5/10/2024

Geometric Design of Highway

Lecture # 8: Intersection Design

Lecturer: Asst. Prof. Dr. Hardy Kamal Karim
Ph.D. in Highway Engineering
University of Sulaimani

Intersection Design

• The three general types of roadway crossings are at-grade intersections, grade
separations without ramps, and interchanges.

• At-grade intersections are among the most complicated elements of a roadway.

• Intersections usually have less capacity than other parts of the roadway and are where
most traffic conflicts occur.

• The design of intersections is important to users of the intersections and owners of land
adjacent to the intersection.

• Therefore, design criteria should be selected that will result in a balanced and cost-
effective design that provides anticipated efficient operations and low crash frequencies,
and considers the needs of all user groups.

• Design criteria should also meet mobility, environmental, scenic, aesthetic, cultural,
natural resource, and community needs to the extent practicable. 2

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Characteristics of Intersections

• Focus of Land Use Activity: the land near intersections often contains a
concentration of travel destinations that are accessed by multiple modes.

• Conflict Points: pedestrians, bicyclists and motor vehicles often cross paths at
intersections where through and turning movements conflict. These crossings are
referred to as “conflict points,” and can be further categorized by movement type
and corresponding severity.

• Traffic Control: movement of users may be assigned through use of traffic control
devices such as yield signs, stop signs, and traffic signals.

• Capacity: traffic control at intersections often limits the number of users that can
be accommodated within a given time period on the intersecting roadways.
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Intersection Functional Area

• An intersection is defined by both its functional and physical areas.

• The functional area of an intersection extends both upstream and downstream

from the physical intersection area and includes any auxiliary lanes and their
associated channelization.

• The functional area on the approach to an intersection or driveway consists of

three basic elements: (1) perception–reaction decision distance, (2) maneuver
distance, and (3) queue-storage distance.

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Design Considerations for Intersection User Groups

• Automobiles and Other Motor Vehicles Other Than Trucks, Bicyclists, Pedestrians,
Transit, Trucks

Intersection Capacity

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Intersection Design Elements

• Alignment and profile,

• Intersection sight distance,
• Turning roadways and channelization,
• Auxiliary lanes,
• Median openings and pedestrian refuge,
• Indirect left turns and U-turns,
• Roundabouts,
• Crossing distances and pedestrian exposure,
• Bicyclist treatments,
• Other intersection design elements, and
• Railroad–highway grade crossings.
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Types & Examples of Intersections

• The basic types of intersections are three-leg (T), four-leg, multileg, and
roundabouts.

• Further classification of the basic intersection types includes such variations as

unchannelized, flared, and channelized intersections.

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Three-Leg Intersections

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Channelized Three-Leg Intersections

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Four-Leg Intersections

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Channelized Four-Leg Intersections

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Four-Leg Intersections with Skew

The Highway Design Handbook for Older
Drivers and Pedestrians presents the following
guidelines:

• In the design of new facilities or redesign of

existing facilities where right-of-way is not
restricted, all intersection roadways should
meet at a 90-degree angle.

• In the design of new facilities or redesign of

existing facilities where right-of-way is
restricted, intersecting roadways should
meet at an angle of not less than 75 degrees.

• At skewed intersections where the

approach leg to the left intersects the
driver’s approach leg at an angle of less
than 75 degrees, the prohibition of RTOR is
desirable.
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Channelized Four-Leg Intersections

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Multi-leg Intersections

• Multileg intersections - those with five or more intersection legs - should be

avoided wherever practical.

• At locations where multileg intersections are used, roundabouts may be the

most appropriate solution.

• Traffic operational efficiency can also be improved by reconfigurations that

remove some minor-roadway conflicting movements from the major
intersection.

• Such reconfigurations are accomplished by realigning one or more of the

intersecting legs and combining some of the traffic movements at adjacent
subsidiary intersections, as shown in next figure.
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Circular Intersections:

1) Roundabouts are circular intersections with specific design and traffic control
features that typically include:

• yield control for all entering traffic.

• channelized approaches.

• appropriate curvature designed into the intersection geometry so that travel

speeds on the circulatory roadway are typically less than 30 mph [50 km/h].

• splitter islands on each leg of the roundabout to separate entering and exiting
traffic, deflect and slow entering traffic, and provide a pedestrian refuge.

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2) Neighborhood traffic circles are typically built at the intersections of local streets for
traffic calming and/or aesthetics.

• the intersection approaches may be yield-controlled, uncontrolled, or stop-controlled.

• the intersection diameter is typically between 50 and 100 ft [15 and 30 m].

• they do not typically include raised channelization on the entering roadway to guide the
approaching driver onto the circulatory roadway.

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3) Rotaries are old-style circular intersections common to the United States prior to the
1960s.

• Rotaries are characterized by large diameter [often in excess of 300 ft (100 m)].

• This large diameter typically results in travel speeds within the circulatory roadway that
exceed 30 mph [50 km/h].

• They provide little or no horizontal deflection of the paths of through traffic and may even
operate according to the traditional “yield-to-the-right” rule; that is, circulating traffic
yields to entering traffic.

4) Signalized traffic circles are old-style circular intersections in which traffic signals are
used to control one or more entry-circulating points and thus have distinctly different
operational characteristics from yield-controlled roundabouts.

• Rotaries and signalized traffic circles have been found to be ineffective and are no
longer constructed. 23

Modern Roundabouts
• Modern roundabouts can be classified into three basic categories according to size and
number of lanes to facilitate the discussion of specific performance and design issues:
1) Mini-roundabouts
2) Single-lane roundabouts
3) Multilane roundabouts

• Any of the categories may be appropriate for application in rural, suburban, or urban
areas.

• Roundabouts in urban areas may need smaller inscribed circle diameters due to smaller
design vehicles and constraints of existing right-of-way and may include extensive
pedestrian and bicycle features.

• Roundabouts in rural areas typically have higher approach speeds and thus may need
special attention to visibility, approach alignment, and cross-sectional details.

• Roundabouts in the suburban context may combine features of both urban and rural
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roundabouts.

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Mini-Roundabouts
• Mini-roundabouts are small roundabouts with average operating speeds of 30 mph [50
km/h] or less.
• They can be useful in low-speed urban environments in cases where conventional
roundabout design is precluded by right-of way constraints.
• They are typically recommended where there is insufficient right of- way for a
conventional single-lane roundabout.
• Because they are small, mini-roundabouts are fairly accommodating to pedestrians with
short crossing distances and relatively low vehicle speeds on approaches and exits.
• The mini-roundabout is designed to accommodate passenger cars without the need to
drive over the central island.
• However, the central island is mountable, and larger vehicles may cross over the central
island, but not to the left of it.
• Speed control around the mountable central island should be incorporated in the design
by providing horizontal deflection. 26

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Single-Lane Roundabouts
• Single-lane roundabouts are characterized as having a single entry lane at all legs and
one circulatory lane.

• They are distinguished from mini-roundabouts by their larger inscribed circle diameters
and non-mountable central islands.

• Their design allows slightly higher speeds at the entry, on the circulatory roadway, and at
the exit.

• The geometric design includes raised splitter islands, a non-mountable central island,
and typically a truck apron.

• The size of the roundabout is largely influenced by the choice of design vehicle.

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Multilane Roundabouts
• Multilane roundabouts include all roundabouts that have at least one entry with two or
more lanes.

• In some cases, the roundabout may have a different number of lanes on one or more
approaches. For example, a roundabout with both two-lane entries and single-lane
entries would still be considered a multilane roundabout.

• They also include roundabouts with entries on one or more approaches that flare from
one to two or more lanes. These need wider circulatory roadways to accommodate more
than one vehicle travelling side-by-side.

• The speeds at the entry, on the circulatory roadway, and at the exit are similar to or may
be slightly higher than those for the single-lane roundabouts.

• The geometric design will include raised splitter islands, a truck apron, a non-mountable
central island, and appropriate horizontal deflection. 30

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• Roundabouts can be further categorized into six classes based on the size and
environment in which they are located. These are shown in the table below:

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Intersection Alignment

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Profile of At-Grade Intersections

• In designing the profile (vertical alignment) at the intersection, a combination of grade
lines should be provided to facilitate the driver’s control of the vehicle. For example,
wherever possible, large changes in grade should be avoided; preferably, grades should
not be greater than 3 %.

• The stopping and accelerating distances for passenger cars on grades of 3 %, or less
are not much different from those of cars on flat grades; however, significant
differences start to occur at grades higher than 3 %.

• When it is unavoidable to use grades of 3 % or more, design factors such as stopping

distances and accelerating distances should be adjusted so that conditions equivalent
to those on level ground exist.

• In any case, it is not advisable to use grades higher than 6 % at intersections.

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• When it is necessary to adjust the grade lines of the approaches at an intersection, it is

preferable that the grade line of the major highway be continued across the
intersection and that of the minor road be altered to obtain the desired result.

• However, any adjustment to a grade line of an approach should be made at a suitable

distance from the intersection in order to provide a smooth junction and proper
drainage.

• It always should be remembered that the combination of alignment and grades at an

intersection should produce traffic lanes that are clearly seen by motorists at all times,
without the sudden appearance of potential hazards.

• Also, motorists should be able to easily understand the path they should take for any
desired direction.

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Channelizing Islands
• Channelizing islands that control and direct traffic movements into the proper paths
for their intended use are an important part of intersection design.

• Confusing traffic movements resulting from spacious areas may be eliminated by the
conversion of unused areas into islands that leave little to driver discretion.

• Channelizing islands may be of many shapes and sizes, depending on the conditions
and dimensions of the intersection.

• A common form is the corner triangular shape that separates right-turning traffic from
through traffic.

• Central islands may serve as a guide around which turning vehicles operate.

• In urban and suburban areas, where pedestrians are generally expected, the design of
triangular channelizing islands affects the visibility of pedestrians to approaching
drivers, and vice versa. 36

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Divisional Islands
• Divisional islands often are introduced on undivided roadways at intersections. They
alert the drivers to the crossroad ahead and regulate traffic through the intersection.

• These islands are particularly advantageous in controlling left turns at skewed

intersections and at locations where separate roadways are provided for right-turning
traffic.

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Refuge Islands
• A refuge island for pedestrians is one at or near a crosswalk or bicycle path that aids
pedestrians and bicyclists who cross the roadway.

• Raised-curb corner islands and center channelizing or divisional islands can be used as
refuge areas.

• Refuge islands for pedestrians and bicyclists crossing a wide street, for loading or
unloading transit riders, or for wheelchair ramps are used primarily in urban areas.

• The location and width of crosswalks, the location and size of transit loading zones,
and the provision of wheelchair ramps influence the size and location of refuge islands.

• Refuge islands should be a minimum of 6 ft [1.8 m] wide and pedestrians and bicyclists
should have a clear path through the island and should not be obstructed by curbs,
poles, sign posts, utility boxes, etc.
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Island Size and Designation

• The smallest curbed corner island normally should have an area of approximately 50
ft² [5 m²] for urban and 75 ft² [7 m²] for intersections in rural areas. However, 100 ft²
[9 m2] is preferable for both.

• Accordingly, corner triangular islands should not be less than 12 ft [3.5 m], and
preferably should be 15 ft [4.5 m] on a side after the rounding of corners.

• Elongated or divisional islands should not be less than 4 ft [1.2 m] wide and 20 to 25 ft
[6 to 8m] long.

• In special cases where space is limited, elongated islands may be reduced to a

minimum width of 2 ft [0.5 m].

• If a pedestrian refuge area is provided, the island should be not less than 6 ft [1.8 m]
wide.
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• In general, introducing curbed divisional islands at isolated intersections on high-speed

highways is undesirable unless special attention is directed to providing high visibility for
the islands.

• Curbed divisional islands introduced at isolated intersections on high-speed highways

should be 100 ft [30 m] or more in length.

• When situated in the vicinity of a high point in the roadway profile or at or near the
beginning of a horizontal curve, the approach end of the curbed island should be
extended to be clearly visible to approaching drivers.
• Islands should be delineated or outlined by a variety of treatments, depending on their
size, location, and function.

• The type of area in which the intersection is located, rural versus urban, also governs the
design. In a physical sense, islands can be divided into three groups: (1) raised-curb
islands, (2) islands delineated by pavement markings or reflectorized markers placed on
paved areas, and (3) islands formed by the pavement edges and possibly supplemented
by delineators on posts or other guideposts, or mounded-earth treatment beyond and
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adjacent to the pavement edges.

Details of Corner Island Designs for

Turning Roadways (Urban Area
Location)

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Details of Corner Island Designs for

Turning Roadways
(Rural Cross Section on Approach)

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Nose Ramping at Approach End of Median or Corner

Island

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Details of Divisional Island Design

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Development of Superelevation at Turning Roadway Terminals

Development of Superelevation at Turning Roadway Terminals on a Tangent roadway

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Development of Superelevation at Turning Roadway

Terminals on a Curved Roadway (Same Direction of Curve)
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Development of Superelevation at Turning Roadway Terminals

on a Curved Roadway (Opposite Direction of Curve)
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Development of Superelevation at Turning Roadway

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Terminals on a Tangent Roadway with a Deceleration Lane

Superelevation Transition and Grade line Control

Superelevation Transition and Grade line Control

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