricle to the
body
´coronary arteries (left and right)
´branches from the ascending
aorta and supply the heart with
oxygenated blood
´coronary veins (left and right)
´drain the deoxygenated blood
from the heart and convey it to
the right atrium
•coronary sinus
–opening in the right atrium
where deoxygenated blood
from the heart tissue is
conveyed
 The Heart

´The human heart has four chambers

´Left and right ventricle
´Left and right atrium

´The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood

to the body while the right side of the heart pumps
deoxygenated blood to the lungs where oxygen
can be absorbed by the hemoglobin carrying red
blood cells
The circulatory system is described as a double system
because it has two loops.
 The circulatory system
Oxygenated
Deoxygenated blood
blood is
lungs returns to
pumped from the heart
the heart to the through the
lungs through pulmonary
the pulmonary vein.
artery.
Oxygenated
Deoxygenated blood is
blood returns to pumped at
the heart high pressure
through the from the heart
vena cava. body’s to the body
through the
cells
aorta.
 The double circulatory system
The pulmonary circulation carries:

deoxygenated blood from the

lungs
heart to the lungs
oxygenated blood back from the
lungs to the heart, ready to be
pumped out to the body.

The systemic circulation carries:

oxygenated blood to the rest of

the body through the arteries
deoxygenated blood back to the body’s
cells
heart through the veins.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NDk8fmIl9V8
After passing through the capillaries of the lungs, the
blood which is now oxygenated returns to the heart in
the pulmonary veins.

From lungs
The left atrium receives blood from the pulmonary
vein.
Blood passes through the mitral valve into the left
ventricle.
Contraction of the left ventricle pushes blood through the aortic
semilunar valve into the aorta. Blood travels to all regions of the
body where it feeds cells with oxygen picked up from the lungs
and nutrients from the digestive tract.
To rest of body
Deoxygenated blood returns from the rest of the
body through the superior and inferior vena cava.
The right atrium receives the deoxygenated blood.
Blood then enters the right ventricle through the
tricuspid valve.
Contraction of the right ventricle pushes blood through
the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary
arteries in which it travels to the lungs.

To lungs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jBt5jZSWhMI
 Blood from the heart circulates around
the body through blood vessels.

3 types of blood vessels:

a. ARTERY

b. VEIN

c. CAPILLARY
 Blood vessels
There are three types of blood vessels, as shown in this magnified part of
the circulatory system.

blood from blood to the

the heart heart

artery vein
carries blood carries blood
away from back into
the heart the heart
carries blood to
and from the
body’s cells

Why are there different types of blood vessels?

Blood vessels
thick outer wall

thick inner layer of muscle and

elastic fibres

narrow central tube

(lumen)
ARTERY
thin outer wall

thin inner layer of muscle and

elastic fibres

wide central tube CAPILLARY

VEIN (lumen)

wall only one cell thick

 The ARTERY
Arteries carry blood away from the heart.

the elastic fibres allow

the artery to stretch
under pressure

thick muscle and

the thick muscle can
elastic fibres
contract to push the
blood along.
Blood vessel (artery)
simple squamous epithelium
 The VEIN
Veins carry blood towards from the heart.

veins have valves

which act to stop the
blood from going in
the wrong direction.

thin muscle and

elastic fibres body muscles surround the veins
so that when they contract to
move the body, they also squeeze
the veins and push the blood along
the vessel
 Blood vessels: valves
When blood is flowing against gravity, or when a vein is squeezed by muscle
action, there is a risk that blood will flow in the wrong direction. Veins have
valves to prevent backflow.

backflow
prevented
vein valve
open
vein valve
blood to closed
the heart

The valves allow blood …but close if blood

to flow in the correct starts to flow in the
direction… wrong direction.
 The CAPILLARY
Capillaries link Arteries with Veins

they exchange materials

between the blood and
other body cells.

the wall of a capillary

is only one cell thick

The exchange of materials

between the blood and the
body can only occur through
capillaries.
 The CAPILLARY
A collection of capillaries is known as a capillary bed.
´Cardiac Sound
Auscultation of the heart is used to diagnose and evaluate valve
function. There are four sounds produced by the heart during a
cardiac cycle. The first two sounds are easily heard and are called
S1 and S2 (also known as Lubb and Dupp)
• S1 (Lubb) - caused by closure of the atrioventricular (AV) valves
as ventricles begin to contract
• S2 (Dupp) - occurs as the SL valves close at the beginning of
ventricular diastole
• The third (S3) and fourth (S4) sounds are difficult to hear.
Blood pressure
Blood pressure depends on the speed of the blood coming into a vessel
and the width of the vessel itself.

Arteries Capillaries Veins

Speed: high Speed: medium Speed: low
Width: medium Width: narrow Width: wide

Pressure: high Pressure: medium Pressure: low

Blood pressure
An individual’s blood pressure is affected by a number of factors.

Age – it increases as you get older.

Gender – men tend to have higher blood pressure than
women.
Stress can cause increased blood pressure.
Diet – salt and saturated fats can increase blood pressure.
Exercise – the fitter you are the lower your blood pressure is
likely to be.

Having high blood pressure puts stress on your heart. It can

lead to angina, heart attacks and strokes.
 Effects of exercise on blood
pressure
The immediate effect of exercise is to raise the blood pressure as the
heart beats faster and more powerfully.

During intense exercise, blood flow to the muscles

can increase to 35 times its normal volume. Higher
blood pressure is necessary in order to get this extra
blood to the muscles.

However, in the long-term, regular

exercise reduces blood pressure.
The fitter you are, the lower your
blood pressure is likely to be.
 Blood flow and body temperature
The circulatory system plays an important role in regulating body
temperature.

Capillaries
Sweat
gland

If the body gets too hot, capillaries near the surface of the skin widen.
Blood is diverted to the skin where the heat can easily radiate away. This
is called vasodilation.
Water from the blood is excreted as sweat to cool the body.
Blood flow and body temperature

Capillaries
Sweat
gland

If the body gets too cold, capillaries near the surface of the skin get
narrower. Blood is diverted away from the skin to limit heat loss. This is
called vasoconstriction.
Sweating stops.
 The heart during exercise
You can measure how fast your
heart is beating by taking your
Heart rate (or pulse rate) is the pulse.
number of times your heart beats
every minute.
It is expressed in beats per minute
(bpm).
Resting heart rate varies from
This can be done at the wrist or
individual to individual and is the neck.
affected by fitness. Count how many times your heart
beats in 6 seconds and then
The fitter you are, the lower your multiply by 10.
resting heart rate will be.
The average resting heart rate is
about 70–75 bpm.
The heart during exercise
Each individual has a maximum heart rate – the fastest that their heart
is able to beat. Testing it properly is difficult and unpleasant, as it
involves pushing your body to its absolute limit.
However, maximum heart rate can be estimated using a simple
formula:

Maximum Heart Rate (MHR) = 220 – age

So, a 25 year-old would have a maximum heart rate of

220 – 25 = 195 bpm

What would your maximum heart rate be?