DUMBARTON OAKS MEDIEVAL LIBRARY Old English Legal

Jan M. Ziolkowski, General Editor

Daniel Donoghue, Old English Editor Writings
Old English Editorial Board
Peter S. Baker WULFSTAN
R. D.Fulk
Antonette diPaolo Healey --ij~
Susan Irvine
Christopher A.Jones
Katherine O'Brien O'Keeffe Edited and Translated by
Andy Orchard
Elizabeth Tyler ANDREW RABIN
Old English Advisory Board
Rolf Bremmer
Roberta Frank tDUMBARTON OAKS
Malcolm Godden Jt°EDIEVAL aQjlRARY
Simon Keynes
Patrizia Lendinara HARVARD UNI V ERSITY PRESS
Donald Scragg
CAMBRIDGE, MASS A CHUSETTS

L O NDON, ENGLAND

2020
 Contents

Copyright ((,) 20 20 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College

Introduction ix
ALL RI G H T S RESER ~' ED
Printed in the United States ofAmerica

First Printing POLITICAL TRACTS

THE LAws OF EDWARD AND GuTHRUM 2

Library ofCongress Cataloging-in-Puhlication Data
Names: Wulfstan, Archbishop of York, - 10 23, author. Wulfstan, THE COMPILATION ON STATUS 10
Archbishop of York, - 1023. Works. Selections (20 20) IWulfstan,
ON SANCTUARY 22
Archbishop of York, 1023. Works. Selections (20 20). English. I Rabin,
Andrew, editor, translator. NoRTHUMBRIAN CHURCH SANCTUARY 32
Title: Old English legal writings / Wulfstan; edited and translated by
THE OATH OF THE KING 34
Andrew Rabin.
Other titles: Dumbarton Oaks medieval library; 66. THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (I) 38
Description: Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2020. I
THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (2) 60
Series: Dumbarton Oaks medieval library; DOML 66 1Includes
b1bliographical references and index. ITexts in the original Old English
with English translations on facing pages; introduction and notes in TRACTS ON ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNANCE
English.
ON EPISCOPAL DUTIES 102
Identifiers: LCCN 2020008166 I ISBN 9780674247482 (cloth)
Subjects: LCSH: Wulfstan, Archbishop of York, -1023-Political and ON THE REMEDY OF SOULS 108
social views. ICatholic Church-Great Britain-Government-Early
works to 1800. IChurch and state-Great Britain-Early works to
INSTRUCTIONS FOR BISHOPS rr4
1800. I Great Britain-Politics and government-To 1485-Earlyworks AN ADMONITION TO BISHOPS 120
to 1800.
THE CANONS OF EDGAR 124
Classification: LCC PR1796 .R329 2020 I DDC 274.2/03-dc23
LC record available at https://kcn.loc.govh.020008166
 CONTENTS
CONTENTS

Note on the Texts 361

ROYAL LEGISLATION
Notes to the Texts 363
5 ..t£THELRED 146 Notes to the Translations 401
6 ..t£THELRED 160 Bihliography 429
7 ..t£THELRED 180 Index 433
7A ..t£THELRED 186

8 ..t£THELRED 190

9 ..t£THELRED 206

I0 ..t£THELRED 208

CNUT'S OXFORD LEGISLATION OF 1018 210

CNUT'S PROCLAMATION OF 1020 226

I CNUT 232

2 CNUT 254

APPENDIX I:
QUESTIONABLE ATTRIBUTIONS

THE NORTHUMBRIAN PRIESTS' LAW 302

THE OBLIGATIONS OF INDIVIDUALS AND

ON REEVES 316

APPENDIX 2:
REVISIONS AND REWORKINGS

I ..t£THELSTAN 342

I EDMUND 346
2 EDGAR AND 3 EDGAR 35°

vii
vi
 Introduction

It is one of history's ironies that someone of such promi-

nence to his contemporaries as Archbishop Wulfstan ofYork
(d. 1023) should be so little known today. During his lifetime
Wulfstan served in three of England's most powerful eccle-
siastical offices (bishop of London, bishop of Worcester,
and archbishop of York), authored a series of homilies now
considered landmarks of early English prose, drafted legisla-
tion on behalf of Kings /Ethelred and Cnut, and composed
tracts on civil and Church governance that outlined an ex-
pansive vision of an ideal Christian kingdom. Yet despite
the profound influence he exercised on the political and re-
ligious life of early eleventh-century England, much of his
own life is shrouded in mystery. Little is known of his career
beyond its most general contours, and even the boundar-
ies of his corpus remain subject to dispute. Indeed, it has
been only within the last ninety years that most of Wulf-
stan's nonhomiletic works have come to be recognized as
his. As a result, many of the texts in this volume are edited
here for the first time in English and likewise for the first
time within the context ofWulfstan's thought and career. In
bringing together editions of his most significant works on
law, politics, and ecclesiastical governance, this anthology is
thus intended to shed light on the range ofWulfstan's legal

ix
 I N TROD U CTION
INTRODUCTION

writings while also demonstrating the vibrancy of English London's financial sector as for their religious attainments.
political thought in the decades before the Norman Con- The uniquely political nature of this position brought Wulf
quest. stan his first formal role at court, where he associated him-
self with a faction of reformist ecclesiastics led by Arch-
bishop /Elfric of Canterbury (d. wo5). /Elfric appears to
WuLFSTAN's LIFE AND CAREER have viewed Wulfstan as a friend and ally, eventually naming
No reliable evidence for Wulfstan's life survives prior to the him both the executor of his will and one of its leading ben-
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle entry for 996 that records his appoint- eficiaries. Perhaps the most revealing indication of Wulf-
ment as bishop of London. The age at which Wulfstan's con- stan's reformist activities, however, is the occurrence of his
temporaries were elevated to their first bishoprics varied name alongside that of /Elfric and other reformers, such as
widely, but a 996 appointment indicates that he was most Bishop Wulfsige of Sherborne (d. woz), on the witness lists
likely born sometime between 946 and 966, with a date of the six so-called "penitential charters" issued after 996
closer to the latter being the more plausible. His later asso- by .tEthelred to atone for his youthful misdeeds. Wulfstan's
ciation with Worcester, patronage of Peterborough, and close affiliation with the reformist party shaped his ap-
burial at Ely have led to suggestions that his family origi- proach to his other episcopal duties as well. In homilies
nated in either the west midlands or southeastern Danelaw, composed during this period, he urged clerics of his diocese
though this is little more than speculation. Similarly subject to observe orthodox religious practices strictly while also
to guesswork are the nature ofWulfstan's education and the emphasizing the moral obligations of the episcopacy and
circumstances surrounding his entry into the Church. He the close relationship between civil and ecclesiastical law-
almost certainly spent his early years attached to a monas- all themes that would recur frequently in his later writings.
tery, though, as his later advocacy for monastic regularity In 1002, Wulfstan left London to become bishop of
and his opposition to lay involvement in Church governance Worcester and archbishop of York. Although joint appoint-
make a secular background unlikely. ments of this sort were often frowned upon, it was not un
Wulfstan's career begins to come into focus with his ele- common for the limited resources of the York archdiocese
vation to the bishopric of London, in which he served from to be supplemented by simultaneous election to a wealth-
996 to 1002. The see of London at the turn of the millen- ier see. Moreover, from a political standpoint, questions re-
nium occupied a distinctive place in the English Church: garding the Danelaw's loyalty meant that the king preferred
London's proximity to the court and the thriving mercantile those with northern appointments to have ties to the south
economy meant that those elected to the see were chosen as well. It was during these first years at York and Worcester
as much to preserve the diocese's sometimes delicate rela- that the earliest of Wulfstan's surviving tracts on civil and
tionship with the king and ensure the continued support of ecclesiastical governance were composed, perhaps in re-

X
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 INTROD UC TIO N INTRODUCTION

sponse to the administrative needs of his new positions.

The move north did not diminish Wulfstan's growing in• POLITI C AL TRACTS

fluence at court: by the Council of Enham in 1008 he had Over the course of his career, Wulfstan composed a variety
become chiefly responsible for drafting the legislation is• of tracts on such topics as the proper exercise of royal au-
sued in .tEthelred's name. It was during this period also that thority, the inviolability of ecclesiastical sanctuary, and the
Wulfstan refined his distinctive homiletic style, culminat structure of the ideal society. Although the extent to which
ing with the earliest versions of his most famous homily, these tracts reflected actual practice remains unclear, they
the Senno Lupi ad Anglos, likely composed in approximately nonetheless provided Wulfstan with the opportunity to pro-
1009. mote his views on how best to govern a Christian kingdom.
Wulfstan maintained his position at court following the It is in these texts that we see Wulfstan honing his distinc-
1016 collapse of .tEthelred's government and the accession tive "homiletic style," combining the moral admonitions and
of the conqueror Cnut. Under the new administration, he rhetorical flourishes of a sermon with the legalistic vocabu-
continued to serve as one of the king's chief counselors and lary and causal syntax of a law code. Wulfstan draws these
as the primary author of royal legislation. He reached his two seemingly incompatible genres together through the use
greatest influence in the years between 1018 and 10 23, which of a vigorous prose idiom that borrows the rhythm, allitera-
witnessed the composition of his most ambitious works, the tion, and occasionally even something resembling the me-
law codes r and 2 Cnut and the final version of The Institutes ter of Old English poetry. This mingling of genres is the re-
of Polity, the most comprehensive statement of his politi- sult of neither accident nor carelessness on Wulfstan's part:
cal philosophy. Wulfstan also remained active in ecclesias- rather, it reflects the archbishop's view of his ecclesiastical
tical matters following the conquest. Although he retired and legislative roles as two halves of a single enterprise. For
from the bishopric of Worcester in 1016, he retained vicari- Wulfstan, the minister and the lawgiver share the same obli-
ous authority over the see through his successor, Leofsige, gation to safeguard the political stability and the moral in-
who likely acted primarily as a suffragan. At York, Wulfstan tegrity of the community.
worked to consolidate the archdiocese's landholdings and Wulfstan's political tracts pose a number of problems
recover alienated property. The preservation of several of for the modern reader. Their intended audience is often un-
his homilies in the York Gospels likewise points to his con- known, as is the extent of their circulation. His habit of
tinued involvement in the see's spiritual affairs. Wulfstan revising his texts repeatedly, frequently over a number of
died at York on May 28, 1023, following which he was buried years, means that many of his works survive in multiple ver-
at Ely in accordance with his wishes. His remains were re- sions and, indeed, may never have been understood to be
interred several times before reaching their current resting "finished," at least not in a modern sense. Even more thorny
place, the chantry chapel of Bishop Nicholas West, in 1771. is the question of the texts' reliability. Wulfstan took a deep

xii xiii
 INTROD U CTION
INTRODUCTION

whom the Danelawwas founded may have been a way of ap-

interest in English legal history, yet he did so as a propagan-
pealing to the Anglo-Danish population of his new archdio-
dist seeking historical precedent for current policy. And in
cese, York.
the absence of such precedent, he appears to have felt little
A similar approach to legal history can be found in Wulf-
compunction about creating it. As a result, his tendency to
stan's Compilation on Status, the most ambitious of his early
manufacture documents (such as The Laws of Edward and
attempts to articulate a vision of an ordered Christian soci-
Guthrum) or claim precedent where none may exist (as in On
ety. Taken together, the texts collected here describe an ide-
the Ranks ofPeople and Law in The Compilation on Status) can
alized version of England's legal past in which social hierar-
blur the line between historical fact and fiction. Yet for all of
chies were strictly observed and the ranks of the Church
their difficulties, the political tracts offer a vivid illustration
were properly respected. The Compilation consists of a core
of the way in which Wulfstan developed his views of social
of ninth-century texts- the first half of On Wergild, On the
order and Christian governance.
Law ofthe Mercians, and On the Mercian Oath- to which Wulf-
Of Wulfstan's surviving political tracts, arguably the ear-
stan added an introductory text (On the Ranks ofPeople and
liest is The Laws ofEdward and Guthrum, which likely dates
Law), the second half of On Wergild, and a concluding text
to between 1002 and 1004, just after his appointment to the
(On Priests' Oaths). Perhaps the most discussed passages in
archbishopric of York, though a later date has recently been
the Compilation are the clauses in On Ranks setting forth the
suggested. The text professes to be a treaty between Edward
criteria for social mobility. There is considerable disagree-
the Elder (ea. 874-924) and the Viking king Guthrum (d. ea.
ment, however, over whether these clauses- and indeed
890) in terms similar to those of the treaty Guthrum sealed
many of the other practices Wulfstan describes as having
with Edward's father, Alfred. Although it is manifestly a
previously been observed- describe a real state of affairs or
forgery, Wulfstan almost certainly did not intend this-or
whether they are instead yet another product of the arch-
any of his other "forgeries," such as The Canons ofEdgar-to
bishop's fertile legal imagination.
be taken at face value. Beyond the mention of Alfred, Ed-
The roughly contemporary text On Sanctuary offers Wulf-
ward, and Guthrum in the opening clauses, there is little in
stan's most extended argument for the inviolability of ec-
the text that reflects the concerns of early Viking Age Eng-
clesiastical protection, a topic he returns to frequently in
land. Rather, the pseudo-historical preface provides Wulf-
his other writings as well. Although it occurs alongside 8
stan with an authoritative precedent for a series of clauses
.!Ethelred in London, British Library, Cotton MS Nero A.i,
on such topics as the payment of Church dues and the proper
its sole manuscript witness, internal evidence suggests that
observance of religious festivals that reflect the priorities of
the text was likely composed in tandem with The Compila-
the Monastic Reform movement. It is unclear why Wulfstan
tion on Status, perhaps between 1006 and 1008. The text con-
chose to assign this text to Edward and Guthrum, though
sists of three parts: an initial statement of principles (clauses
it has been suggested that evoking the Viking king under

xv
XIV
 INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION

1-2), an extended catalog of past and present sanctuary laws able. The original text now survives only as a fragment, mak-
(clauses 3-19), and a homiletic conclusion (clauses 20-31). ing Liebermann's transcription the only complete witness.
The text is striking both for the extensive research "Wulf- One ofWulfstan's most explicit discussions of the extent
stan apparently undertook in collecting the various sanctu- (and limits) of royal authority occurs in The Oath of the King
ary practices cataloged here-among other things, On Sanc- (Promissio regis), an Old English rendering of the promises
tuary contains his most detailed discussion of the Kentish made by the king at his coronation along with a brief discus-
and West Saxon laws of the seventh and eighth centuries sion in the form of a homily on the obligations of a ruler
-and for the way in which it consistently emphasizes the to his people. Initially dated to the reign of Edgar, the text
superiority of ecclesiastical protection over secular power. was recently shown to be the work of Wulfstan, possibly
Moreover, in keeping with his practice in Edward-Guthrum composed for use at a royal assembly toward the end of
and The Compilation on Status, Wulfstan also presents a re- JEthelred's reign, possibly between 1014 and 1016. The vi-
vised version of the legal past, in this case by introducing sion of kingship expressed in Oath is one strongly influenced
changes into earlier laws that elevate the standing of Church by the political theology of the Monastic Reform: the king
officers over that of their secular counterparts. Given that is portrayed as a sacral figure invested with the duty both
this text and the Compilation were likely both composed just to rule his kingdom justly and to act in a pastoral capac-
as Wulfstan was making his first forays into the drafting of ity toward his people. At the same time, the text bears many
royal legislation, they provide valuable insight into his views of the hallmarks of Wulfstan's style, including rhythmic
of civil and ecclesiastical governance just at the time he was prose, the catalog of sinners ("ban wizards entirely, elimi-
first in a position to translate those views into legal policy. nate witchcraft, banish the slayers of kin") and the reuse of
More puzzling is Wulfstan's other treatise on ecclesias- themes and phrases from his other writings, particularly in
tical protection, Northumbrian Church Sanctuary. This short this case the earlier version of The Institutes of Polity. More
text also survives only in London, British Library, Cotton than just an encapsulation of the archbishop's views on
MS Nero A.i, where it has been interposed immediately af- Christian kingship, however, Oath also provides a useful il-
ter 8 .IF,thelred 5.2, a clause setting out penalties for the vio- lustration of how Wulfstan chose to express his views when
lation of sanctuary. The text's date is unknown, though its directly addressingJEthelred and his court.
manuscript context suggests that it was likely composed at The most substantial of Wulfstan's political tracts is The
roughly the same time as 8 .IF,thelred, around 1012-1014. Un- Institutes ofPolity (the title is a modern editorial convention),
fortunately, further study of the text has been significantly a collection of short, quasi-independent chapters outlining
hindered by an ill-advised attempt by the editor Felix Lie- his vision of the ideal Christian kingdom. Organized hier-
bermann to treat the manuscript with sulfuric acid, leaving archically, the chapters of Polity expand The Compilation on
large portions of the folio on which it occurs all but unread- Status's discussion of social rank into an elaborate account

XVl XVII
 INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION

of the obligations expected of each of society's members. identifies them as components of a single text. It was only in
The text is perhaps best known for its division of the king- 1840 that the chapters were first edited as a distinct work
dom into oratores (those who pray), bellatores (those who and given the title they now carry. Not until 1918 was Wulf-
fight), and laboratores (those who work), placing it among the stan identified as their author.
earliest examples of medieval "estates literature." Yet Wulf- What can be said with more confidence is that Wulfstan
stan's vision encompasses more than just a catalog of social appears to have worked on the text in two primary phases:
obligations: for Wulfstan, the exterior social world and the the first between 1008 and 1010 (r Polity), perhaps in re-
interior moral world are inextricably linked. As he points sponse to the increasing chaos that marked the closing years
out in Polity's final chapter (pointedly using the first-person of .tEthelred's reign, and then a later revision (2 Polity) be-
plural to include himself in the injunction), fulfilling our tween 1018 and 1023, reflecting the changed circumstances
social obligations also requires us to "order our words and of Cnut's rule. Both versions of Polity are included in this
deeds rightly, fervently cleanse our inmost thoughts, truly volume. Though Polity raises many questions for its readers,
keep our oath and pledge, and frequently reflect on the great taken as a whole it represents the most ambitious exercise
judgment to which we all must go." In essence, Wulfstan ar- in political theory to survive from pre-Conquest England.
gues that a virtuous society and a virtuous soul are interde-
pendent: the ideal Christian kingdom can be realized only
when both inner self and outer community are ordered ac- TRACTS ON ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNANCE

cording to God's divine plan. Central to Wulfstan's model of the ideal Christian society is
Polity presents its editors with several significant prob- a vision of the Church restored to theological orthodoxy
lems. As with many ofWulfstan's other political tracts, little and governed by a politically engaged, monastically trained
is known of the intended audience or the extent of its cir- episcopate. Unlike his contemporary .tElfric of Eynsham,
culation. Moreover, given the many variations between its who wished to see the Church remain largely separate from
manuscript witnesses, it is far from clear whether the latest politics and the attendant risk of moral taint, Wulfstan
versions represent what Wulfstan might have considered a viewed bishops' duties as encompassing participation in
finished text or, indeed, an entirely unified one. Even the or- secular governance no less than ecclesiastical leadership. As
der and number of chapters can vary between manuscripts, he writes in Polity,
meaning that Polity must be understood, at least in part, as a
modern editorial construct. Although the loosely hierarchi- Bishops are the messengers and teachers of God's law,
cal ordering of the chapters suggests they were meant to and they must proclaim justice and forbid injustice.
be read together, none of the various manuscripts of Polity And anyone who disdains to listen to them may take
combines them under a single rubric or otherwise explicitly issue about that with God himsel£ And if bishops fail

xviii xix
 INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION

by not curbing sin or forbidding injustice or making in problems of abstract theology than in more immediate
known God's law, but by mumbling with their mouths issues of Church governance and the just exercise of author-
when they should shout, woe to them for that silence! ity. No less revealing is the manner in which Wulfstan incor-
porates such influences into his writing: unlike his contem-
Wulfstan explores this theme in more detail in a series of poraries, he only very rarely identifies his sources. In part,
tracts outlining the proper management of Church affairs. this may reflect the fact that many of his works were likely
Although, like his political tracts, Wulfstan's tracts on eccle- composed as he traveled between York, Worcester, and the
siastical governance are bedeviled by unresolved questions itinerant royal court, thus forcing the archbishop to rely on
of readership, circulation, and textual completeness, they his notes or memory rather than on the kind of full monas-
nonetheless provide valuable insight into his views on the tic library enjoyed by his more sedentary contemporaries.
political obligations of the Church as well as a glimpse of his More than this, however, the freedom with which Wulfstan
approach to his episcopal duties. both borrowed from previous writers and, just as frequently,
Yet this is not the ecclesiastical tracts' only significance: reworked his sources for his own ends allowed him to de-
as the most densely sourced of his works, these texts shed velop a distinct authorial and authoritative voice with which
considerable light on Wulfstan's intellectual influences and to articulate his social vision. For Wulfstan, the sources upon
writing practices. Relatively few of the prescriptions in the which he drew were not objects of reverence, but rather
ecclesiastical tracts originate with Wulfstan himself. Rather, tools for the construction of his ideal Christian society.
they represent an assemblage of materials taken from a Among Wulfstan's earliest tracts on ecclesiastical gov-
range of primarily contemporary and near-contemporary ernance is the short text On Episcopal Duties (also known
sources, particularly Carolingian and post-Carolingian can- as Episcopus). The sole surviving text of Episcopal Duties oc-
onists of the ninth and tenth centuries and English writers curs in Oxford, Bodleian Library, MSJunius 121. Likely com-
affiliated with the Monastic Reform movement. Of the for- posed sometime after Edward-Guthrum, perhaps between
mer, Wulfstan draws most frequently on the works of Hine- 1002 and 1008, the text provides one of the clearest ex-

mar of Reims, Theodulf of Orleans, Atto of Vercelli, Adso amples of Wulfstan's views concerning the role the Church
of Montier-en-Der, Ghaerbald of Liege, Abbo of Saint- ought to play in matters oflaw and politics. Wulfstan begins
Germain-des-Pres, Sedulius Scottus, Jesse of Amiens, and with the assertion that "it is proper for a bishop to offer
Amalarius of Metz. Of the latter, Wulfstan borrows from guidance in all things, both in religious and secular matters,"
such foundational Reformist texts as the Regularis concordia and then proceeds to offer an account of the bishop's role
and, perhaps most notably, the writings ofhis sometime cor- in resolving legal disputes, standardizing weights and mea-
respondent .t'Elfric of Eynsham. The impression conveyed sures, ensuring the proper treatment of slaves, and oversee-
by the texts used by Wulfstan is of a writer less interested ing the spiritual life of his diocese. Many of the ideas, and

XX XXI
 INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION

even some of the phrasing, will recur in the law codes j and 6
fairs, especially legal or political matters. Within the con-
./Ethelred, making this an important precursor to Wulfstan's text of his other works, however, Wulfstan's admonition
activities as a legislator. Moreover, even beyond its signifi-
seems more directed at those bishops who engage in secu-
cance for Wulfstan's own career, Episcopal Duties also pro-
lar dealings to the neglect of their episcopal duties, rather
vides some of the earliest surviving evidence for the use of
than at those who use their political influence to advance
the parish as a unit of jurisdiction and for the distinction be- the Church's moral agenda.
tween the legal rights of urban and rural communities. Ac-
Proper episcopal demeanor is the focus of the text edited
cordingly, although primarily concerned with bishops' privi-
here as Instructions for Bishops, also known by its Latin rubric
leges and responsibilities, Episcopal Duties sheds light as well
lncipit de synodo. Its date is unknown, as is that of the epis-
on the early development of Wulfstan's political thought
copal synod from which it supposedly originates, although
and, more broadly, the legal practices of eleventh-century
1008, 1011, ro13, and 1022 have all been suggested as pos-
England. sibilities. However, whether the injunctions collected here
Wulfstan takes a somewhat more limited view of episco-
originated with Wulfstan or ifhe was merely the drafter, they
pal obligations in the Latin text On the Remedy of Souls (De
provide a window into the professional life of an eleventh-
medicamento animarum). The text survives in London, British century bishop. Less taken up with matters spiritual or le-
Library, Cotton MS Nero A.i, where it is interpolated into
gal, the text concerns itself instead with the relationship of
a series of excerpts from canon law collected by Wulfstan
bishops to their peers, the makeup of the episcopal house-
over the course of his career. The manuscript was originally
hold, appropriate pastimes for a bishop, and proper behav-
owned by Wulfstan, and Remedy, along with several of the
ior when participating in religious ritual. Ifthis text is some-
other texts it contains, is corrected and annotated in the
what less ideologically ambitious than his other writings, it
archbishop's own hand. Although its date is unknown, the
nonetheless illustrates Wulfstan's firm belief that the moral
similarity of certain passages of Remedy to sections of 1 Pol-
integrity of a Christian community depends on the example
ity and On Sanctuary suggests that it may have been com-
set by its leaders.
posed in approximately 1008-1010. Significant portions of
Wulfstan summarizes his views on episcopal obligations
Wulfstan's argument in this text are based on passages found
in homiletic form in An Admonition to Bishops. Structured
in the Collectio canonum Hibernensis, an eighth-century antho-
as a series of reprimands directed as much at himself as at
logy of Carolingian canon law assembled by Irish monks that
his audience, the text highlights what Wulfstan saw as the
served as one of his most frequently used reference works.
principal threats to episcopal integrity: greed, idleness, cor-
As in On Sanctuary, Wulfstan here emphasizes the superior-
ruption, decadence, and ambition for worldly advancement.
ity of ecclesiastical over lay authority, though he also cau-
Although previous editors have divided the Admonition into
tions bishops against overmuch involvement in secular af-
clauses much like a law code, the markers of orality ("Yet

xxii
xxiii
 INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION

nonetheless it is an evil truth which I speak," "But what I he had earlier in his career. The text draws on a wide range
say is true"), frequent use of the first-person plural, and ser- of sources, which share an interest in the duties and behav-
monic conclusion all suggest that Wulfstan composed it, if ior of the secular clergy. This raises the possibility that Wulf-
not for use as a homily, then at least as an address to his fel- stan may have composed Canons to serve as a handbook for
low bishops. The text survives only in London, British Li- diocesan priests serving a lay congregation. The fact that
brary, Cotton MS Nero A.i, where it follows Instructions for Canons later came to serve as the primary source for The
Bishops, perhaps indicating that the two texts were written Northumhrian Priests' Law, however, suggests that the text
for the same occasion. The title is a modern editorial con- did at least come to play a role in the pastoral life ofWulf-
vention, as the text lacks a rubric in the manuscript. Admo- stan's home diocese of York.
nition's date is unknown; however, the parallels with the later
versions of Polity and The Canons ofEdgar as well as with the
ROYAL LEGISLATION
homilies edited by Dorothy Bethurum as numbers 16, 17,
and 20 indicate that it was probably composed later in the Wulfstan came closest to realizing his political vision in the
archbishop's career, perhaps between 1018 and 1023. legislation he composed on behalf of .tEthelred and Cnut.
Wulfstan's most elaborate tract on ecclesiastical gover- The legislation he produced between 1008 and his death in
nance is The Canons ofEdgar, an extended set of decrees syn- 1023 represents the most wide-ranging program of legal re-
thesizing his views on the vocation and obligations of the form since the ninth-century domhoc Oaw code) of King Al-
priesthood. The text survives in two slightly different recen- fred the Great. Although many of the more specific decrees
sions, one slightly longer than the other. Although Wulfstan reflect the priorities of king and council, the laws' phrasing
appears to have revisited Canons at several points through- and, no less importantly, their ideological framework come
out his career, it likely reached what modern readers take from the pen of the archbishop of York. It is in these texts
to be its final version in around 1017-1018. The text's title that Wulfstan's characteristic merging of the legal and the
is taken from the rubric to the earlier version, which attrib- homiletic reaches its apex: the conditional if then syntax
utes the text to the tenth-century king of that name. Edgar common to Old English law here mingles with the admoni-
was a leading patron of the Monastic Reform, and Wulfstan tory rhetoric and pious exhortations of a sermon to create
praises him frequently elsewhere in his writings. Canons's at- hybrid texts designed to remake England into Wulfstan's vi-
tribution to Edgar indicates that it may initially have been sion of the ideal Christian society In effect, royal decree
intended to be another ofWulfstan's "forgeries," though the is never distinct from moral imperative, while the spirituaJ
more innocuous rubric to 2 Canons- titled merely Synodalia truths of the Church find their earthly manifestation in the
decreta (Synodal Decrees)-suggests that by this point he no laws of the king.
longer felt the need to manufacture historical precedent as As ambitious as these texts are, however, they present

xxiv XXV
 INTRODUCTION INTROD U CTION

many of the same interpretive difficulties as other examples majority of the text is taken up with homiletic exhortations
of Old English royal law. Although more vernacular legis- and legal prescriptions concerning the application of reli-
lation survives from pre-Conquest England than from any gious principles to the civil life of the kingdom. This inter-
other early medieval kingdom, there is little indication that mingling of the secular and the spiritual both imbues royal
any of these laws were ever actually used to settle a legal dis- legislation with the authority of divine commandment and
pute. Although they were almost certainly observed more characterizes it as a natural extension of Christian doctrine.
frequently than the available evidence suggests, it is striking The drafting of royal law thus serves Wulfstan as a means of
that no surviving charter or dispute record ever cites a piece advancing his program to restore not just political stability
of legislation to justify its conclusions. In some cases, the but religious orthodoxy to the kingdom.
finding even appears to run counter to what the king's laws The other law code associated with the Enham meeting,
would prescribe. It seems likely; then, that many of Wulf- 6 .,£the/red, occupies a more ambiguous place in Wulfstan's
stan's laws may have been promulgated more as statements canon. The text survives in Old English and Latin versions,
of royal ideology than as effective instruments of gover- the latter likely produced slightly later than the former. Par-
nance. Indeed, it is difficult to see how many of the individ- ticularly striking in the Latin version is the addition of a
ual clauses in Wulfstan's legislation could be translated into final clause that explicitly attributes the text to Wulfstan.
real practice. Yet if the legal prescriptions in these texts can Both Old English and Latin survive as additions to London,
often appear more aspirational than actual, they nonethe- Cotton MS Claudius A.iii, a pontifical used byWulfstan early
less provided Wulfstan with a means of promoting his vision in his career. Many of the clauses resemble those of5 .,£the/-
of a Christian social order to a kingdom-wide audience. red, though they occur in a different order. The text of 6
The meeting of the king's council at Enham (Hampshire) .,£the/red also elaborates on its predecessor's prescriptions
on May 16, 1008, marks Wulfstan's first known foray into in ways suggestive of Wulfstan's later works, particularly in
the composition of royal law. Two texts resulted from this its foregrounding of clauses related to ecclesiastical law and
meeting, though it is far from clear that both were intended its more detailed list of dues owed the Church. It seems
to function as fully enforceable legislation. The more likely likely, then, that 6 .,£the/red represents not an official enact-
candidate for the meeting's "official" decree is the text now ment but instead a draft of 5 .,£the/red that Wulfstan used to
referred to as 5.,£the/red. The pastoral content of these man- experiment with policies that would later become regular
uscripts reflects the largely religious orientation of the law features of his legislative writings.
code itself. Although 5 .,£the/red's decrees do touch on secu- The next set of laws authored by Wulfstan resulted from
lar matters (the regulation of currency, the provisioning of a meeting of the royal council at Bath in 1009 to devise a re-
the army and navy, certain crimes specific to individual re- sponse to the most recent Viking invasion. Like 6 .,£the/red,
gions, and the penalties for conspiring against the king), the these decrees survive in both a Latin and an Old English

xxvi xxvii
 INTROD UCTION INTROD U CTION

version - designated 7 and 7a ./Ethelred by modern editors - occasion or whether it instead simply refers to the many
though here the differences between the two texts are much laws promulgated by ./Ethelred over the course of his reign.
more pronounced. The original Old English text of 1009 has In either case, this legislation stands out from the other laws
been lost, but the Latin version, included in the twelfth- Wulfstan composed for the king: not only is it even more
century legal compilation ~dripartitus, is likely a reason- explicitly focused on ecclesiastical matters than its prede-
ably close approximation. The surviving Old English version, cessors, but it also adopts a much broader historical per-
preserved in Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 201, is spective. Borrowing entire clauses from The Compilation on
a draft prepared by Wulfstan, probably as an intermediate Status, Wulfstan uses that collection's retrospective tone as
text between the original law code and his later revision of a way to evoke the golden era of Monastic Reform under
the code into a homily. In both versions, the emphasis is on Kings .IEthelstan, Edmund, and Edgar. Under the circum-
the use of penitential rituals to purge the kingdom of sin stances, it is difficult to take the mention of these earlier
collectively so that it might thereby escape God's punish- kings as anything other than a thinly veiled rebuke of Eng-
ment and expel the invaders. The Old English version, how- land's current ruler. Furthermore, if the 1014 dating is cor-
ever, replaces the legal prescriptions and circumstantial spe- rect, then the promulgation of this code coincides with the
cificity of 7 ./Ethelred with sermonic exhortations and moral collapse of .IEthelred's government. The references to an
admonition. The effect of this alteration is to translate the earlier age of political stability and moral virtue thus offer
latter's response to an individual invasion into a broader yet another example ofWulfstan using a privileged past to
statement of religious principle. Taken together, the two respond to present crises.
versions of 7 ./Ethelred thus offer both an impression of the Both 9 and 10 /£,the/red survive only as fragments. Of
archbishop at work and an illustration of the penitential these, 9 ./Ethelred occurs in London, British Library, Cotton
steps he viewed as necessary for the moral regeneration of MS Otho A.x, which was nearly destroyed in the Ashbur-
the English kingdom. nam House fire of 1731. Although little about the text is cer-
Little is known about the circumstances surrounding the tain, the prologue indicates that it was promulgated follow-
issuance of 8 ./Ethelred, though its rubric dates it to 1014. It ing a meeting of the royal council at Woodstock (Oxford-
survives in two witnesses, the latter of which breaks off im- shire), which suggests a probable date between 1009 and
mediately after the sanctuary clauses, to which are then ap- 1016. In the case of ro ./Ethelred, the sole copy of the text has
pended the related short tract Northumbrian Church Sanctu- been bound into Vatican, Codex Reginensis Latina 946, a
ary (see above). The law code begins with the curious state- fourteenth-century French miscellany. The date of its origi-
ment that it is merely "one of the decrees" promulgated by nal promulgation is unknown, although it may have been an-
the king, though it is unclear whether this phrase indicates other version of the 1008 Enham codes (s and 6 ./Ethelred).
that multiple pieces of legislation were issued on the same Following .IEthelred's death in 1016, Wulfstan continued

xxviii xxix
 INTRODUCTION
INTROD U CTION

to serve as the primary drafter of royal legislation under the of God. In effect, much as he does with the revisions incor-
Danish conqueror, Cnut. The earliest set of laws authored porated into the later version of Polity, Wulfstan here posi
by Wulfstan on behalf of the new king is the text now re- tions the king within a Christian hierarchy that grants him
ferred to as Cnut's OxfordLegislation of1018, or more briefly as power, but also threatens to withdraw it should he act un
Cnut 1018, which survives only in Cambridge, Corpus Christi justly.
College MS 201. Although initially viewed as a sort of pas- Wulfstan's greatest achievement as a legislator came with
tiche made up of "spare parts" from 6 ,JF,thelred and 1-2 Cnut, the promulgation of the law codes referred to as 1 and 2
more recent scholarship has shown it to be a carefully or- Cnut. The balance between the ecclesiastical prescriptions
dered compilation that likely represents the enactments of in 1 Cnut and the secular ones in the contemporaneous 2
the meeting between the Danes and the English at Oxford Cnut have led some scholars to suggest that the two texts
mentioned in the entry for 1018 in the Anglo-Saxon Chroni- might once have comprised a single law code similar to 2-3
cle. It seems probable, though, that the surviving text is less Edgar; although this claim has been the subject of consid-
an accurate transcription of these enactments than a ren- erable debate. Whichever is the case, their scope, elevated
dering of them revised by Wulfstan for his own use. rhetoric, and sweeping vision of moral renewal make them
Evidence of the respect that the new king held for Wulf- both a fitting summation ofWulfstan's career and the most
stan can be found in Cnut's Proclamation of 1020. This text, sophisticated legal texts to be produced in England since
which survives only in the York Gospels (York, Minster Li- the ninth century.
brary, Additional MS 1), was initially composed during Cnut's 1 Cnut was likely promulgated sometime between 1020
return to Denmark in 1019-1020. Internal evidence indi- and Wulfstan's death in 1023. One copy of the text survives
cates, however, that Wulfstan subsequently revised a large in a manuscript owned and annotated by Wulfstan himself,
portion of it (particularly its final paragraph) for further cir- which is the basis for the text and translation here. It pro-
culation or oral delivery. That Wulfstan should have been vides a comprehensive account of the moral obligations of
involved in the drafting and promulgation of such a doc- both the Church and its English flock, thereby serving as a
ument in the king's absence indicates the confidence the summation ofWulfstan's views on the relationship between
Danes had in the English archbishop. At the same time, ecclesiastical governance and royal authority. Drawing not
Wulfstan's intervention recasts the document in significant just on legal precedent but also on the works of Carolingian
ways. The opening clauses are very much in the voice of a canonists, The Institutes ofPolity, and The Canons ofEdgar; 1
conqueror addressing his new subjects, promising justice in Cnut conceives of England as subject to the law of God and
exchange for obedience. The passages more explicitly by held to moral standards which, if obeyed, would enable the
Wulfstan, however, circumscribe the king's authority by em- kingdom to fulfil! its destiny as a holy society.
phasizing that his rule is nonetheless subordinate to the law Wulfstan's longest-and possibly last-major piece ofleg-

XXX
xxxi
 INTRODUCTION INTROD U CTION

islation, 2 Cnut, is arguably Anglo-Saxon England's most in- clues, manuscript provenance, and his inveterate habit of
novative and wide-ranging set oflaws. Once again, Wulfstan self-quotation. While his authorship of most texts in this
draws heavily on his previous legal writings, particularly the volume has been securely established, there are also works
Enham codes, 8 ./F,thelred, Cnut 1018, and The Institutes ofPol- that exhibit enough Wulfstanian features to be associated
ity. Yet these borrowings make up only just over half of the with the archbishop, but not enough to allow for a firm at-
text: more than a third of2 Cnut has no known source, rais- tribution. Yet even if such texts may not have been com-
ing the likelihood that these clauses represent innovations posed by Wulfstan himself, they still testify to his influence
of Wulfstan's own. Moreover, even in clauses that have an on the writing oflaw in the early eleventh century.
identifiable precursor, the borrowed passages are frequently Among the most debated works associated with Wulf-
revised, expanded, or significantly rewritten in order to sub- stan is The Northum/man Priests' Law, preserved alongside
ordinate them to Wulfstan's purposes rather than those of other Wulfstanian texts in Cambridge, Corpus Christ Col-
his source. Indeed, Wulfstan takes more liberties with his lege MS 201. The text is divided into two parts, with the first
source material in 2 Cnut than he does in any of his prior (clauses 1- 45) directed primarily at clergy and the second
law codes. The effect is a text that fully expresses Wulfstan's (clauses 46- 67) addressing the whole of the York diocese.
political vision. He adopts in 2 Cnut a comprehensive ap- Although the text was attributed to the archbishop for much
proach to English society under which the ordinances of the ofthe twentieth century, more recently scholars have argued
Church are fully integrated into the laws of the kingdom, that it may instead be the work of either ..tElfric Puttoc or
the legal rights and religious obligations of each subject are Cynesige, Wulfstan's successors to the see of York. The text
clearly articulated, and the integrity of the community de- draws heavily on Wulfstan's Canons of Edgar, but beyond
pends on its obedience to a divinely ordained moral order. these passages the prose shows little sign of the archbishop's
As in The Institutes ofPolity, the redemption of society from customaryvigor. Moreover, several passages-most notably
both worldly dangers and the threat of eternal damnation those on clerical marriage- seem to depart from the more
here relies on the Christian virtue of the individual soul no orthodox positions adopted in other ofWulfstan's works. If
less than that of the political collective. When both are or- The Northum/man Priests' Law is not by Wulfstan, then Lie-
dered as God intended, then the salvation of the kingdom bermann's suggestion that it ought to be dated to sometime
will finally be within reach. between rn28 and rn6o seems most plausible.
Equally controversial is the attribution to Wulfstan of
the early eleventh-century text The Obligations ofIndividuals
APPENDIX I: QUESTIONABLE ATTRIBUTIONS
(Rectitudines singularum personarum) and its companion piece
Relatively few of Wulfstan's works explicitly identify him On Reeves (Gerefa-the Old English title is singular, though
as their author. Instead, to reconstruct his corpus schol- the convention is to render it in the plural). Though orig-
ars have had to rely on his unique writing style, contextual inally distinct, the two are treated as a single text in their
xxxii xxxiii
 INTRODUCTION INTROD U C T ION

sole manuscript witness, and Latin versions are also found elstan's laws, though its date of promulgation remains un-
in the twelfth-century compilation ~dripartitus. The fo~ certain. Its initial composition took place under the direc-
cus of both Obligations and On Reeves is on the proper ad- tion of Archbishop Wulfhelm of Canterbury, whose influ-
ministration of a farm and its workers, suggesting that the ence may have been what attracted Wulfstan's interest. Two
motive in joining them together was to create a comprehen- versions of the text survive: a Latin version in the twelfth-
sive manual of estate management. The texts show evidence century compilation ~adripartitus and an Old English ver-
of multiple authors, and it has been speculated, largely on sion in two manuscripts associated with Wulfstan. Differ-
stylistic grounds, that Wulfstan may have adapted the two ences between the Latin and the Old English versions sug-
pieces and linked them together. More recent scholarship, gest that in transcribing the earlier text, Wulfstan introduced
however, has argued that the stylistic similarities to Wulf- his own perspective and phrasings, particularly concerning
stan's other works are not sufficient to justify such a conclu- the payment of Church dues, to recast the material for his
sion. Any resemblance may simply be coincidental, or it may own use.
well be the case, as with The Northumbrian Priests' Law, that One of the first pieces of legislation to reflect the priori-
the similarities to Wulfstan's writings reflect the efforts of ties of the Monastic Reform, r Edmund was likely promul-
one of his associates familiar with the archbishop's tone and gated in either 942 or between 944 and 946. The text sur-
style. vives in three post-Conquest anthologies of Old English laws
as well as in two pre-Conquest manuscripts associated with
Wulfstan. As was the case with I .IEthelstan, the versions of
APPENDIX 2: REVISIONS AND REWORKINGS
the text in manuscripts linked to Wulfstan exhibit differ-
Wulfstan's habit of repeated revision was not limited to his ences of both style and content, suggesting that he once
own writings. He also reworked the legislation of previous again reworked earlier legislation to reflect current preoc-
kings, possibly as a way of trying out some of the ideas he cupations.
would later incorporate into the laws ofJEthelred and Cnut. The joint law code designated 2 Edgar and 3 Edgar by mod-
There is no evidence that he ever intended these revised ern editors shows even more evidence of Wulfstanian inter-
texts to circulate as actual legislation; rather, they appear to vention than do r ./Ethelstan and I Edmund, including several
have been drafts primarily composed for personal use. As clauses that repeat nearly word for word passages found in
such, they provide valuable insight into the archbishop's le- the legislation Wulfstan composed for JEthelred and Cnut.
gal mind at work. The text's initial date of promulgation is unknown, though
It is unknown when or in what order Wulfstan carried it must have occurred prior to that of the clearly later 4 Ed-
out his revisions, but the earliest of the law codes to have at- gar sometime in either 962 or 963. The split between ec-
tracted his interest is r ./Ethelstan, likely the earliest of JEth- clesiastical (2 Edgar) and secular (3 Edgar) ordinances, along

xxxiv XXXV
 INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION

with the extensive interest Wulfstan appears to have taken stan's legal writings, though the archbishop himselfwas not
in its prescriptions, have led to the suggestion that this text yet recognized as their author. William Lambarde's 1568
served as a model for 1-2 Cnut, though this claim remains Archaionomia provided the editioprinceps for several of Wulf-
subject to debate. stan's works, including Edward-Guthrum (treated as an ac-
tual tenth-century law code rather than an eleventh-century
forgery), the three central texts of The Compilation on Status,
EDITING WULFSTAN
and 1-2 Cnut. Lambarde's edition, though, suffered from a
In the century following the Norman Conquest, Wulfstan's number ofshortcomings, the most notable ofwhich was his
legal writings remained influential, although the arch- use of reconstructed texts that had been translated into
bishop's association with them was gradually forgotten. Pas- Latin and then retranslated into Old English as a linguistic
sages from Polity and several of his other tracts were incor- experiment by his friend Lawrence Nowell. This use of early
porated into so-called "composite homilies" of the later modern pastiches rather than authentic Old English law
eleventh century, while the legislation of h:thelred and codes was not realized until 1923. Yet Lambarde's was not
Cnut came to be included in the great twelfth-century com- the only contribution to the recovery ofWulfstan's reputa-
pilations lnstituta Cnuti, Consilatio Cnuti, Leges Edwardi Con- tion during this period: equally significant was Archbishop
fessoris, Leges Henrici Primi, and ~ripartitus. Wulfstan's le- Matthew Parker's recognition of the historical and artistic
gal writings also feature prominently in the twelfth-century importance of Wulfstan's homiletic masterpiece, the Sermo
legal anthologies Textus RDffensis and Cambridge, Corpus Lupi ad Anglos, and Humphrey Wanley's 1705 attribution of
Christ College MS 383. In none of these cases, however, is the text to the archbishop of York. In naming Wulfstan
Wulfstan named as either author or drafter. Instead, when as the author, Wanley developed a set of stylistic criteria
his name was mentioned at all (as it was by William of that allowed him to identify fifty-three homilies and several
Malmesbury), it was as an example of the perceived corrup- shorter tracts as the work of the archbishop.
tion of the Anglo-Saxon Church, though such accusations Over the course of the next two centuries, Wulfstan's
reflected the perspectives of England's new Norman over- reputation as a homilist grew, though his work as a legisla-
lords rather than an accurate representation of Wulfstan's tor and political theorist remained largely unrecognized. In
integrity or that of his contemporaries. 1723, David Wilkins became the first to print the chapters
With the rise of the common law in the late twelfth and that make up The Institutes ofPolity, though he did not treat
early thirteenth centuries, Wulfstan's name and works grad- them as components of a single text, nor did he attribute
ually faded into oblivion. However, the revival of interest in their composition to Wulfstan. A broader range of Wulf-
pre-Conquest England that accompanied the English Ref- stan's legislation-again, unattributed-was included in the
ormation brought with it a renewed fascination with Wulf- two great nineteenth-century editions of Old English law,

xxxvi xxxvii
 INTRODUCTION INTROD U CTION

Reinhold Schmid's Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen (1832, rev. ed. Jost that the full scope of Wulfstan's activities began to
1858) and Benjamin Thorpe's Ancient Laws and Institutes of become clear, and their collective efforts have formed the
England (1840), the latter of which also included Polity (giv- basis of all subsequent work on Wulfstan. Despite their ef-
ing the text its modern title), The Canons ofEdgar, and a num- forts, however, Liebermann's editions have yet to be re-
ber of the shorter political and ecclesiastical tracts. The placed even as the extent of Wulfstan's corpus continues to
whole of Wulfstan's legislation and the remaining unedited expand. Indeed, while recent scholarship has done much to
political tracts finally made it into print with the publica- settle some of the questions surrounding the archbishop's
tion of Felix Liebermann's magisterial, three-volume Die Ge- life, thought, and career, major gaps persist. It is hoped
setze der Angelsachsen (1903-1916). Far more comprehensive that the present volume will be of use in resolving some of
and reliable than any of its predecessors, Liebermann's Ge- these gaps.
setze remains the author-itative edition of most of the texts
included within it. Nonetheless, in the case of the texts as-
sociated with Wulfstan, Liebermann's edition is woefully out Despite the name on the cover, a book is never the work of
of date. Although he suspected that Wulfstan may have had one individual, and I am deeply grateful to the many peo-
something to do with several of the laws of.!Ethelred, he was ple who have had a hand in producing this one. Thanks are
too conservative an editor to go so far as to acknowledge the owed first to Dan Donoghue, both for inviting me to take
extent of the archbishop's influence. Moreover, he contin- up this project and for his unstinting good humor, support,
ued to place Edward-Guthrum wrongly in the tenth century; and editorial guidance along the way. Only those who have
treated the texts from Lambarde as a lost manuscript rather published in this series can truly appreciate the time, labor,
than an early modern pastiche, mistakenly edited Cnut 1018 and spectacular eye for detail that Managing Editor Nicole
as a draft of 1-2 Cnut, and incorrectly dated 1-2 Cnut to the Eddy contributes to these editions. This volume would be
decade following Wulfstan's death in 1023. As brilliant an immeasurably diminished in both quality and substance
accomplishment as Liebermann's Gesetze surely is, its treat- without her efforts. Finally; I have been very fortunate to
ment of early eleventh-century English legislation has been have Rob Fulk and Susan Irvine as reviewers. Their knowl-
largely overturned by more recent scholarship. edge and generosity can be found on nearly every page.
The editions of Anglo-Saxon legislation by Frederick This book is dedicated to my wife, Shira, and my sons,
Attenborough and Agnes Robertson (1922 and 1925, respec- Ari and Eli.
tively) provided up-to-date English translations of the Old
English laws, yet they also reiterated many of the errors of
their predecessors. It was only through the work of the
scholars Dorothy Whitelock, Dorothy Bethurum, and Karl

xxxviii xxxix
f~ L~TICAL TRAC~ S ~
 The Laws of Edward and Guthrum The Laws of Edward and Guthrum

Pis syndonpa domas lJe .JE!fred cyncg and Guprum cyncg gecuron. These are the measures agreed upon by King Alfred and King
Guthrum.
Pr And pis is seo gerrednis eac pe ~lfred cyng and Pr And this also is the decree which King Alfred and King
Gudrum cyng, and eft Eadward cyng and Guorum cyng, Guthrum, and later King Edward and King Guthrum,
gecuran and gecwredon )>a pa Engle and Dene to fripe and to agreed upon and proclaimed when the English and the
freondscipe fullice fengon. And pa witan eac, pe syMan Danes fully resolved on peace and friendship. And also the
wreron, oft and unseldan pret seolfe geniwodon and mid councilors, those who came after, often and frequently re-
gode gehihtan. newed it and strengthened it with improvements.
Pr.I Dret is rerest pret hig gecwredon: pret hi renne God Pr.I This is foremost among those things which they agreed
lufian woldon and relcne hrependom georne aweorpen. upon: that they would love the one God and wholeheartedly
Pr.2 And hig gesetton woruldlice steora eac, for oam reject every heathen practice.
pingum pe hig wistan pret hig elles ne mihton manegum Pr.2 And they also established secular penalties, for they
gesteoran, ne fela manna nolde to godcundre bote elles ge- knew that otherwise they could not govern many people,
bugan swa hy sceolden; and pa woruldbote hig gesetton nor would many men otherwise comply with Church disci-
gemrene Criste and cynge swa hwar swa man nolde god- pline as they should; and they decreed that secular compen-
cunde bote gebugan mid rihte to bisceopa dihte. sation will be shared by Christ and king wherever anyone
1 And pret is ponon rerest pret hig gecwredon, j:>ret cyric- refused to submit properly to Church penance at the order
grio binnan wagum and cyninges handgrio stande efne un- of the bishops.
wemme. 1 Next, they also agreed that sanctuary within church
2 And gif hwa Cristendom wyrde oMe hrependom weor- walls and sanctuary received from the king's hand shall re-
pige wordes oooe weorces, gylde swa wer swa wite swa main equally inviolable.
lahslitte, be pam pe syo dred sy. 2 And if anyone violates Christian practice or shows rev-
erence for heathenism by word or deed, he must pay either
his wergild or a penalty or lahslit, according to the nature of
the deed.

2 3
 POLITI C AL TRACTS THE LAWS OF EDWARD AND GUTHR U M

3 And gyf gehadod man gestalie oooe gefeohte oooe for- 3 And if a man in orders steals or fights or commits per-
swerige oMe forlicge, gebete f>ret be f>am f>e seo drede sy jury or adultery, he shall atone according to the nature of the
swa be were swa be wite swa be lahslitte; and for Gode huru deed, either with his wergild or with a penalty or with labs/it;
bete swa canon trece and f>res borh finde oooe carcern ge- and indeed, he must do penance before God as the canon
buge. decrees and either find a surety or submit to imprisonment.
3.1 And gif mressepreost folc miswyssige ret freolse oooe 3.1 And if a priest misleads the people concerning a holy
ret frestene, gylde xxx scillinga mid Englum and mid Denum day or a fast, he must pay thirty shillings among the English
f>reo healfmarc. or three half-marks among the Danes.
3.2 Gif preost to rihtandagan crisman ne fecce oMe ful- 3.2 Ifa priest does not fetch the holy oil on the proper day
luhtes forwyrne f>am f>e pres f>earf sy, gylde wite mid Englum or denies baptism to one who needs it, he must pay a penalty
and mid Denum lahslit, pret is twelf oran. among the English and !ahs/it of twelve oras among the
4 And ret syblegerum pa witan gerreddan pret cyng ah Danes.
f>one uferan and bisceop f>one nyf>eran, butan hit man ge- 4 And in cases of incest the councilors ruled that the
bete for Gode and for worulde be pam pe seo dred sy, swa king shall have jurisdiction over the upper and the bishop
bisceop getrece. the lower, unless penance is performed before God and the
4.1 Gif twegen gebroora oMe twegen genydmagas wio an world, as the bishop decrees according to the nature of the
wif forlicgan, beten swype georne, swa swa man gepafige, deed.
swa be wite swa be lahslitte, be pam pe seo drede sy. 4.1 If two brothers or two close relatives lie with the same
4.2 Gif gehadod man hine forwyrce mid deapscylde, woman, they must atone most fervently, just as it may be al-
gewilde hine man and healde to bisceopes dome. lowed, with a penalty or with !ahs/it, according to the nature
5 And gif deaf>scyldig man scriftsprrece gyrne, ne him of the deed.
man nrefre ne wyrne. 4.2 If a man in orders compromises himself with a capital
p And ealle Godes gerihto forc:Hge man georne be Godes crime, he is to be arrested and held for the bishop's judg-
mildse and be pam witan pe witan toledan. ment.
6 Gif hwa teof>unge forhealde, gylde lahslit mid Denum, 5 And if someone sentenced to death desires confession,
wite mid Englum. it shall never be denied to him.
5.1 And all God's dues shall be rendered assiduously for
God's mercy and because of the penalties which the coun-
cilors assigned.
6 If anyone withholds his tithe, he shall pay /ahs/it among
the Danes or a penalty among the English.

4 5
 POLITICAL TRACTS THE LAWS OF E DWARD AND G U THRUM

6.1 Gif hwa Romfeoh forhealde, gylde lahslit mid Denum, 6.1 If anyone withholds the dues owed to Rome, he shall
wite mid Englum. pay labs/it among the Danes or a penalty among the English.
6.2 Gif hwa leohtgesceot ne gelreste, gylde lahslit mid De- 6.2 If anyone does not pay the dues for the lighting of the
num, wite mid Englum. church, he shall pay labs/it among the Danes or a penalty
6.3 Gif hwa sulhrelmyssan ne sylle, gylde lahslit mid De~ among the English.
num, wite mid Englum. 6.3 If anyone does not pay his plow dues, he shall pay labs/it
6.4 Gif hwa renigra godcundra gerihto forwyrne, gylde among the Danes or a penalty among the English.
lahslit mid Denum, wite mid Englum. 6.4 If anyone withholds his Church dues, he shall pay lab-
6.5 And gif he wigie and man gewundie, beo his weres slit among the Danes or a penalty among the English.
scyldig. 6.5 And if he fights and wounds anyone, he will be liable
6.6 Gif he man to deape gefylle, beo he ponne utlah, and for his wergild.
his hente mid hearme relc para pe riht wille. 6.6 If he causes anyone's death, then he will become an
6.7 And gif he gewyrce pret hine man afylle purh pret he outlaw and be hunted with enmity by all those who wish for
ongean Godes ryht oMe pres cynges geonbyrde, gif man pret justice.
gesooige, liege regylde. 6.7 And if he acts in such a way as to cause his own death
7 Sunnandreges cypinge gifhwa agynne, polie pres ceapes through resistance to God's justice or the king's, and if that
and twelf orena mid Denum and xxx scillinga mid Englum. is shown to be true, no compensation need be paid for him.
7.1 Gif frigman freolsdrege wyrce, polie his freotes oMe 7 Ifanyone does business on a Sunday, he shall forfeit his
gylde wite oMe lahslite. Oeowman polie his hyde oMe hyd- purchases and twelve oras among the Danes and thirty shil-
gyldes. lings among the English.
7.2 Gif hlaford his peowan freolsdrege nyde to weorce, 7.r If a freeman works on a holy day, he shall forfeit his
gylde lahslitte se hlaford inne on Deone !age and wite mid freedom, or pay a penalty or labs/it. A slave will receive a
Englum. whipping or pay to redeem himself.
8 Gif frigman rihtfresten abrece, gylde wite oMe lahslite. 7.2 If a master compels his slave to work on a holy day, he
Gif hit peowman gedo, oolie his hyde oMe hydgyldes. must pay labs/it within the Danelaw and a penalty among
the English.
8 Ifa freeman breaks a legally mandated fast, he must pay
a penalty or labs/it. Ifa slave does so, he shall receive a whip-
ping or pay to redeem himself.

6 7
 POLITICAL TRACTS THE LAWS OF EDWARD AND GUTHR U M

9 Ordel and aoas syndan tocwedene freolsdagum and 9 Ordeals and oaths are prohibited on holy days and le-
rihtfiestendagum; and se oe J>ret abrece, gylde lahslit mid gally mandated fast days; and one who violates that shall pay
Denum, wite mid Englum. lahslit among the Danes or a penalty among the English.
9.1 Gif man wealdan mage, ne dyde man nrefre on Sun- 9.1 If it can be managed, no one sentenced to death should
nandreges freolse renigne forwyrhtne, ac wylde and healde ever be executed on a Sunday festival, but he is to be con-
pret se freolsdreg agan sy. fined and held until the holy day has ended.
10 Giflimlrewed lama pe forworht wrere weorpe forlreten JO If a mutilated man who might have been executed

and he refter }>am oreo niht alibbe, siMan man mot hylpan comes to be abandoned and he survives for three nights, af-
be bisceopes leafe, se oe wylle beorgan sare and saule. terward, with the bishop's permission, anyone who wishes
II Gif wiccan oMe wigleras, mansworan oMe moro- to heal his injuries and his soul might help him.
wyrhtan oMe fule, afylede, rebrere horcwenan ahwar on II Ifmagicians or wizards, perjurers or murderers, or foul,
lande wuroan agytene, aonne fyse hi man of earde and clren- corrupted, notorious prostitutes come to be discovered any-
sie pa oeode, oMe on earde forfare hy mid ealle buton big where in the land, then they must be expelled from the
geswican and J>e deoppor gebetan. country and the realm cleansed, or from the country they
12 Gif man gehadodne oMe reloeodigne, J>urh enig oing, must be utterly wiped out unless they desist and repent
forrrede ret feo oMe ret feore, ponne sceal him cyng beon - most deeply.
oMan eorl orer on lande-and bisceop oere peode for mreg 12 If a man in orders or a foreigner is, by any means,
and for mundboran, buton he elles ooerne hrebbe; and bete cheated of his goods or his life, then the king- or the lord of
man georne be oam J>e seo dred sy Christe and cyninge, swa that land- and bishop of that people shall act as kinsman
hit gebyrige; oooe pa drede wrece swioe deope pe cyning sy and protector, unless he has another; and compensation
onoeode. must readily be paid to Christ and the king according to the
nature of the deed; or he who is king of that people must
punish the crime most harshly.

8 9
 The Compilation on Status The Compilation on Status

Be leode geftinc'bum and!age On the Ranks ofPeople and Law

1 Hit wres hwilum on Engla lagum pret leod and lagu for 1 In the laws of the English, it once was that people and
be gepincdum, and pa wreron leodwitan weordscipes wyrtfo, law were ordered by status, and the people's councilors were
rek be his mrede, eorl and ceorl, pegen and peoden. treated with dignity, each according to his rank, noble and
2 And gif ceorl gepeah pret he hrefde fullice fif hida commoner, thane and lord.
agenes landes, cirican and kycenan, bellhus and burhgeat, 2 And if a commoner prospered so that he had fully five
setl and sundernote on cynges healle, ponne wres he panon hides of his own property with a church and kitchen, a bell
ford pegenrihtes weorde. house and fortified gate, a seat and an appointed role in the
3 And gif pegen gepeah pret he penode cynge and his rad- king's hall, then he was worthy of a thane's rights ever after.
stefne rad on his hirede; gif se ponne hrefde pegen pe him 3 And if a thane prospered so that he waited upon the
filigde, pe to cinges utware fif hida hrefde, and on cinges sele king and rode on his business among his retinue, then, if he
his hlaforde penode, and priwa mid his rerende gefore to had a thane who followed him, who had five hides for the
cinge, se moste syMan mid his forade his hlaford aspelian ret king's service and had waited upon his lord in the king's hall
mistlicon neodan and his onsprece gerrecan mid rihte, swa and had gone three times on his business to the king, then
hwrer swa he sceolde. his thane afterward might represent his lord in various obli-
4 And se pe swa gepogenne forwyrhtan nrefde swore for gations with his initial oath and handle his litigation, wher-
sylfne refter his rihte oMe his polode. ever he must.
5 And gif pegen gepeah pret he weard to eorle, ponne 4 And he who did not have such a worthy representative
wres he syMan eorlrihtes weorde. swore for himself to his rights or forfeited his case.
6 And gif massere gepeah pret he ferde prige ofer wids.£ 5 And if a thane prospered so that he became a noble, he
be his agenum crrefte, se wres ponne syMan pegenrihtes was afterward worthy of a noble's rights.
weorde. 6 And if a merchant prospered so that he fared three
times over the open sea by his own means, he was afterward
worthy of a thane's rights.

lO n
 POLITICAL TRACTS THE COMPILATION ON STATUS

7 And gif leornere gepeh purh lare pret he had hrefde and 7 And if a student prospered by his learning so that he
J:>enode Christe, se wres ponne syMan mrede and munde swa took orders and served Christ, he was afterward worthy of
micelre wyrde swa drerto gebyrede, buton he forworhte J:>ret such respect and protection as was fitting thereto, unless he
he prere hadnote notian ne moste. should sin so that he could not practice his ministry.
8 And gif hit gewurde t>a:t man gehadedum oMe relt,eo- 8 And if it so happened anywhere that someone injured
digum ahwar gederode wordes oMe weorces, J:>onne geby- one in orders or a stranger by word or deed, then it was the
rede cinge and bisceope ):>ret hig pret bettan swa hig rapost responsibility of the king and the bishop to remedy it as
mihton. swiftly as they could.
Bewergylde On Wergild
1 Cynges wergild is inne mid Englum on folcriht xxx 1 According to the folk law of the English people, a king's
t>usend t,ryrnsa: xv pusend dryrnsa bye! pres weres and xv wergild is thirty thousand thryrnsas: fifteen thousand
t,usend pres cynedomes; sewer gebyred pam magum and seo thryrnsas are for the man and fifteen thousand thryrnsas are
cynebot t>am leodum. for the kingship. The personal wergild belongs to his kins-
2 1El>elinges wergyld is xv t>usend l>ryrnsa. men and the royal compensation belongs to the people.
3 Bisceopes and ealdermannes, vm pusend l>rymsa. 2 A nobleman's wergild is fifteen thousand thryrnsas.
4 Holdes and hehgere fan, I 111 l>usend pryrnsa. 3 For a bishop and an ealdorman, eight thousand thryrn-
5 Mresse):>egenes and woruld):>egenes, 11 J:>usend pryrnsa. sas.
6 Ceorles wergild is cc and VI and LX pryrnsa, pret bi<) 4 For a Danish nobleman and a high reeve, four thousand
twahund scyllinga be Myrcna lage. thryrnsas.
7 And gifWtlise man gepeo pret he hrebbe hywisc landes 5 For a priest and a secular thane, two thousand thryrn-
and mage cynges gafel fordbringan, ponne byd his wergild sas.
ccxx scillinga. 6 A commoner's wergild is two hundred and sixty-six
7-1 And gif he ne gepeo butan to healfre hide, ponne sy his thryrnsas, that is, two hundred shillings according to the law
wergild LXXX scillinga. of the Mercians.
7 And if a Welshman prospers so that he possesses a hide
ofland and can pay the king's tribute, then his wergild shall
be two hundred and twenty shillings.
7.1 And ifhe does not prosper to more than half of a hide,
then his wergild will be eighty shillings.

12,
13
 POLITICAL TRACTS THE COMPILATION ON STATUS

8 And gif he renig land nrebbe and peh freo sy, forgylde 8 And if he does not have any land but is still free, then
man hine mid LXX scillinga. compensation for him shall be seventy shillings.
9 And gif ceorlisc man gepeo, pret he hrebbe v hida landes 9 And if a commoner prospers so that he possesses five
to cynges utware and man hine ofslea, forgylde man hine hides of land for his obligations to the king and anyone kills
mid I I pusend prymsa. him, compensation for him shall be two thousand thrymsas.
10 And peh he gepeo pret he hrebbe helm and byrnan and 10 Yet even if he prospers so that he possesses a helmet
gold freted sweord, gif he pret land nafat>, he byp ceorl swa and a coat of mail and a gold-plated sword, if he does not
t>eah. possess the land he will still be a commoner.
n And gif his sunu and his suna sunu pret gepeoo pret hy 11 And if his son and his son's son prosper so that they
swa mice] landes habbao, syMan by}> se offspring gesio- have sufficient land, then the offspring will be of the rank of
cundes cynnes be twam pusendurn prymsa. gesith at two thousand thrymsas.
12 And gif hig t>ret nabbao, ne to pam gepeon ne magan, 12 And if they do not have it and cannot acquire enough,
gylde man cyrlisce. their compensation will be that of a commoner.

Be Mircna laga On the Law ofthe Mercians

1 Ceorles wergyld is on Myrcna ]age cc scillinga. According to the law of the Mercians, a commoner's
1.1 Degenes wergyld is syx swa mice], pret by6 XII hund wergild is two hundred shillings.
scillinga. 1.1 The wergild of a thane is six times as much, that is,

2 Donne byo cyninges anfeald wergild syx pegena wer- twelve hundred shillings.
gyld be Myrcna laga, pret is xxx t>usend sceatta, }>ret bi3 2 According to the law of the Mercians, then, the king's
ealles cxx punda. individual wergild is the wergild of six thanes, that is, thirty
3 Swa mice) is t>res wergyldes on folces folcriht be Myrcna thousand sceattas, which is one hundred and twenty pounds
laga. in all.
3.1 And for oam cynedome gebyra6 ooer swilc to bote on 3 So much is wergild in the folk law of the people, ac
cynegylde. cording to the law of the Mercians.
4 Se wer gebyre3 magum and seo cynebot J>am leodum. 3.1 And for the kingship there is a second compensation
owed equal to that for the king.
4 The wergild belongs to his kinsmen and the royal corn
pensation to the people.

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 POLITICAL TRACTS THE COMPILATION ON STAT U S

Be Mirciscan aae On the Mercian Oath

1 Twelfhyndes mannes ad forstent VI ceorla ad; fordam, 1 The oath of a man with a wergild of twelve hundred
gif man pone twelfhyndan man wrecan sceolde, he bic:J full- shillings equals the oath of six commoners; therefore, if a
wrecen on syx ceorlan, and his wergyld bid six ceorla wer- man with a wergild of twelve hundred shillings must be
gyld. avenged, he will be fully avenged to the value of six com-
moners; furthermore, his wergild will be the wergilds of six
commoners.
Be gehadodra manna aae On Priests' Oaths
1 Mressepreostes ad and worldpegenes is on Engla lage 1 A priest's oath and a secular thane's are considered
geteald efen dyre; and for dam seofon cirichadan, pe se equal in English law; and because of the seven Church de-
mressepreost purh Godes gife gepeah, pret he hrefde, he grees that the priest has acquired through the grace of God,
bid pegenrihtes wyrpe. Seofonfealde gyfa syndan Haliges he is worthy of a thane's rights. Sevenfold are the gifts of the
Gastes; and v11 strepas syndan cyriclicra grada and haligra Holy Spirit; and seven are the steps of ecclesiastical ranks
hada; and v11 sydan Godes peowas sceolon God herian and holy orders; and seven times daily should God's servants
dreghwamlice on cyrcan and for eall Cristen fok pingian praise God in church and diligently advocate for all Chris-
georne. tian people.
1.1 And eallum Gades freondum gebyred swyoe rihte pret 1. 1 And it is most rightly proper for all friends of God that
hi Godes cyrcan lufian and wurdian, and Godes peowas they love God's Church and venerate it, and preserve and
fridian and gripian. protect God's servants.
1.2 And se pe heom gederie mid worde oMe mid weorce 1.2 And he who injures them by word or deed must dili-
vufealdre bote gebete hit georne be pam pe seo d.ed sy and gently remedy it with sevenfold compensation according to
be pam pe se had sy gif he Godes mildse geearnian wylle. the deed and according to the order if he wishes to earn
1.3 Fordam haligdom and hadas and gehalgode Godes hus God's favor.
a man sceal for Godes ege wur<Sian georne. 1.3 For out of fear of God, one must always diligently
2 And to hadbote, gif liflyre wuroe, toeacan pam riht- ho nor the sanctity, orders, and house of God.
were, pene forman strepe bete man mid ane punde and mid 2 And as compensation for one in orders ifloss of life oc-
godre bote pingie georne. curs, the perpetrator must make amends for the first rank
by paying one pound in addition to the standard wergild,
and he must diligently make peace by sincere atonement.

16 17
 POLITICAL TRACTS THE COMPILATION ON S TAT U S

3 And to hadbote, gif feorhlyra wuroe, toeacan t>am riht- 3 And as compensation for one in orders if loss of life
were ret l>am ooran strepe I I pund to bote mid godcundan occurs, the perpetrator must make amends for the second
scrifte. rank by paying two pounds in addition to the standard wer-
4 And to hadbote, gif fullbryce wuroe, toeacan t>am riht- gild and by doing spiritual penance.
were ret t>am pryddan strepe III pund to bote mid godcun- 4 And as compensation for one in orders if a full breach
dan scrifte. of the peace occurs, the perpetrator must make amends for
5 And to hadbote, gif fullbryce wuroe, toeacan pam riht- the third rank by paying three pounds as a penalty in addi-
were ret pam feoroan strepe 1111 pund to bote, mid godcun- tion to the standard wergild and by doing spiritual penance.
dan scrifte. 5 And as compensation for one in orders if a full breach
6 And to hadbote, gif fullbryce wuroe, toeacan pam riht- of the peace occurs, the perpetrator must make amends for
were ret t>am fiftan strepe v pund to bote, mid godcundan the fourth rank by paying four pounds as a penalty in addi-
scrifte. tion to the standard wergild and by doing spiritual penance.
7 And to hadbote, gif fullbryce wuroe, toeacan pam riht- 6 And as compensation for one in orders if a full breach
were ret l:>am syxtan strepe v1 pund to bote, mid godcundan of the peace occurs, the perpetrator must make amends for
scrifte. the fifth rank by paying five pounds as a penalty in addition
8 And to hadbote, gif fullbryce wuroe, toeacan pam riht- to the standard wergild and by doing spiritual penance.
were ret pam seofocSam strepe VI I pund to bote, mid godcun- 7 And as compensation for one in orders if a full breach
dan scrifte. of the peace occurs, the perpetrator must make amends for
9 And to hadbote, prer sambryce wuroe, bete man georne the sixth rank by paying six pounds as a penalty in addition
be oam pe seo dred sy. to the standard wergild and by doing spiritual penance.
9.1 And hadbot mid rihte an drel pam biscope, ooer pam 8 And as compensation for one in orders if a full breach
wigbede and pridde pam gefrerscipe. of the peace occurs, the perpetrator must make amends for
the seventh rank by paying seven pounds as a penalty in
addition to the standard wergild and by doing spiritual
penance.
9 And as compensation for one in orders if a partial viola-
tion occurs, the perpetrator must diligently make amends
according to the deed.
9.1 And one part of the compensation for one in orders
rightly shall go to the bishop, a second part to the altar, and
a third part to the community.

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 THE COMPILATION ON STATUS
POLITICAL TRA C TS

10 A man sceal mid rihte dom a!fter da!de and medemung 10 One must always pass a judgment appropriate for the
be mrepe for Gode and for worulde. deed and set a penalty appropriate for the rank in both di-
n And wise wreran worldwitan pe to godcundan rihtlagan vine and secular affairs.
pas laga setton folce for steore, and halidom and hadas for u And wise were the councilors who added these laws
Godes lufan wuroodon and Godes hus and Godes peowas to the ecclesiastical canons for the guidance of the people,
and who venerated the sacraments and holy orders for the
deoplice gridedon.
love of God, and greatly honored God's house and God's
servants.

20 21
 On Sanctuary On Sanctuary
Be grioe and be munde Concerning Sanctuary and Protection
I Godes grio is ealra grioa selast to geearnianne and geor- 1 Of all forms of sanctuary, the sanctuary of God is the
nost to healdanne, and prer nehst, pres cynges. best to deserve and the most diligently to be held, and next
2 Donne is rihtlic pret Godes cyricgrio binnan wagum to that, the king's.
and Cristenes cyninges handgrio stande efen unwemme. 2 Therefore, it is right that the sanctuary within the walls
3 And hwilum wreran heafodstedas and healice hadas of God's church and the sanctuary received from the hand
micelre mreoe and munde wyroe and grioian mihton (:>a pe of a Christian king remain equally inviolable.
pres bedorfton and prerto sohtan, aa be drere mrede pe prerto 3 And it once was that capital cities and those of high
gebyrede. rank were entitled to great privileges and could offer protec-
4 And pus hit stod on dam dagum inne mid Englum dret tion and sanctuary to those who needed it and sought it
gyf feorhscyldig man cyning gesohte, arcebiscop, oooon there, always in keeping with the privileges that belonged
repeling, ponne ahte he nigon nihta grio feore to gebeorge, thereto.
butan him se cyng rumran fyrstes geunnan wolde. 4 And it so stood in those days among the English that if
5 And gyf he gesohte leodbiscop oooe ealdorman oooon a condemned man sought the king, the archbishop, or a no-
healicne heafodstede, ponne ahte he v11 nihta grid, butan bleman, then he had nine nights' sanctuary in which to save
man lenggeunnan wolde. his life, unless the king wished to grant him more time.
6 And on Cantwara lage, cyning and arcebiscop agan ge- 5 And if he appealed to a suffragan bishop or an ealdor-
licne and efen dyrne mundbryce. man or an important capital city, then he had sanctuary for
7 And on pam lagum is arcebiscopes feoh endlyfangylde seven nights, unless he was granted more.
and cynges is nigongylde. 6 And in the laws of the Kemish people, the king and
archbishop are owed an equal and likewise costly penalty for
the violation of their protection.
7 And according to those laws, elevenfold compensation
is due for the archbishop's property and ninefold for the
king's.

ii 23
 POLITICAL TRACTS ON SANCTUARY

8 And Christes cyrican mundbyrd is efne swa cynges. 8 And the penalty for violating the protection of Christ's
9 And on Suoengla lage, griolagu pus Stent: oret, gifhwa church is that same as that for violating the protection of
gefeohteo on cyrican oooon on cynges huse, ponne sy for- the king.
worht eal f>ret he age, and sy on cynges dome, hwreoer he lif 9 And according to southern English law, the law of sanc-
age pe nage. tuary stands thus: if anyone fights in church or in the king's
10 And gif hwa gefeohteo on mynstre butan cyrcean, ge- house, then he is to forfeit all that he owns, and it is the
bete eall mid fulre bote f>ret f>rerto gebyrige be mynstres king's judgment whether he lives or dies.
10 And if anyone fights within the minster close outside a
mreoe.
n And gyf hwa cynges mundbrice elles gewyrce, gebete church, he is to compensate for all with the full penalty to
pret mid v pundum on Engla lage, arcebiscopes and which the church is entitled according to its status.
repelinges mundbrice mid prim pundum; oores biscpres and n And if anyone otherwise violates the king's protection,
ealdormannes mid II pundum. he is to compensate for that with five pounds according to
12 And gyf man beforan reoelinge oooe arcebiscpe gefeoht English law; violation of an archbishop's and nobleman's
agynneo, mid CL scillinga gebete; gyf beforan ooran biscpe protection with three pounds; another bishop's and ealdor-
oooe ealdormen pis gelimpe, mid c scillingum gebete. man's with two pounds.
13 And on Noroengla lage stent pret se oe ofsleM man 12 And if anyone starts a fight in the presence of a noble-
binnan cyricwagum, he bio feorhscyldig. man or archbishop, he is to compensate with one hundred
13-1 And se oe gewundao, se bio handscyldig. and fifty shillings; if this occurs in the presence of another
13.2 And se pe man ofsleho binnan cyricderum, sylle prere bishop or ealdorman, he is to compensate with one hundred
cyrican cxx scillinga be Noroengla lage. shillings.
14 And frigman se oe cwicne on prere mundbyrde geyfe- 13 And it stands in northern English law that anyone who
lige, sylle xxx scillinga. slays a man within church walls is to be condemned to death.
15 And se f>e in cynges byrig oMon on his neaweste 13.1 And anyone who wounds shall lose his hand.

feohteo oMe steleo, he bio feorhscyldig, nimf>e se cyng aly- 13.2 And anyone who slays a man within the church doors is

fan wille pret man wergylde alysan mote. to give to that church one hundred and twenty shillings ac-
cording to northern English law.
14 And a freeman who injures a living person under pro-
tection is to give thirty shillings.
15 And anyone who fights or steals in the king's com-
pound or in his vicinity is to be condemned to death, unless
the king permits that he may be redeemed with his wergild.

24 25
 ON S ANCT U ARY
POLITICAL TRACTS

16 And if a condemned man seeks sanctuary and thereby

16 And gyf forworht man fricSstol gesece and purh pret
saves his life, then unless greater mercy is shown, he is to re-
feorh geyrne, ponne sy preora an for his feore, bute man bet
ceive one of three penalties in exchange for his life: wergild,
gearian wylle: wergyld, ece peowet, hengenwitnuncg.
perpetual enslavement, or punishment by hanging in bonds.
17 And beo prera t,reora swylc hit beo-gylde he, peowige
17 And whichever of these three it is- whether he pays,
he and polige he-finde borh, gyf he mrege; and gyf he ne
serves, or suffers-he is to arrange for security ifhe can; and
mrege, ponne swerie he pret he refre ne stele ne feoh ne ret-
if he cannot, then he is to swear that he will never commit
bere ne witnunge ne wrece. robbery nor steal livestock nor avenge his punishment.
18 And gyf he pyssa renig aleoge, nahwar he eft his feorh
18 And if he breaks any of these oaths, he may not go any-
gefare ne geyrne. where in his life or take flight.
19 HrelnesgricS and hadgricS healde man mid rihte refre
19 The security and ecclesiastical privileges of the sanctu-
swype georne, and Godes lagum fylge and lareowum hlyste,
ary are always to be observed most assiduously according to
swa prerto gebyrige. the law, and God's laws are to be followed and teachers are
19.1 Biscpas syndan bydelas and Godes lage lareowas and hy
to be heeded, as is appropriate to them.
scylan georne oft and gelome clypian to Christe, and for eal
19.1 Bishops are the messengers and teachers of God's law
Christen fok pingian geornlice, and hy scylan bodian and
and they must fervently call to Christ often and frequently,
bysnian georne godcunde cSearfe Christenre peode.
and readily intervene on behalf of all Christian people, and
20 Se pe oferhogie t>ret he heom hlyste, hrebbe him
they must preach and diligently set an example for the spiri-
gemrene pret wicS God sylfne. tual benefit of the Christian people.
21 Ac sume men syndan, pe for heora prytan and eac for
20 Anyone who rejects what he hears from them must set-
gebyrdan, forhogiacS pret hy hyran godcundan ealdran, swa
tle his dispute with God himself.
swa hy sceoldan, gif hy riht woldan; and agynnacS oft hyrwan
21 But there are some who, because of their pride and also
pret hy scoldan herian, and taliacS pe wyrsan for heanan ge-
their birth, refuse to heed their spiritual betters, just as they
byrdan pa cSe heora yldran on worolde ne wurdan welige ne
ought to do if they desired virtue; and they often begin to
wlance purh woroldglenge, ne on lrenan liffrece ranee ne
blame what they should praise, and judge those to be infe-
rice. rior because of their humble birth whose ancestors were not
in this world either wealthy or made proud through their
worldly finery, or in this transitory life prosperous or pow-
erful.

27
26
 POLITICAL TRACT S
ON SANCTUARY

21.1 Ac t,a ne beoo na wise ne fullice gescade, t,e Gode nel-

21.r Indeed, they are neither wise nor entirely perceptive
lao hyran ne bet understandan hu oft he of lytlan arrerde to who will not obey God nor better understand how often
miclan t,a t,e him hyrdan and mid rihte gecwemdon. he has raised from insignificance to greatness those who
21.2 We witan pret, purh Godes gyfe, prrel wearo to oegene obeyed him and pleased him rightly.
and ceorl wearo to eorle, sangere to sacerde and bocere to 21 .2 We know that, through God's grace, a slave has become
biscpe. a thane and a commoner become a nobleman, a choir singer
22 And hwilum weard geworden, swa swa God wolde, become a priest, and a scholar become a bishop.
sceaphyrde to cynge and se wearo swyt,e mrere; eac weard 22 And it once came to pass, just as God decreed, that a
geworden, swa swa God wolde, fiscere to bioscope, and se shepherd became a king and he was exceedingly great; it
wres swype dyre and Christe gecweme. also came to pass, just as God decreed, a fisherman became a
23 Swike syndan Godes gyfa, pe eape mreg of lytlan bishop, and he was greatly beloved and pleasing to Christ.
arreran to miclan eall pret he sylf wile, eal swa se sealmscop 23 Such are the gifts of God, who can easily raise from
soolice srede pa da he pus sang: ~is sicut dominus Deus noster insignificance to greatness all that he himself wishes, just as
et reliqua, suscitans a terra inopem et de stercore erigens pauperem the psalmist truly said when he sang thus: Who is as the Lord,
ut co//ocet eum cumprincipibus, cum principibuspopuli sui. etc., raising up the needy from the earth, andlifting up the poor out
23.r Swyk understandao pa de Godes ege habbad and wis-
ofthe dunghill that he may place him with princes, with theprinces
domes gymad. ofhis people.
24 And wise eac wreron on geardagum woroldwitan pe 23.1 This is understood by those who have a fear of God and
rerest gesettan to godcundan rihtlagan woroldlaga biscpan heed wisdom.
and gehalgedan heapan, and haligdom and hadas for Godes 24 And wise also were the councilors in former days who
lufan weordedan, and Godes hus and Gades peowas deop- first added secular laws to the just ecclesiastical canons for
lice grioedan. bishops and holy assemblies, and venerated sanctity and the
25 And on hwam mreg huru refre renig man on worolde holy orders for the love of God, and steadfastly protected
swydor God wuroian t,onne on cyrcan and on hrelnessan, God's house and God's servants.
and eft on gehalgedan healican hadan? 25 And indeed, where in the world can anyone ever wor-
26 And la, hwikan gepance mreg renig man refre hurupinga ship God better than in churches and in sanctuaries, and in
pret don, pret he hine on cyrican georne gebiddre and to the high holy orders also?
Godes weofedan geornlice gebuge, and rer odoon refter, inne 26 And after all, how can anyone ever think that he may
pray especially fervently in church and bow willingly to
God's altars, but before or after, within or without, pillage

29
 ON SANCT U ARY
POLITICAL TRACTS

oMe ute, cyrican berype and wyrde oMe wanige pret to cyr- the church and destroy or damage that which belongs to the
church?
can gebyrige?
27 OMon hwilcan gepance mreg renig man refre gepencan 27 Or by what stretch of the imagination can anyone ever
on his mode pret he to sacerdan heafod ahylde, and blet- think in his mind that he may bow his head to the priests,
sunge gyrne, and heora mressan on cyrcan gestande, and ret desire their blessings, attend their Masses in church, and
hlafgange heora hand cysse, and sona prer refter hy hrredlice kiss their hand during the procession with the host, yet then
syMan scyrde oooe scynde mid worde oMe weorce? immediately thereafter injure or abuse them by word or
28 Ac haligdom and hadas and gehalgode Godes hus a man deed?
sceal for Godes ege weor6ian georne, and inwerdre heortan 28 But holiness and the holy orders and the hallowed
house of God shall always be fervently venerated for fear of
refre God lufian.
29 And eac is mycel nydpearf manna gehwylcum, pret he God, and God always be loved with one's innermost heart.
oorum beode pret riht, pret he wille pret man him beode, be 29 And it is also a great necessity for every person to offer
others the justice he wishes to be given to him, just as is his
pam pe his mreo sy.
JO Ealle we habbao renne heofonlicne freder and ane gast- due.
lice modor. Seo is Ecclesia genamod, pret is Godes cyrice, and JO We all have one heavenly father and one spiritual
mother. She is named Ecclesia, that is, God's Church; and
PY we syn gebroora.
JI And ponne is rihtlic eac pret ure :dee ooerne healde therefore we are brothers.
mid rihte, and pret relc cyrice sy refre on Godes ealmihtiges 31 And then it is also right that each of us treat one an-
grioe and on ealles Cristenes folces. other with justice, and that every church be ever in the pro-
31.1 Foroam relc cyricgrio is Cristes agengrio, and relc Cris- tection of God almighty and of all Christian people.
ten man ah micle t>earfe pret he on dam gride mycle mrepe JI.I Therefore, every church sanctuary is Christ's own
sanctuary, and every Christian has a fundamental responsi-
wite.
bility to hold that sanctuary in great reverence.

30 31
 Northumbrian Church Sanctuary
Northumbrian Church Sanctuary
1 And according to the law of the Northumbrians, the
1 And on Nor<Shymbra lage is sanctus Petrus cyricfri<S
compensation owed for a violation of Church sanctuary at
and sanctus Wilfri<Sus and sanctus Johannes binnan cyric-
Saint Peter's, Saint Wtlfrid's, and within the walls of Saint
wagum preo hundred ret cwicum men, and ret deadum bot-
John's is three hundred if the victim is alive, but it cannot be
leas. compensated for ifhe is dead.
2 And odera stowa gri<S is lresse mrerpe, aa be stowe
2 And the sanctuary protection of other locations is less
mrepe. in scale, always according to the status of the site.
3 And preoste cyricgangas syndan forbodene wifum and
3 And a priest is forbidden from attending church with
wrepnum. women or weapons.
4 And cyricgri<S dyre reghwar be mrede ofer ealle dam
4 And Church sanctuary is to be respected everywhere
rice. according to its degree over the entire kingdom.

.33
32
 The Oath of the King The Oath of the King

1 Promissio regis The Oath ofthe King

Dis gewrit is gewriten stref be strefe be pam gewrite pe Dun- This text is transcribed letter by letter from that which
stan arcebisceop sealde urum hlaforde ret Cingestune pa on Archbishop Dunstan presented to our lord at Kingston on
dreg pa hine man halgode to cinge, and forbead him relc the day when he was consecrated as king, and he forbade
wedd to syllanne butan pysan wedde, pe he up on Cristes him from making any promise except this promise, which
weofod lede, swa se bisceop him dihte: "On prere Halgan he placed upon Christ's altar just as the bishop instructed
l>rynnesse naman, ic preo ping behate Cristenum folce and him: "In the name of the Holy Trinity, I pledge three things
me underdeoddum: an rerest, pret Godes cyrice and eall to the Christian people and those subject to me: first, that
Cristen folc minra gewealda sode sibbe healde; ooer is pret ic God's Church and all the Christian people in my realm shall
reaflac and ealle unrihte ping eallum hadum forbeode; enjoy true peace; second, that I forbid theft and all unjust
pridde, pret ic behate and bebeode on eallum domum riht things to all classes of people; third, that I pledge and com-
and mildheortnesse, pret us eallum arfrest and mildheort mand there to be justice and mercy in all judgments, so that
God purh pret his ecean miltse forgyfe, se lifao and rixao." the good and merciful God who lives and rules may thereby
FINIT. grant all of us his eternal grace." THE END

2 Se Cristena cyng pe pas ping gehealdeo he geearnao him syl- The Christian king who adheres to these things will win 2

fum woroldlicne weordmynt, and him ece God regoer ge- honor for himself in this world, and the eternal God will
miltsao ge on andwerdum life ge eac on pam ecean pe refre show mercy to him both in this present life and in that eter-
ne ateorao. Gif he ponne pret awreg6 pret Gode wres be- nal life which will never end. Yet ifhe betrays that which was
haten, ponne sceal hit syddan wyrsian swyoe sona on his promised to God, then straightaway things will grow worse
peode, and eall hit on ende gehwyrf6 on pret wyrste, butan among his people, and in the end it will all come to the
he on his liffrece rer hit gebete. Eala leof hlaford, beorh worst, unless he previously repents for it during his lifetime.
hurupinga georne pe sylfum! Gepenc pret gelome pret pu Indeed, dear lord, at the very least, zealously protect your-
scealt pa heorde ford ret Godes dome ywan and lredan pe pu self! Constantly bear in mind that at God's judgment you
must bring forth and lead that flock to which you are chosen

34 35
 POLITICAL TRA C TS THE OATH OF THE KING

eart to hyrde gescyft on pysum life, and ponne gecennan hu shepherd in this life, and then you will have to render an ac-
pu geheolde p.et Crist .er gebohte sylf mid his blode. count of how you oversaw that which Christ himself previ-
ously purchased with his blood.
3 Gehalgodes cynges riht is p.et he n.enigne man ne fordeme,
and p.et he wuduwan and steopcild and .elpeodige werige, The duty of a consecrated king is to condemn no one un- 3
and amundige; and stala forebeode, and unrihth.emedu ge- justly, and to preserve and protect widows, orphans, and
bete, and siblegeru totwreme, and grundlunga forebeode strangers; and to prohibit theft, curb illicit intercourse, sep-
wiccan and galdra adilige, m.egmyr6ran and manswaran of arate those engaged in incest, ban wizards entirely, eliminate
earde adrife; pearfan mid :elmyssan fede, and ealde and wise witchcraft, banish the slayers of kin and perjurers from this
and syfre him to gepeahterum h.ebbe, and rihtwise m:en land; and to feed the poor with alms, take the old and wise
him to wicnerum sette, for pan swa hw.et swa hig to unrihte and prudent as his advisors, and appoint virtuous men as his
gedoo purh his aful, he his sceal ealles gescead agyldan on deputies, for whatsoever they do that is unjust at his instiga-
Domesd:eg. tion, he must render an account of all ofit onJudgment Day.

36 37
 The Institutes of Polity (1) The Institutes of Polity (1)
1 Be cinincge Concerning the King
Cristenum cyninge gebyrad swioe rihte pret he sy on freder It most properly befits a Christian king to act as a father to a
strele Cristenra }:>eode and on ware and on wearde Cristes Christian people and to be Christ's representative in their
gespeliga, ealswa he geteald is. And him gebirao eac }:>ret he protection and defense, just as he is required to be. And it
eallum his afole Cristendom lufige and hreoendom ascunige, befits him also to love the Christian faith with all his might
and pret he Godes cyrcan reghwar georne weorc:Hge and and reject heathen practices, and to zealously honor and
werige, and eal Cristen folc sibbige and sehte mid rihtere protect God's Church everywhere, and reconcile and bring
lage, swa he geornost mrege. And purh pret he sceal gepeon peace to all Christian folk with just law; as readily as he can.
Gode, pe he riht lufige and unriht ascunige. And in that way he shall thrive before God if he embraces
2 And him gebyreo }:>ret he geornlice fylste pam, pe riht wil- justice and rejects injustice.
lan and a hetelice styre pam }:>e pwyres wyllan. He sceal man- And it is fitting for him to zealously aid those who seek 2

drede men preagean }:>earle mid woroldlicre steore, and he justice and always fiercely restrain those who pursue wick-
sceal ryperas and reaferas and woroldstruderas hatian and edness. He must punish the evil severely with worldly disci-
hynan, and eallum Godes feondum styrnlice wiostandan. pline, and he must detest and destroy thieves, robbers, and
And regoer he sceal beon mid rihte, ge milde ge reoe: milde desecrators of property, and harshly repel all of the enemies
pam godum and styrne pam yfelum. Dret bio cyninges riht of God. And in the pursuit of justice he must be both merci
and cynelic gewuna, and pret sceal on peode swypost ge- ful and severe: merciful to the good and strict with the evil.
fremian. La, purh hwret sceal Godes peowum and Godes This is the king's duty and a royal practice, and it will achieve
pearfum frio and fultum cuman butan purh Crist and purh the most among the people. After all, how shall relief and
Cristenne cyning? Durh cyninges wisdom folc wyro gesrelig, comfort come to God's servants and God's poor except
gesundful, and sigefrest. And py sceal wis cyning Christen- through Christ and a Christian king? Through a king's wis-
dom and cynedom midian and mrersian, and a he sceal dom, the people will become happy, prosperous, and glori-
ous. Accordingly, the wise king must extend and enlarge
Christendom and his kingdom, and he must always resist

38 39
 POLITICAL TRACTS THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (1)

hrependom hindrian and hyrwan. He sceal boclarum hlystan and repress heathenism. He must study the learning found
swyJ:>e georne, and Godes beboda geornlice healdan, and ge- in books most attentively, and diligently heed God's com-
lome wio witan wisdom srneagan, gyf he Gode wile rihtlice mandments, and pursue wisdom with his council, if he
hyran. And gif hwa to }>am strrec sy ahwar on peode pret riht wishes to obey God faithfully. And if anyone is so rebellious
nelle healdan, swa swa he scolde, ac Godes lage wyrde oo5e anywhere among the people that he will not obey the law as
folclage myrre, J:>onne cype hit man pam cynge, gif man pret he should, but flouts the law of God or resists the law of the
nyde scyle; and he ponne sona rrede ymbe pa bote and people, then it must be made known to the king if neces-
gewylde hine georne to pam, }>e his pearf sy, huru unpances, sary; and then at once he will confer concerning the remedy
gif he elles ne mrege. And do, swa him pearf is: clrensige and, as is his responsibility, zealously subdue him, indeed by
his peode for Gode and for worolde gif he Godes miltse force if he cannot do otherwise. And he must do what is
geearnian wylle. necessary for him: purify his people before God and the
world ifhe wishes to earn God's favor.

3 Be cinedome Concerning Kingship 3

Eahta sweras syndon pe rihtlicne cynedom trumlice upwe- There are eight columns that firmly uphold just kingship:
gao: so5frestnes (veritas) and modpwcErnes (patientia) and honesty (troth), patience (patience), generosity (largesse), rea-
rumheortnes (largitas) and rredfrestnes (persuasibilitas) and sonableness (openness to counsel), fearsomeness (correction of
egesfulnes (co"ectio malorum) and firorungnes (exultatio bono- sins), virtuousness (promotion of virtue), restraint (reasonable-
rom) and lihtengnes (levitas tributi) and rihtwisnes (equitas ness in taxation), and righteousness (fairness injudgment). And
iudicii). And seofon ping gedafeniao rihtwisum cyninge: An there are seven things that are appropriate for a righteous
rerest, pret he swipe micelne Godes ege hrebbe (deum timere); king: first, that he have a very great fear of God (fear God);
and oder, pret he refre rihtwisnesse lufige (veritatem diligere); second, that he love righteousness always (value troth); third,
and l>ridde, pret he eadmod sy wio gode (humilem in bonos); that he be humble before the virtuous (humble toward the
and feoroe, t>ret he stidmod sy wid ifele (superbum in malos); good); fourth, that he be stalwart against evil (severe against
and fifte, pret he a symle pearfena helpe (pauperes pascere); the wicked),· fifth, that he always aid the needy (help the poor);
and sixte, pret he Godes circan foroige and frioige (ecclesiam sixth, that he promote and protect God's Church (support
dei adiuvare et defendere); and seofooe, pret he be freondum and defend God's Church); and seventh, that he rule in righ-
and fremdan fadige gelice on rihtlican dome (interpropinquos teous judgment for both friend and stranger (pass equaljudg-
et alienos similem esse in iusto iudicio). mentfor friend andstranger).
4 ...£le cynestol stent on prim stapelum, pe fullice ariht Each throne that stands fully as it should rests upon three 4
stent: an is oratores; and ooer is laboratores; and pridde is pillars: first, those who pray; second, those who labor; and third,

40 41
 POLITICAL TRACTS THE INSTIT U T E S OF POLITY (1)

bellatores. Oratores syndon gebedmen ):>e Gode sculon peo- those who fight. Those who pray are the clergy who must serve
wian and dreges and nihtes for ealne peodscipe ):>ingian God and fervently plead for all the people day and night.
georne. Laboratores sindon weorcmen pe tilian sculon pres pe Those who labor are the workers who must toil for that by
eal ):>eodscipe big sceal libban. Beliatores syndon wigmen ):>e which the entire community may live. Those whofight are the
eard sculon werian wiglice mid wrepnum. On ):>isum prim warriors who must protect the land by waging war with
stapelum sceal rek cynestol standan mid rihte. And awacige weapons. On t hese three pillars must each throne rightly
heora renig, sona se stol scilfo; and forberste heora renig stand. If any of them weaken, immediately the throne will
):>onne rist se stol nyoer, and ):>ret wuro ):>are peode eal to un- tremble; and if any of them fail, then the throne will crum-
):>earfe. Ac staoelige man and strangige and trimme hi georne ble to pieces, and that will bring the people entirely to ruin.
mid wislicre Godes lage; ):>ret wurd ):>am peodscipe to lang- Therefore, they are to be diligently steadied, strengthened,
suman rrede. Foroam soo is ):>ret ic secge: awacige se Cristen- and reinforced with God's wise law; in that way they will
dom, sona scylffl se cynedom; and arrere man unlaga ahwar bring lasting guidance to the people. For what I say is true: if
on lande oMe unsida ahwar to swide, ):>ret cymo pare ):>eode the Christian faith weakens, the kingdom will soon fall; and
eal to unpearfe. Ac do man swa hit ):>earf is: alecge man un- if injustice is exalted anywhere in the land or evil customs
riht and arrere up Gades riht; ):>ret mreg to pearfe for Gode anywhere too eagerly, then the people will be brought en-
and for worlde. Amen. tirely to ruin. Instead, one must do what is needed: suppress
injustice and exalt the law of God; that may be to our bene-
fit before God and the world. Amen.

5 De episcopis Concerning Bishops

Paulus dicit: "Oportet enim episcopum inreprehemibilem esse," et Paul says, "It behoveth therefore a bishop to be blameless," etc. It
reliqua. Biscopum gebiriao ealdlice wisan, and wisdom and befits bishops to have a venerable bearing, and wisdom and
wrerscipe on wordum and on weorcum, and gepincoa on prudence in words and deeds, and nobility in their conduct,
deawum, buton ofermettum. Ne gerisad heom prita, ne without arrogance. Nor is pride appropriate for them, nor
idela rrenca, ne micele ofermetta, ne rrede weametta, ne idle vanity, nor great conceit, nor a quick temper, nor any
renige higeliste wordes ne weorces. Ac ):>ret him bio weordlic, heedlessness in word or deed. But they are to be honorable,
):>ret hi a habban arwuroe wisan on eallum heora ):>eawum, and always have a respectable bearing in all their doings, and
and be):>encan heora dreda wislice and wrerlice, pret hi aoor reflect upon their deeds wisely and prudently, so that they
ne beon ne wordes ne weorces ne ealles to rrede ne to never be all too quick nor too careless in word or deed, but
swiolrete, ac swa hit gerise. Foroam SOO is J:>ret ic secge, act as is appropriate. For what I say is true, believe it who
gelife, se ):>e wille: heardlic eornost and wislic wrerscipe and will: it is much more worthy for each wise man to have bold

42 43
 POLITICAL TRACTS THE INSTIT U TES OF POLITY (I)

stedefrest modstaool mid micclum gepilde and anfeald wise zeal, wise prudence, steadfast firmness of mind with great
on fullan gerade bio witena gehwilcum weorolicre micele, patience, and a resolute disposition in full reason than to al-
ponne he his wisan for renigum pingum fagige to swioe. And ter his manner all too frequently for any cause. And indeed
huru ne geriseo biscopum refre, ne ret ham ne on sioe, to it is never appropriate for bishops, either at home or abroad,
higeleas wise, ac wisdom and weoroscipe gedafenao heora to behave immaturely, but wisdom and honor are proper for
hade, and gedrihoa gerisao pam pe heom filiao. their rank, and sober conduct befits those who accompany
them.

6 Item Furthermore 6

Byscopas sculon bocum and gebedum filigan, and dreges and Bishops must keep to their books and prayers, and day and
nihtes, oft and gelome, clipian to Criste and for eal Cristen night, often and frequently, call upon Christ and fervently
folc pingian georne. And hi sculon leornian and rihtlice intercede for all Christian people. And they must learn and
!reran, and ymbe fakes dreda geornlice smeagan. And hig teach rightly, and conscientiously watch over the deeds of
sculon bodian and bisnian georne godcunde pearfe Cris- the people. And they must preach and sincerely exemplify
tenre peode. And ne sculon hi renig unriht willes gepafian, ac the spiritual commission to a Christian people. And they
to relcan rihte geornlice filstan. Hi sculon Godes ege habban must not knowingly permit any injustice, but readily pro-
on gemynde and ne eargian for worldege ealles to swioe. Ac mote all that is just. They must hold the fear of God in their
bodian hi symle Godes riht georne and unriht forbeodan, mind and not grow all too timid for fear of the world. But let
gime se pe wille; foroam wace bid se hirda funden to heorde him who will take heed always be sure to zealously proclaim
pe nele pa heorde pe he healdan sceal-mid clipunge be- the law of God and forbid injustice; for the shepherd will be
werigan buton he elles mrege-gif par hwilc peodsca6a judged weak for the flock who will not defend the flock that
scaoian onginne6. Nis nan swa yfel sca6a swa is deofol sil£ he must protect-by calling out if he can do nothing else-if
He bio aa ymbe pret an: hu he on manna sawlum mrest ge- any corruptor of the people begins to pillage there. There is
scaoian mrege. l>onne motan t>a hyrdas bean swioe wacole no corrupter so evil as the devil himse1£ He is always con-
and geornlice clipigende, pe wi6 pone t>eodsca6an folce scu- cerned with one thing: how he might most defile the souls
lon scyldan. Dret sindon biscopas and mressepreostas t>e of men. Therefore, those shepherds who would protect the
godcunde heorde gewarian and bewerian sculon mid wis- people against the corruptor must be most watchful and
lican laran, pret se wodfrreca wulf to swioe ne slite ne to feta vigorous in their warnings. Those are the bishops and the
priests who must protect and oversee their spiritual flock
with wise teaching, so that the ravenous wolf does not

44 45
 POLITICAL TRACTS THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (I)

ne abite of godcundre heorde. And se oe oferhogige, p.et he wound too greatly nor devour too many of their spiritual
heom Wiste, habbe him gemrene pret wip God silfne. flock. And let anyone who disdains to listen to them settle
; Eala, fela is swapeah para pe hwonlice gimad and lithwon that with God himself.
reccao ymbe boca beboda oMe biscpa lare; and eac ymbe Sadly, nonetheless there are many of those who lightly re- 7

bletsunga oMe unbletsunga leohtlice lretacS, and na ne un- gard and little heed the precepts of the books or the teach-
derstandad, swa swa hi scoldon hwret Crist on his godspelle ings of the bishops; and also frivolously ignore blessings or
swutollice saede, pa pa he pus cwaed: ~i nos audit et reliqua. curses, and do not understand as they should what Christ in
Et iterum: ~odcumque ligaveritis. Alibi etiam scriptum est: his Gospel clearly said when he spoke thus: He that heareth,
~odcumque henedixeritis. Et psalmista te"ibiliter loquitur di- etc. And likewise: Whatsoever thou shaft hind, etc. Elsewhere too it
cens: ~i noluit henedictionem, prolongahitur ah eo. is written: Whatever you have hlessed.Andthe psalmist, speaking
chillingly, says: he would not have blessing, andit shall be far from
him.

s Beeor/um Concerning Nobles 8

Eorlas and heretogan and pas worlddeman and eac swa ge- Nobles, generals, secular judges, and also reeves are obliged
refan agan neodpearfe pret hi riht lufian for Gode and for to embrace justice before God and the world; and never
worlde; and nahwar purh undom for feo, ne for freondscipe, through foolishness arising from bribery nor out of friend-
forgiman heora wisdom, swa paet hi wrendan unriht to rihte ship, neglect their wisdom so that they twist injustice into
odoe undom deman earmon to hynde. Ac a hi sculon circan justice or pronounce unjust rulings harmful to the poor. But
ofer ealle odre pingc weordian and werian, and wuduwan they must always venerate and protect the Church over all
and steopcild hi sculon retan and pearfena helpan and peo- other things, and they must console widows and orphans,
wetlingan beorgan, gif hi Godes willan rihte willad wyrcan. aid the poor, and defend helpless slaves, if they wish to fulfill
And peofas and peodscaoan hi sculon hatigan, and riperas God's will rightly. They must abhor thieves and villains, and
and reaferas hi sculon hynan, buton hi geswican. And symle they must suppress robbers and criminals, unless they cease
hi sculon a unriht swide ascunian. Forpam sod is paet ic their crimes. And they must always greatly detest injustice.
secge, gelife se de wille: wa oam pe woh dryfo, buton he ge- For it is the truth that I speak, believe it who will: woe unto
swice! Witod he sceal drefan dymne and deopne hellewites that person who pursues injustice, unless he turn aside! He
grund, helpes bedreled. Ac to lyt is para nu oa, pe paet under- will certainly sink, bereft of help, into hell's dark and deep
stand swa swa man scolde. Ac do freonda gehwilc ealswa hit abyss. Too few, however, are those now who understand that
pearf is: warnige hine silfne and beorge him georne paet he as one should. But each friend shall do as is most necessary:
warn and protect himself thoroughly so as not to anger God

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 POLITI C AL TRACTS THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (1)

Gode ne abelge ealles to swioe, ac cweme his Drihtene mid all too greatly, but instead please his Lord with righteous
rihtlicre drede. deeds.

9 Be sacerdum Concerning Pn·ests 9

Riht is pret sacerdas on heora scriftscirum willice and It is right that priests in their parishes willingly and sensibly
wrerlice lreran and lredan pa godcundan heorda pe hig heal- lead and instruct the spiritual flock which they are to pro-
dan sculon. And regoer hi sculon, ge wel bodian ge wel bis- tect. They must both preach well and set a good example,
nian, and Godes circan geornlice lufian and for eal Cristen and zealously exalt God's Church and diligently pray for all
folc geornlice gebiddan. Christian people.

,o Be gehadedum mannum Concerning Those in Orders 10

Eallum Cristenum mannum is micel pearf pret hi riht lufian There is a great need for all Christians to embrace justice
and unriht ascunian. And huru gehadedum is pres mrest and reject injustice. And indeed, for those in orders it is the
pearf pe regoer sculon ge wel bodian ge we! bisnian oorum greatest necessity that they both preach well and set a good
mannum. Mannum gebireo relc clrennes, foroam pe hi scu- example for others. All forms of purity are appropriate for
lon eallum oorum mannum relce unchennesse forbeodan, gif people in orders, for they must forbid all forms of impurity
hi riht doo. And relce cl.ennesse hi sculan be heom silfum to others, if they are to do what is right. And they must
gebisnian. l>onne is hit swioe egeslic t>ret pa pe scoldan eal- themselves become an example of every form of purity. Ac-
lum Cristenum mannum riht bodian and eac wel bisnian, cordingly, it is exceedingly dreadful that of those who must
pret hi syn sume wordene bysen to forwirde swioor ponne to preach righteousness to all Christians and also set a good ex-
oearfe. l>ret sindon pa rewbrycan pe purh healicne had ample, some have become an example of damnation rather
ciricrewe underfengon and pret siooan abrrecan. Nis nanum than duty: that is, those adulterers who accepted marriage
weofodpegne alifed pret he wifian mote; ac is relcum for- to the Church through their holy orders and later violated
boden. Nu is peah para ealles to fela, pe pone rewbryce wyr- it. No clergyman who serves at the altar is permitted to have
cao and geworht habbao, ac ic bidde for Godes lufan and eac a wife; rather, it is forbidden to all. Now, however, there are
eornostlice beode, pret man ores geswice. Lrewedum men is all too many who commit adultery or have committed it, yet
relc wif forboden, buton his rihtrewe; and gehadode syndon for the love of God, I command and solemnly decree that
sume swa purh deofol beswicene pret hi wifiao on unriht and this is to cease. To a layman is every woman forbidden save
forwyrcao hi silfe purh pone rewbrece, pe hig on wuniao. his lawful spouse; and there are some in orders so deceived
Ac ic bidde georne t,ret man pres geswice. Cirice is sacerdos by the devil that they take a wife unlawfully and destroy
themselves through the adultery in which they abide. But I
urgently command that they cease. The priest's wife is the

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 POLITICAL TRACTS TH E INSTIT U TES OF POLITY (I)

rewe. Nah he mid rihte renige o<Sre; foroam ne gebirao sacer- Church. By right he has no other; for neither a wife nor the
dan nan 6ingc, na<Sor ne to wife ne to worldwige, gif hi Gode warfare of this world are fitting for a priest in any way, if he
willad rihtlice hiran and Gades laga healdan, swa swa heora wishes to obey God properly and heed God's law in a man-
hade gedafenad mid rihte. ner appropriate to his status.

11 Be abbodum Concerning Abbots II

Riht is pret abbodas and huru abbatissan freste on mynstrum It is right that abbots and, in particular, abbesses remain
singallice wunigan and georne heora heorde simle begiman, perpetually secure in their monasteries and always consci-
and aa heom wel bisnian and rihtlice bodian; and mefre entiously oversee their flocks, and ever set a good example
ymbe woroldcara ne idele wlrenca ne prita ne carian to for them and preach rightly; and they are never to be con-
swioe, ac oftost hi abisgian mid godcundan neodan. Swa ge- cerned too greatly with worldly cares or idle vanity or pride,
bired abbodan and munuchades mannum. but they are to occupy themselves most often with spiritual
needs. This is fitting for abbots and monastics.

12 Be munecum Concerning Monks n

Riht is pret munecas dreges and nihtes inweardre heortan a It is right that monks always reflect upon God in their in-
to Gode pencan and geornlice dypian and mid eallum ead- nermost heart by day and night and sincerely pray and live
medum regollice libban. Filigan heora bocum and gebedum according to their rule with all humility. They are to adhere
georne and reghwike wlaence and idele rrence and sindrige diligently to their books and prayers and to entirely reject
rehta and unnytte dreda and untidsprreca forhogian mid all arrogance, idle vanity; private property, frivolous deeds,
ealle. Swa gebyreo munecan. and foolish speech. Thus it is fitting for monks.

13 Be minecenan Concerning Women Monastics IJ

Riht is pret mynicena mynsterlice macian, efne swa we cwre- It is right that women in orders act in a monastic fashion,
don reror be munecum, and nrefre wid worldmen renigne ge- even as we have said before about monks, and never too
manan worldlicre cyMe habban to swioe. greatly have any interaction of a secular nature with people
of the world.

14 Be preostum andbe nunnan Concerning Priests and Nuns 14

Ryht is pret preostas and efen wel nunnan regollice libban It is right that priests and likewise nuns also live according
and clrennesse healdan be pam pe hi willan on mynstran to their rule and preserve their chastity if they desire to live

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 POLITICAL TRACTS THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (1)

gewunian oooe for worlde weoroscipes wealdan. Gehado- in a monastery or earn respect in the world. All forms of pu-
dum mannum gebireo relc clrennes, foroam pe hy sculon eal- rity are appropriate for those in orders, for they must forbid
lum oorum mannum relce unclrennesse forbeodan, and relce all forms of impurity to others, and if they are to do what is
clrennesse, gifhi riht doo, hi sculon be heom silfum geornost right, they must themselves most zealously become an ex-
gebisnian. ample of every form of purity.

15 Be Jinvedum mannum Concerning Laymen 15

Riht is pret gehadode men pam lrewedum wissian hu hi It is right that men in orders instruct the laity how they
heora rewe rihtost sculon healdan. Dret bio rihtlic lif pret should best keep their marital vows. That life is virtuous in
cniht purhwunige on hys cnihthade oooret he on rihtre which a young man remains chaste until he weds a maiden
mredemewe gewifige and habbe pa siooan and nrenige oore properly, and afterward has her and no other for as long as
pa hwile seo libbe. Gifhire ponne forosic5 getimige, ponne is she lives. Then, if her death occurs, it is most appropriate,
rihtast, pret he panonforc5 wuduwa purhwunige. l>eah be that he remain a widower thenceforth. By the Apostle's con-
pres apostoles leafe, lrewede man mot for neode oc5re sic5e sent, though, a layman can marry a second time if necessary.
wifian. And peah lrewedum mannum wif sy alifed, peah hi And though a wife is permitted to laymen, it is still neces-
agon pearfe pret hi understandan hu hit is alifed. Nagan sary that they understand how it is permitted. On feasts and
lrewede men freolstidum ne frestentidum purh hremedpingc in fasting times, laymen may not consort with their wives in
wifes gemanan, pe ma t>e heahhades menn pret ping agon sexual activity, any more than those in orders may do that
renigum timan. thing at any time.

16 Be wudewan Concerning the Widow 16

Riht is pret wuduwan Annan bysene georne filigan: seo wres It is right that widows readily abide by the example ofAnna:
on temple da:ges and nihtes peowigende georne. Heo freste she remained in the temple day and night in heartfelt ser-
swic5e pearle and gebedum filigde and geomrigendum mode vice. She fasted very rigorously, kept to her prayers, called
cliopode to Criste and relmessan drelde oft and gelome; and on Christ with a sorrowful spirit, and handed out alms very
aa Gode cwemde pres pe heo mihte wordes and dreda; and frequently; and she always pleased God as much as she could
ha:f<5 nu to leane heofonlice mirhc5e. Swa sceal god wuduwe with words and deeds; and now as a reward, she has heav-
hiran hyre Drihtene. enly bliss. In this way shall a good widow heed her Lord.

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 POLITI C AL TRACTS THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (I)

11 Becircan Concerning the Church 17

Riht is pret Cristene men Cristendom georne healdan mid It is right that Christians fervently adhere rightly to the
rihte and Cristes cirican reghwar geornlice wuroian and Christian faith and readily honor and uphold the Christian
werian. Ealle we habbao renne heofonlicne fader and ane Church everywhere. We all have one heavenly father and
gastlice modor. Seo is Ecclesia genamod, pret is Godes cirice, one spiritual mother. She is named Ecciesia, that is, God's
and pa we sculon refre lufian and wuroian. And riht is, pret Church, which we must always love and respect. And it is
relc cirice sy on Godes grioe and on ealles Cristenes folces; right that each church be under the protection of God and
and pret ciricgrio stande reghwar binnon wagum and gehal- of all Christian people; and that Church sanctuary is to pre-
godes cyninges handgrio efenunwremme. Foroam relc ciric- vail within the walls and is to be honored no differently
grio is Cristes agen gricl, and rek Cristen man ah micele from protection from the king's own hand. Thus, every
pearfe pret he on clam gri<Se micele mreoe wite. Foroam relces Church sanctuary is Christ's own sanctuary, and every
Cristenes mannes nydpearf is, pret he Godes cirican lufige Christian has a great obligation to treat that sanctuary with
and wuroige and hi gelomlice and geornlice sece him silfum great respect. Further, it is the responsibility of every Chris-
to pearfe. And huru gehadode par sculon oftost peowian tian to love and honor God's Church, and he is to seek it out
and J>enian and for eal Cristen folc pingian georne. Donne often and willingly for his own benefit. Those in orders also
agan weofodJ:>egnas to smeagenne symle, J:>ret hi huruJ:>inga must serve and minister there most often and intercede
heora lif fadian swa swa to circan gebirige mid rihte. readily for all Christian people. Accordingly, clergy who
,8 Cirice is mid rihte sacerdes rewe, and se pe to circan serve at the altar must always ensure that they especially set
wuroe gehadod, nage hine renig man, pc Godes lage recce, their lives in order in a manner rightly fitting to the Church.
panan to donne, buton he hi mid heafodgilte fullice for- The Church is properly the spouse of the priest, and no 18

wyrce. And J:>onne sceal Cristes scirgerefa pret witan and person who heeds God's law ought to remove from the
ymbe J:>ret dihtan and deman, swa swa bee trecan. Ne scolde Church someone who has taken orders in it, lest he utterly
man refre circan derian ne renig woh beodan on renige wisan. perish in mortal sin. And then must Christ's representative
Ac nu sindon peah circan wide and side wace gegrioode and take notice of that and resolve and judge it just as the books
ifele gepeowode, clrene beripte ealra gerihta and innan be- instruct. No one must ever damage a church or threaten it
strypte rekera gerisena. And ciricpenas sindon mreoe and with wrongdoing in any way. Yet nonetheless, churches far
munde wel gehwar bedrelede. And wa oam pe pres wealt, and wide are now weakly protected and oppressed by evil
and entirely deprived of ancient rights and stripped inside
of everything proper. Moreover, the Church's servants are
everywhere deprived of honor and protection. And woe

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 POLITICAL TRACTS THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (1)

f>eah he swa ne wene, foroarn relc para bic) witodlice Gades unto him who causes this, even if he does not realize it, for
silfes feond, f>e bic:S Gades ciricena feond and pe Godes ciri- each of those who is the enemy of God's churches and who
cena rihta gewanao oooe wyrdec); ealswa hit awriten is: weakens or violates the rights of God's churches is assuredly
Inimicus enim Christi efficitur omnis, qui ecclesiasticas res usur- the enemy of God himself; as it is written: For anyone becomes
pare iniuste conatur; et re/iqua. And egeslice sprrec sanctus the enemy ofChrist who attempts to wrongly make use ofthe goods
Gregorius be pam eac, f>a c)a he pus cwreo: Si quis ecclesiam ofthe Church, etc. And Saint Gregory spoke fearsomely about
Christi denudauerit ue/ sanctimonia uio/auerit, anathema sit. Ad this also, when he said thus: Whoever plunders the Church of
quod respondentes omnes dixerunt: Amen. Micel is neodpearf Christ or violates its sanctity is to he anathema. Responding to
manna gehwilcum, pret he wio 6as pingc beorge hym georne; which, all said· Amen. Everyone has a great duty to defend
and reghwilc Gades freond warnige hine simle, pret he himself vigorously against these things; and each friend of
Cristes bride to swioe ne misbeode. Ealle we sculon renne God is to always watch over himself, so that he not mistreat
God lufian and wuroian and renne Cristendom georne heal- the bride of Christ too greatly. We all must love and praise
dan and relcne hrec)endom mid ealle awurpan. one God and diligently adhere to one Christian faith and re-
ject every heathen practice with all our might.

19 Be eallum Cristenum mannum ConcerningAll Christian People 19

Riht is pret ealle Cristene men heora Cristendom rihtlice It is right that all Christian people properly uphold their
healdan and pam life libban pe heom to gebyrec) refter Christian faith and live the life appropriate to them accord-
Godes rihte and refter woroldgerisenum; and ealle heora ing to the law of God and the customs of the world; and dili-
wisan be f>am pingan geornlice fadian pe oa hi wisian pe hi gently arrange all manner of things according to the guid-
wislice and wrerlice wisian cunnan. And pret is ponne rerest ance of those who can advise them wisely and truly. And
rreda firmest: pret manna gehwilc ofer ealle oc:Sre pingc renne this, then, is the most important of precepts: that each per-
God lufige and renne geleafan anrredlice habbe on pone pe son love the one God over all other things and resolutely
us ealle rerest geworhte and mid deorwuroan ceape eft us ge- have one faith in him who first created us all and purchased
bohte. And eac we agan pearfe pret we geornlice smeagan hu us again at a dear price. And we also have need to reflect sin-
we syrnle magon Godes agene beboda rihtlicost healdan and cerely how we can always keep God's own commandments
eal pret gelrestan pret pret we behetan pa we fulluht under- most rightly and perform all that we-or those who were
fengon oooe pa oe ret fulluhte ure foresprecan wreron. I>ret our sponsors-promised when we received baptism. This,
is ponne rerest: pret pret man behateo ponne man fulluhtes then, is first: that one promises when one seeks baptism to
girneo f>ret man aa wille deofol ascunian and his unlara always spurn the devil and zealously avoid his evil teachings
georne forbugan and ealle his unlaga syrnle awurpan and and always reject his injustice and eternally resist all of his

56 57
 THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (1)
POLITI CAL TRACTS

ecelice wiosacan ealles his gemanan; and manysipes sona company; and swiftly thereafter sincerely proclaim many
parrefter mid rihtan geleafan soolice swutelao pret man times with true faith that one thenceforth will always love
panonforo aa wile on ende God :dre lufian and ofer ealle one God forever, always love him over all other things, zeal-
oore oingc hine a lufian and refre his larum geornlice filigan ously heed his teachings forever, and keep his own com-
and his agene beboda rihtlice healdan. And oonne bio o:et mandments properly. And then that baptism will become
fulluht, swilce hit wed sy ealra para worda and ealles p:es be- like a covenant of all those words and all those promises, ful-
hates, gehealde se oe wille. And englas beweardiao panon- fi.11 it who will. Thenceforth, angels will oversee every man
ford :efre manna gehwilcne, hu he gel:este :efter his fulluhte, forever after his baptism, how he fulfills what he earlier
p:et pret man behet :er, pa man fulluhtes girnde. promised when he sought baptism.
Uton p:et gepencan oft and gelome, and georne gel:estan Let us reflect upon that repeatedly and sincerely abide by 20
10
p:et p:et we beheton pa we fulluht underfengon, ealswa us that which we promised when we received baptism, just as is
pearf is. And uton word and weorc rihtlice fadian and ure our obligation. And let us order our words and deeds rightly,
ingepanc cl:ensian georne and ao and wed w:erlice healdan fervently cleanse our inmost thoughts, truly keep our oath
and gelome understandan pone micclan dom, pe we ealle to and pledge, and frequently reflect on the great judgment to
sculon; and beorgan us georne wio oone weallendan bryne which we all must go; and zealously shield ourselves against
hellewites, and geearnian us pa m:eroa and pa rnirhoa, pe the swelling flame of hellish torments, and earn for our-
God href() gegearwod pam oe his willan on worlde gewurcao. selves the glories and happiness which God has prepared for
those who work his will in the world.

58 59
 The Institutes of Polity (2) The Institutes of Polity (2)

1 Be heofonlicum cyninge Concerning the Heavenly King

In nomine domini. An is ece cyning, wealdend, and wyrhta In the name of the Lord One is the eternal king, ruler, and
ealra gesceafta. He is on riht cyning and cyninga wuldor, and maker of all creation. By right, he is the king and the glory of
ealra cyninga betst l:>e refre gewurde oooe geweorcle. Him kings, and the greatest of all kings who ever were or will be.
symble sy lof and wuldor and ece wyrdmynt a to worulde. For him let there always be praise and glory and eternal ven-
eration forever and ever. Amen.
Amen.

2 Be eortJ/icum cyninge Concerning the Earthly King

Cristenum cyninge gebyrecl on Cristenre peode I:>ret he sy, It befits the Christian king of a Christian people to be, as is
ealswa hit riht is, folces frofer and rihtwis hyrde ofer proper, a comfort to his people and a just shepherd over a
Cristene heorde. And him gebyrel:> l:>ret he eallum mregne Christian flock. And it is fitting for him to promote Chris-
Cristendom rrere and Godes cyrican reghwrer georne fyrorie tianity with all his might and everywhere zealously honor
and fridie. And eall Cristen folc sibbie and sehte mid rihtre and protect God's Church. He shall reconcile and bring
lage, swa he geornost mrege; and durh relc l:>ing rihtwisnesse peace to all Christian folk with just law, as readily as he can;
lufie for Gode and for worulde. Fordam purh \Jret he sceall and in every way he shall embrace righteousness before God
sylf fyrmest gepeon and his peodscipe eac swa pe he riht and the world. For in this way, he shall himself thrive first
lufie for Gode and for worulde. And him gebyrecl pret he and his people likewise if he embraces justice before God
geornlice fylste !:>am oe riht willan and a hetelice styre )>am and the world. And it is fitting for him to zealously aid those
oe pwyres willan. He sceal mandrede menn !Jreagan t:>earle who seek justice and always fiercely restrain those who pur-
mid woruldlicre steore, and he sceal ryperas and reaferas sue wickedness. He must punish evil men severely with
and oas woruldstruderas hatian and hynan, and eallum worldly discipline, and he must detest and destroy thieves,
Godes feondum styrnlice wiclstandan. And reg6er he sceal robbers, and desecrators of property, and harshly repel all of
beon mid rihte, ge milde ge repe: milde )>am godum and the enemies of God. And in the pursuit of justice he must be
both merciful and severe: merciful to the good and strict

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 POLITI C AL TRACT S THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (2)

styme pam yfelum. Dret bio cynincges riht and cynelic with the evil. This is the king's justice and a royal practice,
gewuna, and pret sceal on peode swyoost gefremian. and it will achieve the most among the people.
3 La, purh hwret sceal Gades peowum and Gades pearfum Indeed, how shall relief and comfort come to God's ser- J
frio and fultum cuman butan purh Crist and purh Cristenne vants and God's poor except through Christ and a Christian
cyning? I>urh unwisne cyning, folc wyro geyrmed for oft, king? Through an unwise king, the people will become mis-
nres rene, for his misrrede. I>urh cynincges wisdom folc wyr6 erable-not once, but very often!-because of his foolish
gesrelig and gesundful and sigefrest. And oy sceal wis cyning counsel. Through a king's wisdom, the people will become
Cristendom and cynedom midian and mrersian, and a he happy, prosperous, and glorious. Accordingly, the wise king
sceal hrependom hindrian and hyrwan. must extend and enlarge Christendom and his kingdom,
4 He sceal boclarum hlystan swyoe georne, and Gades be- and he must always resist and repress heathenism.
boda geornlice healdan, and gelome wid witan wisdom He must study the learning found in books most atten- 4
smeagan, gif he Gode wile rihtlice hyran. And gif hwa to tively, and diligently heed God's commandments, and pur-
parn strec sy ahwrer on peode pret riht nelle healdan swa swa sue wisdom with his council, if he wishes to obey God faith-
he sceolde, ac Gades lage wyrde oooe foklage myrre, ponne fully. And if anyone is so rebellious anywhere among the
cyoe hit man parn cyninge, gif man pret nyde scyle; and he people that he will not obey the law as he should, but flouts
ponne sona rrede embe pa bote and gewylde hine geornlice the law of God or resists the law of the people, then it must
to oarn, pe his pearf sy, huru unpances, gifhe elles ne mrege. be made known to the king if necessary; and then at once he
And do, swa him pearf is: drensige his J:>eode for Gode and will confer concerning the remedy and, as is his responsibil-
for worulde gif he Godes mildse geearnian wille, and smeage ity, zealously subdue him, indeed by force if he cannot do
gelome hwret him sy to donne and hwret to forganne after otherwise. And he must do what is necessary for him: purify
Gades rihte. And panan him sceal swydost refre arisan word his people before God and the world if he wishes to earn
and weoroscipe, regoer ge on life ge refter life, pret he Godes God's favor, and frequently reflect on what he must do and
riht lufie and unriht ascunie and godcunde tare georne what avoid according to God's law. And his name and repu-
gehyre oft and gelome him sylfum to pearfe. Forparn sona tation will ever increase both in this life and in the afterlife,
unstrangao se pe lytel hafao lichamlices fostres, and se oe just as long as he embraces God's justice, rejects injustice,
seldan hafao gastlicne foster sona hit his sawle derao swioe and diligently heeds divine teaching often and frequently, as
pearle; ac se byd gesrelig pe godcunde lare oftost gehyreo he himself requires. For he who takes too little bodily nour-
and geornlicast healdep. ishment swiftly becomes feeble, and he who seldom takes
spiritual nourishment will soon do great injury to his soul;
but he is happy who most often heeds and most zealously
obeys divine teachings.
 POLITICAL TRACTS
"f THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (2)

5 Be cynedome Concerning Kingship 5

Eahta sweras syndon pe rihtlicne cynedom trumlice upwe- There are eight columns that firmly uphold just kingship:
gac:S: soofrestnys, modpw:Ernes, rumheortnes, rredfiestnes, honesty, patience, generosity, reasonableness (truth, patience,
(veritas, patientia, largitas, persuasihilitas), egesfulnes, fyrcS- largesse, openness to counsel), fearsomeness, virtuousness, re-
ringnes, lihtingnes, rihtwisnes, (co"ectio ma/orum, exu/tatio straint, righteousness (co"ection of sins, promotion of virtue,
honorum, /evitas tributi, equitas iudicii). And seofon ping ge- reasonableness in taxation, fairness in judgment). And seven
dafeniac:S rihtwisum cyninge: an rerest, pret he swycSe micelne things are appropriate for a righteous king: first, that he
Godes ege hrebbe; and oc:Ser, pret he :efre rihtwisnesse lufige; have a very great fear ofGod; second, that he love righteous-
and c:Sridde, p:et he eadmod sy wic:S gode; and feorc:Se, pret he ness always; third, that he be humble before the virtuous;
stic:Smod sy wic:S yfele; and fifte, p:et he Godes pearfum fre- fourth, that he be stalwart against evil; fifth, that he com-
frige and fede; and syxte, }:>.et he Godes cyrcan fyrcSrige and fort and feed God's poor; sixth, that he promote and protect
fricSige; and seofocSe, p:et he be freondan and be fremdan God's Church; and seventh, that he rule in righteous judg-
fadige gelice on rihtlican dome. ment for both friend and stranger.

6 Be cynesto/e Concerning the Throne 6

£le riht cynestol stent on prym stapelum, pe fullice ariht Each just throne that stands fully as it should rests upon
stent. An is oratores; and oder is laboratores; and dridde is hel- three pillars: first, those who pray; second, those who tabor; and
latores. Oratores sindon gebedmen pe Gode sculan peowian third, those whofight. Those who pray are the clergy, who must
and d:eges and nihtes for ealne peodscipe pingian georne. serve God and fervently plead for all the people day and
Lahoratores sindon weorcmen f>e tilian sculon f>:es de eall night. Those who /ahor are the workers who must toil for that
f>eodscype big sceall libban. Bellatores syndon wigmen f>e by which the entire community may live. Those who fight are
eard sculon werian wiglice mid wrepnum. On pyssum drym the warriors who must protect the land by waging war with
stapelum sceall a:lc cynestol standan mid rihte on Cristenre weapons. On these three pillars must each throne rightly
peode. And awacie heora renig, sona se stol scylfcS; and ful- stand in a Christian polity. If any of them weaken, immedi-
berste heora :enig, f>onne hryscS se stol nyder, and pret wyrcS ately the throne will tremble; and if any of them fail, then
prere peode eall to unpearfe. Ac stapelige man and strangie the throne will crumble to pieces, and that will bring the
and trumme hi georne mid wislicre Godes lace and mid riht- people entirely to ruin. Therefore, they are to be diligently
licre woruldlage; pret wyrd pam peodscype to langsuman steadied, strengthened, and reinforced with God's wise
teachings and with just worldly law; in that way they will
bring lasting guidance to the people. And what I say is true:

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 T HE IN S TIT U T E S OF POLITY (2)
POLITICAL TRACTS

rrede. And soo is pret ic secge: awacie se Cristendom, sona if Christian faith weakens, the kingdom will soon fall; and if
scylfo se cynedom; and arrere man unlaga ahwar on lande injustice is exalted anywhere in the land or evil customs
oooe unsida lufige ahwar to swioe, pret cymo prere peode are anywhere too eagerly embraced, then the people will be
eall to unpearfe. Ac do man swa hit pearf is: alecge man un- brought entirely to ruin. Instead, one must do what is
riht and rrere up Godes riht, pret mreg to pearfe for Gode needed: suppress injustice and exalt the law of God; that
and for worulde. Amen. may be to our benefit before God and the world. Amen.

Concerning the Counselors ofthe People 7

7 Be °/Jeodwitan
Cyningan and bisceopan, eorlan and heretogan, gerefan and It rightly behooves kings and bishops, nobles and generals,
deman, larwitan and lahwitan gedafenao mid rihte for Gode reeves and judges, the learned and the legal counselors to be
and for worulde, pret hi anrrede weoroan and Godes riht of one mind and embrace God's justice before God and the
lufian. And bisceopas syndon bydelas and Godes lage la- world. And bishops are the messengers and teachers of
reowas, and hi sculan riht bodian and unriht forbeodan. And God's law, and they must proclaim justice and forbid injus-
se pe oferhogige pret he heom hlyste hrebbe him gemrene tice. And anyone who disdains to listen to them may take is-
pret wio God sylfne. And gif bisceopas forgymao, pret hi sue about that with God himself And if bishops fail by not
synna ne styrao ne unriht forbeodap ne Godes riht ne cypao, curbing sin or forbidding injustice or making known God's
ac clumiao mid ceaflum, prer hi sceoldan clypian, wa heom law, but by mumbling with their mouths when they should
prere swigean! Be parn sprrec se witega and grimlice pus shout, woe to them for that silence! The prophet spoke of
cwrecl Haec dicit dominus: Si non adnuntiaveris iniquo iniquita- them and thus said harshly: Thus sayeth the Lord: If thou de-
tem suam, sanguinem eius de manu tua requiram. "Gif pu l>arn clare not his wickedness to the wicked, I will require his blood at
synfullan nelt," cwreo ure Drihten, "synna gestyran and un- thy hand. "If you will not curb the sins of the sinful," said our
riht forbeoden and oam manfullan mandreda cyoan, pu Lord, "and forbid injustice and proclaim the wickedness of
scealt pa sawle bitere forgyldan!" Dis mreg to heorthoge the wicked, for that soul you shall pay bitterly!" This can be
reghwylcum bisceope; bel>ence hine georne be pam, pe he taken to heart by every bishop; let him sincerely reflect
upon it, he who will.
wylle.
8 And se pe nele Godes bodan hyran mid rihte, ne godcun- And he who will not rightly heed God's messengers, nor 8
dre lare gyman swa he sceolde, he sceall hyran feondan, gyf attend to divine teaching as he should, must listen to his en-
he nele freondan; forpam se bio Gades oferhoga, pe Godes emies if not to his friends; for he rejects God who rejects
bodan oferhogao, ealswa Crist sylf on his godspelle swyto- God's messenger, as Christ himself in his Gospel clearly said
lice srede, pa },a he pus cwreo: ~i vos audit, me audit et qui vos when he spoke thus: He that heareth you, heareth me; and he
 POLITICAL TRACTS THE INSTITU TES OF POLITY (2)

spernit, me spernit. He cwreo, "se oe eow hyreo me gehyreo, that despiseth you, despiseth me. He said: "he who hears you,
and se pe forhogacS eow, me he forhogao." hears me and he who rejects you, rejects me."
9 Eala, swrer is seo byroen pe Godes bydel beran sceall gif Sadly, onerous is the burden which God's messenger must 9
he nele georne unriht forbeoden; foroam peh he sylf tela do bear if he will not zealously combat injustice; for although
and ooer man misdo, pret him sceall gederian, and gif he nele he acts virtuously himself and another person acts wickedly,
styran. And peh Godes bydel misdo, ne beseo man na prerto, he himself shall suffer if he does not correct it. And if God's
ac gyme his lare, gif he tela lrere. Swa swa Crist lrerde, pret messenger acts wickedly, one should overlook that, but
man don sceolde, l>a pa he on his godspelle swutolice pus rather heed his teaching if what he teaches is good. Christ
cwreo: ~e hi dicunt, facite, que autem faciunt, facere nolite. He taught just what people should do when he clearly spoke
cwred, "fyliao heora !arum and na heora synnum." Ne sceal thus in his Gospel: Whatsoever they shall say to you, do: but ac-
renig man refre for bisceopes synnum hine sylfne forgyman, cording to their works do ye not. He said, "Follow their teach-
ac fylige his !are, gif he wel l:ere. And la, leofan men, doo, ings, and not their sins." One must not ever neglect oneself
swa ic bidde, butan gebelge, hlystao, hwret ic secge: le wat because of a bishop's sins, but follow his teaching if he
swyae georne me sylfne forworhtne wordes and drede ealles teaches well. And indeed, dear people, do as I ask and listen
to swyoe, ne dear peah for Godes ege forswygian mid ealle to what I say without taking offense: very well do I know
fela para l>inga, pe derea pisse peode. myself to be entirely too sinful in word and deed, but for
fear of God I dare not stay wholly silent about many of the
things which wound this people.

,o Item de episcopis Likewise, Concerning Bishops 10

Bisceopas sculan bocum and gebedum fyligean, and dreges Bishops must keep to their books and prayers, and day and
and nihtes, oft and gelome, clypian to Criste and for eall night, often and frequently, call upon Christ and fervently
Cristen folc pingian georne. And hi sceolan leornian and intercede for all Christian people. And they must learn and
rihtlice !reran, and ymb folces dreda geornlice smeagan. And teach rightly, and conscientiously watch over the deeds of
hi scylan bodian and bysnian georne godcunde pearfe Cris- the people. And they must preach and sincerely exemplify
tenre peode. And ne scylan hyg renig unriht willes gepafian the spiritual commission to a Christian people. And they
ac to relcan rihte geornlice fylstan. Hy sculan Godes ege must not knowingly permit any injustice but readily pro-
habban on gemynde and ne eargian for woruldege ealles to mote all that is just. They must hold the fear of God in their
swy<'k. Ac bodian hy symle Godes riht georne and unriht mind and not grow all too timid for fear of the world. But let
forbeodan, gyme, se pe wille; fordam wace bio se hyrde him who is willing always be sure to zealously proclaim the
law of God and forbid injustice; for the shepherd will be
 POLITI CAL TRACTS THE INSTITU TES OF POLITY (2)

funden to heorde, pe nele pa heorde, pe he healdan sceal- judged weak for the flock who will not defend the flock that
huru mid clypunge bewerian, butan he elles mrege-gif prer he must protect-even by calling out if he can do nothing
hwylc peodsceapa sceapian onginnep. Nis nan swa yfel else-if any corruptor of the people begins to pillage there.
sceapa swa is deofol sy1£ He bio aa ymbe pret an hu he on There is no corruptor so evil as the devil himse1£ He is al-
manna sawlum mrest gesceapian mrege. l>onne motan pa ways concerned with one thing: how he can most defile the
hyrdas beon swipe wacore and geornlice clypiende, pe wia souls of men. Therefore, those shepherds who would pro-
pone peodsceaaan folce scylan scyldan. l>ret syndon bisceo- tect the people against the corruptor must be most watchful
pas and mressepreostas pe godcunde heorde gewarian and and vigorous in their warnings. Those are the bishops and
bewerian scylan mid wislican laran, f>ret se wodfreca were- the priests who must protect and oversee their spiritual
wulf to swioe ne toslite ne to fela ne abite of godcundre flock with wise teaching, so that the ravenous werewolf
heorde. And se pe oferhogie, pret he heom lyste, hrebbe him does not wound too greatly nor devour too many of their
gemrene pret wio God sylfne. spiritual flock. And let anyone who disdains to listen to
11 Eala, fela is swapeah prera pe hwonlice gyrnao and lyt- them settle that with God himsel£
hwon reccao embe boca beboda oMe bisceopa Iara; and eac Sadly, there are nonetheless many of those who lightly re- 11

embre bletsunga oooe unbletsunga leohtlice lretao, and na gard and little heed the precepts of the books and the teach-
understandap swa swa hy sceoldan, hwret Crist on his god- ings of the bishops; and also frivolously ignore blessings or
spelle swutollice srede, pa pa he pus cwrep: ~i vos audit, et curses, and do not understand as they should what Christ in
reliqua. Et item: ~odcumque ligaveritis et cetera. Et item: ~o- his Gospel clearly said when he spoke thus: He that heareth,
rum remiseritis peccata, remittuntur eis, et cetera. Alibi etiam etc. And likewise: Whatsoever thou shaft bind, etc, etc. And like-
scriptum est: ~odcumque benedixeritis, etcetera. Et psalmista ter- wise: Whose sins you shallforgive, they areforgiven them, etc. Else-
ribiliter k>quitur dicens: ~i noluit benedictionem, prolongabitur where too it is written: Whatever you have blessed, etc. And the
ab eo. Swylc is to bepencenne and wio Godes yrre to war- psalmist, speaking chillingly, says: he would not have blessing, and
nienne symle. Nu lrere we eac georne manna gehwylcne, pret it shall be far from him. This is to be reflected upon and the
he Godes !arum and his lagum fylgie, ponne geearnao he wrath of God always to be shielded against. Now we also
him ece myrh<'Se. strongly enjoin everyone to heed God's teachings and his
laws; then they will secure for themselves eternal joy.

12 Item Furthermore 12

Bisceopes dregweorc, oret bi<'S mid rihte his gebedu rerest The proper daily work of a bishop is: first his prayers and
and <'Sonne his bocweorc, rreding oMon rihting, lar oooon then his studies, reading or acting rightly, teaching or learn-
leornung; and his cyrictida on rihtlicne timan a be pam ing; and his canonical hours at the proper times, always
 POLITICAL TRACTS THE INSTIT U T S S OF POLITY (2)

pingum, pe prerto gebyrige; and pearfena fotpweal and his along with those things which are relevant thereto; and
relmesgedal and weorcwisung, be dam pe hit neod sy. Eac cleansing the feet of the needy and the distribution of alms
him gerisao handcrreftas gode, and pret man on his hirede and the supervision of works where it is necessary. Good
crreftas begange, huru pret drer renig to idel ne wunige. And handicrafts are also suitable for him, and it is proper that
eac him geriso wel, l:>ret he on gemote oft and gelome god- those in his service practice crafts, so that indeed no one re-
cunde !are drele l:>am folce, pe he ponne mid sy. main too idle there. And it also fully appropriate for him,
when he is at a meeting, to relate the divine teachings often
and frequently to those people with whom he then is.

r3 Item Furthermore 13

A gerist bisceopum wisdom and wrerscype and pret l:>a hab- For bishops, wisdom and discretion are always appropriate,
ban weor<'Slice wisan, pa pa heom fylian, and l:>ret hy sundor- and those who practice them - and also who learn a special
crrefta sumne eac cunnen. Ne gerise<'S renig unnytt refre mid craft-have praiseworthy ways. Nothing useless is ever ap-
bisceopum, ne doll ne dysig ne to oferdruncen ne cildsung propriate for bishops, neither thoughtlessness nor foolish-
on sprece ne idel gegaf on renig wisan, ne ret ham ne on sicle ness nor drunkenness nor childishness in speech nor idle
ne on renigre stowe. Ac wisdom and wrerscipe gedafenia<'S frivolousness of any kind, neither at home nor on a journey
heora hade, and gedrihl:>a gerisap pam, cle heom fylia<'S. nor in any place. But wisdom and discretion suit their sta-
tus, and dignity befits those who follow them.

14 Beeorlum Concerning Nobles 14

Eorlas and heretogan and clas worulddeman and eac swa ge- Nobles, generals, secular judges, and also reeves are obliged
refan agan nydpearfe pret hi riht lufian for Gode and for to embrace justice before God and the world; and never
worulde; and nahwar purh undom, for feo ne for freond- through foolishness, whether out of bribery or friendship,
scype, forgyman heora wisdom swa pret hi wendan unriht to neglect their wisdom so that they twist injustice into justice
rihte odpon undom deman earmum to hynl:>e. Ac a hy sculan or pronounce unjust rulings harmful to the poor. But they
cyrican ofer ealle oclre ping wyrclian and werian, and wude- must always venerate and protect the Church over all other
wan and steopcild hy sculon retan, pearfena helpan, and l:>eo- things, and they must console widows and orphans, aid the
wetlingan beorgan, gif hi Godes willan rihte willao wyrcan. poor, and defend helpless slaves, if they wish to fulfill God's
And peofas and cleodsceaclan hy scylan hatian, and ryperas will rightly. They must abhor thieves and villains, and they
and reaferas hy sculan hyrian, butan hy geswican. And symle must suppress robbers and criminals, unless they cease their
crimes. And they must always greatly detest injustice. For it

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 POLITICAL TRACTS THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (2)

hy sculon unriht swy<'Se ascunian. Forpam sod is pret ic secge, is the truth that I speak, believe it who will: woe unto that
gelyfe se pe wille: wa pam, pe woh drif<S ealles to lange, butan person who pursues injustice all too long, unless he turn
he geswice! Witodlice he sceall drefan dimne and deopne aside! He will certainly sink, bereft of help, into hell's dark
hellewites grund, helpes bedreled. Ac to lyt is para pe pret and deep abyss. Too few, however, are those who understand
understande swa swa man sceolde; ac God hit gebete! Ac do that as one should; but may God correct that! But each
freonda gehwylc, eallswa hit pearf is: warnige hine georne friend shall do as is most necessary: warn and protect him-
and beorge him sylfum, pret he God ne abelge ealles to self so as not to anger God all too greatly, but instead please
swy<'Se, ac cweme his Drihtne mid rihtlicre drede. his Lord with righteous deeds.

15 Be gerefan Concerning Reeves 15

Riht is <'Sret gerefan geornlice tylian and symle heora hlafor- It is right that reeves toil assiduously and always provide for
dan strynan mid rihte. Ac nu hit is geworden ealles to swy<'Se, their lord properly. But now since Edgar died, just as God
syMan Eadgar geendode, swa swa God wolde, pret ma is willed, it has come to pass all too much that there are more
f:>rera rypera t>onne rihtwisra, and is earmlic oing J:>ret <Sa syn- thieves than righteous people, and it is a terrible thing that
don ryperas pe sceoldan beon hyrdas Cristenes folces. Hy they are thieves who should be the shepherds of the Chris-
rypao pa earman butan relcere scylde o<'Sre hwile and hynao tian people. At times they steal from those who are poor
pa heorde, pe hi sceoldan healdan, and mid yfelan holan through no fault of their own and torment the flock which
earme men beswicao, and unlaga rrerao on reghwylce wisan they should protect, and abuse the unfortunate with evil
earmum to hynl>e and wydewan bestrypa<'S oft and gelome. slander, and promote unjust laws in every way to exploit the
Ac hwilum, man ceas wislice pa men on t>eode folce to hyr- needy and rob widows again and again. But formerly these
dum, pe noldan for woruldsceame ne ne dorstan for Godes men were chosen wisely as shepherds for the people and
ege renig cHng swician ne strynan on unriht; ac stryndan mid they dared not behave dishonestly nor obtain anything un-
rihte. And syooan hit man sohte be pa.m ealra geornast, pe justly because ofworldly shame and the fear of God; instead,
nearwlicast cuoan swician and befician, and mid leasbreg- they acquired things properly. Yet afterward, this has been
dum earmum mannum derian, and of unbealafullum rapost pursued most eagerly of all by those who understood how to
feoh gerrecan. SyMan man gremede God swyoe pearle oft cheat and swindle most cruelly, and to harm the unfortunate
and gelome. And wa f:>res gestreones pam pe his mrest hafap with deceit, and to extract money from the innocent most
on unriht gestryned, butan he geswice and 6e deoppor ge- swiftly. Since then, God has been greatly provoked again
bete for Gode and forworulde. and again. And woe unto that man who has acquired most of
his wealth through injustice, unless he turn aside and repent
all the more deeply before God and the world.

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 POLITICAL TRACTS THE INS TIT U T E S OF POLITY (2)

16 Be sacerdum Concerning Priests 16

Sacerdas sculan on heora scriftscirum wislice and wrerlice Priests in their parishes must wisely and sensibly lead and
lredan and !reran pa godcundan heorda pe hi healdan sculan. instruct the spiritual flock which they are to protect. They
/£goer hi sculan, ge wel bodian ge wel bysnian oc)rum man- must both preach well and set a good example for others;
num; and regc)er hi scylon ret Godes dome gescead agyldan, and at God's judgment, they must render into God's hand an
ge heora sylfra dreda ge ealles pres folces, pe hi to Godes account both of their own deeds and of those people they
handa healdan sceolan. And gyfhi aht gedon scylon, ne ma- are to oversee. And if something must be done, they may
goo hi wandian, naper ne for ege ne for lufe reniges mannes, not hesitate, neither out of fear nor love of any person, to
pret hi riht ne bodian and unriht forbeodan. Wace bye) se proclaim justice and forbid injustice. The shepherd will be
hyrde ret falde nyt pe nele pa heorde, pe he healden sceal of little use to the fold who will not protect the flock, which
mid hreame bewerian butan he elles mrege, gif prer hwylc he must defend with an outcry if he can do nothing else, if
peodsceaoa sceac)ian onginneo. Nys nan swa yfel sceac)a swa some corruptor of the people begins to raid. There is no cor-
is deofol syl£ He bio aa embe pret an: hu he on manna ruptor as evil as the devil himsel£ He is concerned with one
sawlum mrest gesceapian mrege. l>onne motan pa hyrdas thing always: how he may defile to the utmost the souls of
beon swy3e wacore and georne dypiende, pe wi3 pone men. Therefore must those shepherds who would protect
peodsceapan foke gescyldan sculan. I>ret syndon bisceopas the people against the corruptor be most watchful and vig-
and mressepreostas pe godcunde heorde gewarian and be- orous in their warnings. Those are the bishops and the
werian sculon mid wislicre lare. Dy he ne mreg wandian, gyf priests who must protect and oversee their spiritual flock
he him sylfum gebeorgan sceall, napor ne for lufe ne for ege, with wise teaching. Thus if he would protect himself he
}>ret he mannum pret rihtteste ne secge. Ne mreg he wandian must not hesitate either out of love or fear to say to men
naoor ne for heanum ne for ricum, for3am ne dep he naht that which is most just. Nor may he hesitate before either
eargie he oopon hine forsceamige riht to spreconne. Earme the humble or the mighty, for he does not do as he ought if
gefa!reo he, gif purh his hnescnysse, seo heord forwuro, pe he grows timid or ashamed to proclaim what is right. He will
he healdan sceall, and he sylf foro mid. Deah ure heorda fare miserably if, through his weakness, the flock which he
hwylc an sceap forgyme, we willao pret he hit forgylde. And must protect perishes, and he himself with it. Should any of
hwret gefarao ponne ret Godes egeslican dome pa hyrdas, }>e our shepherds overlook even one sheep, we will require that
ne cunnon gehealdon pa godcundan heorde pe Crist mid his he pay for it. And then how will those shepherds fare at
agenum life gebohte, and pe hi healdon sceoldan, gif hi God's fearful judgment, who cannot protect the spiritual
cuclan? Ac na}>or purh larleaste hi ne cunnon ne lredan, ne flocks which Christ purchased with his own life, and which
they must protect if they can? Because of their lack of learn-

76 n
 POLITI C AL TRAC TS THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (2)

lreran, ne lacnian hi rihtlice. Mid hwam wene we, forgyldacS ing, they cannot lead nor teach nor tend them properly.
hi hi ponne? Wa heom ponne, pret hi refre underfengon prer With what do we expect them to pay for them then? There-
hi gehealdon ne cuoon! La, hu mreg blind man ooerne lre- fore, woe unto them that they ever accepted that which
dan? Hu mreg unlrered dema ooerne lreran? Wa pam witod- they could not protect! Indeed, how can a blind man lead
lice, pe godcunde heorde underfeho and naper gehealdan ne another? How can an ignorant judge instruct another? Truly,
can, ne hine sylfne ne pa heorde, pe he healdan sceolde, and woe unto them who receive a spiritual flock and can neither
wyrs pam pe can and nele. tend to themselves nor to the flock which they must pro-
17 Eala, eala, fela is prera pe sacerdhades on unriht gyrnao, tect, and worse than those who can and will not.
swa hit pincan mreg, swycfost for idelum gylpe and for git- Alas, alas, there are many of those who, as it may seem, 17
sunge woruldgestreona, and ne cunnon na, pret hy cunnon seek the priesthood wrongfully, especially for idle glory and
sceoldan. Be pam cwred se witega and ous cwreo, ¼ sacerdoti- worldly wealth, and they do not know that which they
bus qui comeduntpeccatapopuli, et reliqua. "Wa pam sacerdum," should know. About them the prophet spoke and said thus:
he cwred, "pe fretao and forswelgao folces synna." I>ret syn- Woe unto the priests who eat the sins ofthe people, etc. "Woe to
don pa oe nellao oMe ne cunnon oMon ne durron folc wio the priests," he said, "who devour and consume the people's
synna gewarnian and synna gestyran, ac gyrnao peah heora sins." Those are the ones who will not, know not how, or
sceatta on teopungum and on eallum cyricgerihtum; and dare not warn the people against sins and punish sins, but
naoor ne hi mid bysnungum wel ne lredao, ne mid bodun- nonetheless desire their money in the form of tithes and all
gum wel ne lrerao, ne mid dredbotum wel ne lacniao, ne mid Church dues; yet they neither lead them well with examples,
gebedrredenne fore ne pingiao. Ac lreccao of manna begea- nor teach them well with preaching, nor heal them well with
tum loc hwret hi gefon magan, eallswa gyfre hremnas of penances, nor intercede for them with prayer. Instead, they
holde doo prer prer hi to magon. Hit is ealles pe wyrse, scavenge people's possessions for whatever they can grab,
syooan hy hit ealles habbao: ponne ne ateoo hi hit na swa just as gluttonous ravens do from a carcass wherever they
swa hi sceoldan, ac glencgao heora wif mid pam pe hi weo- can. It is all the worse, once they have it all: then they do not
foda sceoldan; and maciao eall heom sylfum to woruld- treat it in any way as they should, but they decorate their
wlence and to idelre rence, pret hi Gode sceoldan don to women with that which should be on the altars; and they ex-
weorounge on cyriclicum pingum oooon on earmra manna ploit for their own worldly pride and idle vanity that which
hydoum oooon on hernumenra bygenum oc56on on sumum they should put toward the worship of God in Church af-
pingum pe mihte to langsumere oearfe regc5er ge heom syl- fairs or toward assistance to the needy or toward the ran-
fum ge eac pam, pe heom on Godes est heora ping syllad. soming of captives or toward some matters which might be
of enduring benefit both to themselves and to those who
give them their goods for the love of God. There is great

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l>onne is mycel pearf, pret se pe rer 6issum misdyde, pret he need, then, that he who erred beforehand readily repent for
heononfor6 hit georne gebete. it henceforth.
18 Foroam understande, se pe cunne: mycel is and mrere pret Therefore, let him understand who can: great and won- 18
sacerd ah to donne folce to pearfe, gif he his Drihtne ge- drous is that which a priest must do for the benefit of the
cwemo mid rihte. Mycel is seo halsung and mrere is seo hal- people, ifhe wishes to please his Lord properly. Great is the
gung pe deofla afyrsac:S and on fl.eame gebringac:S, swa oft swa exorcism and wondrous is the blessing which expels devils
man fullao oc:Spon husel halgao. And englas prer hwearfiac:S and puts them to flight, just as often as a person is baptized
and 6a dreda beweardiac:S and, ourh Godes mihta, pam sacer- or the host is consecrated. And angels hover there and over-
dum fylsta6 swa oft swa hi Criste penia6 mid rihte. And swa see those deeds and, through God's might, aid those priests
hi doc:S symle, swa oft swa hi geomlice inneweardre heortan just as long as they serve Christ properly. Thus they do al-
clypia6 to Criste and for folces neode pingiac:S geome. And ways, as often as they fervently call upon Christ with their
pi man sceall, for Gades ege, mrepe on bade gecnawan mid innermost heart and readily intercede for the needs of the
gesceade. people. Accordingly, for fear of God, the reverence of holy
19 La leof, deope us is beboden pret we geornlice mynegian orders must be understood with discernment.
and lreran scylan, pret manna gehwyk to Gode huge and Indeed, dear friends, it is solemnly commanded to us that 19
fram synnum gecyrre. Se cwyde is swyoe egeslic, pe God we must fervently admonish and teach that every person is
purh pone witegan be pam cwre6 pe Gades foke riht bodian to submit to God and refrain from sins. That decree is most
sculon, pret syndon bisceopas and mressepreostas. He cwreo fearsome, which God spoke through his prophet concern~
be pam, Clama, ne cesses, quasi tuba et reliqua, "Clypa hlude and ing those who must preach righteousness to God's people,
ahefe up c:Sine stemne swa hlude swa byme and gecy6 minum namely the bishops and the priests. Concerning them, he
folce, pret hit fram synnum gecyrre." Gif ou ponne pret ne said, Cry, cease not; like a trumpet, etc. "Cry loudly, and raise up
<lest, ac forswugast hit, and nelt foke his pearfe gecyoan, your voice as loudly as a trumpet, and preach to my people
ponne scealt 6u ealra p.era sawla on Domesdreg gescead so that they refrain from sins."Yet ifyou do not do that, but
agyldan, pe purh pret losiao, pe hi nabbao pa lare and c:Sa pass over it in silence, and will not make known to the peo-
mynegunge, pe hi beporftan. I>es cwyde mreg beon swyoe ple their obligation, then you must render an account at
gemyndelic eallum pam, pe to oam gesette syn, pret hi Judgment Day for all those souls which are lost because they
Gades folce riht bodian sculan. And folc ah eac mycele lack the teaching and the admonition that they required.
pearfe, pret hi wrere beon J>res cwydes pe prerrefter gecweden Let this decree be most remembered by all those who are
is. He cwrec:S, se witega, refter pam: "Gif 6u fake riht bodast entrusted to preach righteousness to God's people. And the
people also have a great need to be mindful of the decree
delivered after this one. The prophet said after that: "If you

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and ou hit gebigean ne miht to rihte, ponne gebyrhst ou peh proclaim righteousness to the people yet you cannot bend
l:>inre agenre sawle"; and se pe woh drifo and geswican nele, them to righteousness, then you will save your own soul
he sceal habban pres ece wite. l>ret is, pret hi ponne sceolan nonetheless"; and he who pursues wickedness and will not
to helle faran mid sawle and mid lichoman and mit deofle cease, he shall have eternal punishment. That is, they must
wunian on hellewitum. Wa pam, pe prer sceall wunian on wi- then travel to hell in soul and body and dwell with the devil
tum; him wrere betere, pret he nrefre on weorulde man ne in infernal suffering. Woe to anyone who must dwell there
gewurde ponne he gewurde. Nis se man on life pe areccan in suffering: better it would have been for such a person to
mrege ealle pa yrmoa pe se gebidan sceall se oe on t,a witu have never become a human being in this world than to have
ealles behreoseo; and hit is ealles pe wyrse, pe his renig ende become one. There is no one alive who can recount all of the
ne cymo nrefre to worulde. sorrows which must be endured by one who falls entirely
into that suffering; and it is all the worse, in that an end
never will come to it for all eternity.

20 Be gehadedum mannum Concerning Those in Orders 20

Gehadedum mannum gebyreo relc clrennes, foroam t,e hi All forms of purity are appropriate for those in orders, for
sculon eallum oorum mannum relce unclrennesse forbeodan. they must forbid all forms of impurity to others. And if they
And relce clrenesse, gifhi riht doo, hi sculon be heom sylfum do what is right, they must themselves most assiduously be-
geornost gebysnian. I>onne is hit swyt,e egeslic t,ret oa pe come an example of every form of purity. Accordingly, it is
sceoldan eallum Cristenum mannum riht bodian and eac exceedingly dreadful that of those who must preach righ-
wel bysnian, t,ret hi syn sume gewordene bysen to forwyrde teousness to all Christians and also set a good example,
swyoor t,onne to pearfe. I>ret syndon pa rewbrecan pe purh some have become an example of damnation rather than
healicne had ciricrewe underfengan and syooan l:>ret abrre- duty. Those are adulterers who accepted marriage to the
can. Nis nanum weofodpene alyfed pret he wifian mote; ac Church through their holy orders and later violated it. No
is relcum forboden. Nu is peah prera ealles to fela pe t,one clergyman who serves at the altar is permitted to have a
rewbryce wyrcao and geworht habbao. Ac ic bidde for Godes wife; rather, it is forbidden to all. Now, however, there are all
lufan and eac eornostlice beode pret man pres geswice. too many who commit adultery or have committed it. Yet
Lrewedum men is relc wif forboden butan his rihtrewe; ge- for the love of God, I command and solemnly decree that
hadode syndon sume swa purh deofol beswicene pret hi this is to cease. To a layman is every woman forbidden save
wifiao on unriht and forwyrcao hi sylfe purh oone rewbryce his lawful spouse; and there are some in orders so deceived
by the devil that they take a wife unlawfully and destroy
themselves through the adultery in which they abide. But I

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pe hi on wuniao. Ac ic bidde georne pret man }:>res moroes urgently command that they cease henceforth from this
heononforo georne geswice. Cyrice is sacerdes rewe, and mortal sin. The priest's wife is the Church, and by right he
nah he mid rihte renige oore; foroam ne gebirao sacerdan has no other; for neither a wife nor the warfare of this world
nan oingc ne to wif ne to worldwige, gif hi Gode willao are fitting for a priest in any way, if he wishes to obey God
rihtlice hiran and Godes !age healdan swa swa heora hade properly and heed God's law in a manner appropriate to his
gedafenao mid rihte. status.
21 Constantinus, se mrera casere, gesamnode swyoe my- Constantine, the great emperor, convened a very impor- 21

celne sinoo on prere ceastre Nicea for trymmincge rihtes ge- tant synod in the city of Nicea for the affirmation of the
leafan. On oam sinooe wreron CCC and XVIII biscopa of true faith. Gathered at that synod were three hundred and
manegum leodscipum gegaderode, and hi prer geswuteloden eighteen bishops from many peoples, and there they pro-
rihtne geleafan. And gesettan pa pies to swutelunge pone claimed the true faith. And then, as an affirmation of this,
mressancredan pe man wide singd, and cyricpenunga heo they established the Mass Creed which is sung widely, and
fregere gedihtan, and mrenige odre ping regper ge be Godes they arranged the church services appropriately, and many
peowum ge be Gode sylfum. Hy cwredon J:>rer, ealle an- other matters concerning both God's servants and God
rredlice, pret hit riht wrere, gif weofodpen-pret is biscop himself. They decreed there, entirely unanimously, that if a
oMe mressepreost oMe diacon- gewifode, pret he polode clergyman who serves at the altar- that is, a bishop or priest
refre his hades and amansumod wurde, butan he geswice and or deacon-took a wife, he must forfeit forever his order
oe deoppor gebete. Feower synodas wreron gesamnode for and be excommunicated, unless he desist and repent the
rihtan geleafan ymbe pa halgan l>rynnysse and ymbe Cristes more sincerely. Four synods were convened concerning the
menniscnesse. Se forma wres on Nicea and se ooer wres true faith in the holy Trinity and concerning Christ's hu-
syMan on Constantinopolim, prer wreron CL biscopa. Se manity. The first was in Nicea and the second was later in
oridda wres on Effesum, cc biscopa, and se feorda wres on Constantinople, where there were one hundred and fifty
Calcedonea, fela biscopa retgredere. And ealle hi wreron an- bishops; the third was in Ephesus of two hundred bishops
rrede ret eallum pam aingum pe man on fruman on Nicea ge- and the fourth was in Chalcedon, of many bishops together.
sette, and ealle hi forbudon refre relc wiflac weofodpenum. And they were all of one mind about all of those matters
u Dencan oa nu, }:>e to pam oryste syn pret hi God oferseoa which were first decided at Nicea, and they forbade entirely
and swa maniges haliges mannes dom, swa on pissum and forever all sexual activity by those who serve at the altar.
sinoaum gesamnode wreron and gehwrer sy66on, hwylces Let them now reflect, those who are so arrogant that they 22

leanes hy hym wenan magon and eac wenan ne purfon. Ac neglect God and the judgment of so many holy people such
as were gathered at these synods and everywhere afterward,
what reward they can expect for themselves and also need
 POLITICAL TRA C TS THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (2)

gewitod witan pret hi yfel lean habban sculon and grimlice not expect. Yet they may know with certainty that they
Godes graman purh pret, pe hy swa God gremiad, pret hi eall must receive an evil reward and the wrath of God fear-
heora lif libbad on fylde. Weofodpenas ic bidde pret hi somely because they so enrage God in that they live all of
bedencan hi sylfe and geswican relcere fylde. And pa, pe rer their lives in filth. I entreat those clergymen who serve at
pyssan pone ungewunan hrefdon pret hi heora wif glengdan the altar that they examine themselves and refrain from all
swa hi weofoda sceoldan, geswican pres ungewunon and corruption. Moreover, may those who beforehand engaged
glencgan heora cyrican be pam pe hi betst magon, ponne in the sinful practice of decorating their women with that
wealdad hy heom sylfum regoer ge godcundes rredes ge which should be on the altars, end that sinful practice and
woruldcundes weordscypes. Nis preostes cwene renig oder decorate their churches as best they can, so that they com-
ping butan deofles grin, and se de mid pam gegrinod byd mand for themselves both spiritual wisdom and earthly
ford op his ende, he byo purh deofol freste gefangen, and he honor. Nor is a woman for a priest anything other than a
eac sydpon mot faran on feonda hand and forfaran mid ealle. snare of the devil, and he who is thus trapped will be caught
Ac helpe gehwa georne hys sylfes pa hwile pe he mage and fast by the devil from then on until his end and, further-
mote, and gebuge relc man fram unrihte to rihte; ponne ge- more, he must fall then into the hand of fiends and perish
byrhd man wio ece wite. And eac, se pe purhwunao on go- entirely. But let everyone eagerly help themselves while they
dum dredum ford oo his ende, he pres habban sceal ece may and can, and let each person turn away from sin to righ-
edlean. Nu eow is soo asred: understandap eow sylfe be oam, teousness; then will he be redeemed from eternal torment.
pe ge willan. God eow getrymme to eowre agenre pearfe and And indeed, he who persists in good deeds from then on un-
us ealle gehealde, swa his wylla sy. Amen. til his end shall receive eternal reward as recompense. To
you, now, has the truth been spoken: understand it yourself,
you who will. May God strengthen you to your own advan-
tage, and protect us all as his will may be. Amen.

23 Beabbodum ConcerningAhhots 23

Riht is pret abbodas and huru abbadissan freste on myn- It is right that abbots and, in particular, abbesses remain
strum singallice wunian and georne heora heorda symle be- perpetually secure in their monasteries and always consci-
gyman, and aa heom wel bysenian and rihtlice bodian. And entiously oversee their flocks, and ever set a good example
nrefre ymbe woruldcara ne idele pryda ne carian to swype ne for them and preach rightly. And they are never to be con-
ealles to gelome, ac oftost hi abysgian mid godcundan neo- cerned too greatly nor all too frequently with worldly cares
dan. Swa gebyred abbodan and rnunuchades mannum. or idle vanity, but they are to occupy themselves most of-
ten with spiritual needs. Thus is fitting for abbots and mo-
nastics.
 POLITlCAL TRACTS T HE INSTIT U TES OF POLITY (2)

24 Be munecum Concerning Monks l4

Riht is pret munecas beon dreges and nihtes inweardre heor- It is right that monks always reflect upon God in their in-
tan a to Gode pencan and geornlice dypian and mid eallum nermost hearts by day and night and sincerely pray and live
eadmedum regollice libban. And hy symle asyndrian fram according to their rule with all humility. And they always are
woruldbysegan swa hi geornost magan, and don swa heom to sever themselves from secular occupations as diligently as
dearf is: carian refre hu hi swy6ost magan Gode gecweman they can, and they are to fulfill that which is their obliga-
and eall pret gelrestan, pret pret hi behetan, pa hi had under- tion: to consider always how they can best please God and
fengon; fylian heora bocum and gebedum georne; leornian perform all that they promised when they took orders; to
and lreran swa hi geornost magon; and reghwylce wlence and adhere diligently to their books and prayers; to learn and
idele rence and syndrige rehte and unnytte drede and untid- teach as best they can; and to entirely reject all arrogance,
sprece forhogian mid ealle. Swa gebyreo munecum. Ac hit is idle vanity, private property, frivolous deeds, and foolish
yfel so6, swa hit pincan mreg, pret sume synd to wlance and speech. Thus it is fitting for monks. But it is an evil truth, as
ealles to ranee and to widscril>ole and to unnytte and ealles one might suspect, that some are too arrogant and alto-
to idele relcere goddrede and to mandrede on dyrnlican gether too proud, too susceptible to straying, too worthless,
galscype, inne aidlode and ute awildode. And sume syn apos- altogether too lazy for any good deed, and too corrupted by
tatan pe sceoldan, gyf hi woldan, wesan Godes cempan in- hidden lusts, inwardly slack and outwardly strict. Some even
nan heora mynstran, pret synd pa pe hadas awurpan and on are apostates who could, if they wished, be God's champi-
woruldpingan wuniad mid synnan. ons in their monasteries, especially those who have rejected
Eall hit frered yfele ealles to wide. Swa swyoe hit wyrsac:S their orders and dwell sinfully amid worldly things.
15
wide mid mannum, pret pres hades men, pe t,urh Godes ege, All too commonly do all things fare badly. So much does z~

hwylum wreron nyttoste and geswincfulleste on godcundan it worsen widely among men that those in orders who,
peowdome and on boccrrefte, pa syndon nu wel ford unnyt- through fear of God, once were the most useful and indus-
taste gewelhwrer and ne swincal> a swi6e ymbe renige pearfe trious in divine service and scholarship, are now indeed ev-
for Gode ne for worulde. Ac maciao eall be luste and be erywhere the most useless and never work seriously to any
epnesse, and lufi.ad oferwiste and idele blisse, woriad and benefit for God or the world. Instead, they act wholly for
wandriad and ealne dreg fleardia6, spelliac:S and spiliac:S and pleasure and ease, and they love gluttony and idle pleasure,
nrenige note dreogad. l>ret is lacUic lif pret hi swa maciad; eac they meander and stray and waste the entire day, they gossip
hit is t,e wyrse pe ealdras hit ne betad, ne sylfe swa wel farad and play and accomplish nothing of any significance. It is a
loathsome life that they lead; and it is the worse in that their
elders do not correct it, but to some degree they themselves

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sumes swa hi sceoldan. Ac we agan neode pret we hit ge- do not behave as well as they should. Yet we have need to
betan, swa we geornost magan, and weor6an anmode to correct it as urgently as we can, and become dedicated to
gemrenelicre pearfe for Gode and for worulde. the common good before God and the world.

26 Be mynecenan Concerning Women Monastics 26

Riht is p.et mynecena mynsterlice macian, efne swa we cwre- It is right that women in orders act in a monastic fashion,
don reror be munecan, and ne towettan woruldmannum ne even as we have said before about monks, and not consort
.enige sundorcyooe to heom habban ealles to swyoe, ac a with men of the world nor have all too much familiarity with
regolice libban and hi symle asyndrian fram woruldbysegan them, but they are to live always according to their rule and
swa hi geornost magan. to sever themselves from worldly occupations as best they
can.

27 Bepreostan and be nunnan Concerning Priests and Nuns

27
Riht is oret preostas and efen wel nunnan regollice libban It is right that priests and likewise nuns also live according
and drennysse healdan be J>am, pe hi willan on mynstran to their rule and preserve their chastity if they desire to live
gewunian oooon for worulde weordscypes wealdan. in a monastery or earn respect in the world.

28 Be ltn0edum mannum Concerning the Laity 28

Riht is o.et gehadode men 1.ewede wissian hu hi heora rewe It is right that men in orders instruct the laity how they
rihtlicost sculon healdan. l>ret bicS rihtlic lif pret cniht purh- should best keep their marital vows. That life is virtuous in
wunige on his cnihthade odpret he on rihtre mredenrewe ge- which a young man remains chaste until he weds a maiden
wifige, and hrebbe pa syMan and nrenige oore pa hwile pe properly, and afterward has her and no other for as long as
seo libbe. Gif hire ponne forosicS gebyrige, ponne is rihtost she lives. Then, if her death occurs, it is most fitting that he
pret he pananforo wydewa purhwunige. Deah be ores apos- remain a widower thenceforth. By the Apostle's consent,
toles leafe lrewede man mot for neode oore side wifian; ac l>a though, a layman can marry a second time if necessary; how-
canones forbeodap l>a bletsunge prerto pe to frumwifunge ever, the canons forbid the blessings thereto which are re-
gesette syn and eac is geset dredbot swylcum mannum to served for a first marriage and a penance is fixed for such
donne. And preoste is forboden, J>ret he beon ne mot, on men to perform. Moreover, a priest is forbidden from pre-
dam wisan, pe he .er w.es ret }:>am brydlacum J>rer man eft siding in the way that he did previously at a marriage at
wifad, ne pa bletsunge don pe to frumwifunge gebyracS. Be which a man weds a second time, nor may he perform the
blessing specified for a first wedding. By that one may know

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 POLITICAL TRACTS T HE INSTIT UT ES OF POLI 'J' Y (2)

pam man mreg witan pret hit eallunga riht nis pret wer wifige that it is not entirely proper that a man take a wife or a
oopon wif ceorlige oftor ponne rene. And huru hit byo to woman take a husband after the first time. And indeed it is
mrenigfeald gewyroe hit priddan side, and mid ealle misdon, too many if it should happen a third time, and wholly wrong
gewyroe hit oftor. And peah lrewedum mannum wif sy aly- if it happens more often. And though a wife is permitted to
fed, peah hi agon pearfe pret hi understandan hu hit is aly- laymen, it is still necessary that they understand how it is
fed. Nagon lrewede men freolstidum ne frestentidum purh permitted. On feasts and in fasting times, laymen may not
hremedoing wifes gemanan, pe ma pe heahhades men pa!t consort with their wives in sexual congress, any more than
oing agan renigum timan. those in orders may do that thing at any time.

29 Be wudewan Concerning Widows 29

Riht is dret wydewan Annan bysenan geornlice fylian. Seo It is right that widows readily abide by the example ofAnna.
wres on temple dreges and nihtes peowiende georne. Heo She remained in the temple day and night in heartfelt ser-
freste swyoe pearle and gebedum fyligde and geomeriendum vice. She fasted very rigorously and kept to her prayers and
mode clypode to Criste and a!lmessan da!lde oft and ge- called on Christ with a sorrowful spirit and handed out alms
lome. And aa Gode gecwemde pres de heo mihte wordes and very frequently. She always pleased God as much as she
drede and hrefd nu to edleane heofonlice myrhoe. Swa sceall could with words and deeds, and now as a reward she has
god wydewe hyran hyre Drihtne. heavenly bliss. In this way shall a good widow heed her Lord.

30 Be cyrican Concerning the Church 30

Riht is oret Cristene men Cristendom georne healdan mid It is right that Christians fervently adhere rightly to the
rihte and Cristes cyrican reghwrer geornlice weorpian and Christian faith and readily honor and uphold the Christian
werian. Ealle we habbad renne heofonlicne freder and ane Church everywhere. We all have one heavenly father and
gastlice modor: seo is Ecclesia genamod, pret is, Godes cyrce, one spiritual mother: she is named Ecclesia, that is, God's
and pa we sculon refre lufian and weoroian. And riht is pret Church, which we must always love and respect. And it is
relc cyrice sy on Godes gricSe and on ealles Cristenes folces; right that each church be under the protection of God and
and pret cyricgri6 stande reghwrer binnan wagum and gehal- of all Christian people; and that Church sanctuary is to pre-
godes cynincges handgrio efenunwemme. Foroam a:lc cyric- vail within the walls and is to be honored no differently
grio is Cristes agen grid, and a:lc Cristen man ah mycle from protection from the king's own hand. Thus, every
pearfe pret he on pam grioe mycle ma:pe wite. Foroam rekes Church sanctuary is Christ's own sanctuary, and every
Christian has a great obligation to treat that sanctuary
with great respect. Further, it is the responsibility of every

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Cristenes mannes nydJ,earf is J,ret he Godes cyrican georne Christian to sincerely love and honor God's Church, and he
lufige and weormge, and hi gelomlice and geornlice sece him is to seek it out often and willingly for his own benefit.
sylfum to oearfe. And huru gehadode prer sculon oftost Those in orders also must serve and minister there most of-
oeowian and oenian and for eall Cristen folc oingian georne. ten and intercede readily for all Christian people. Accord-
I>onne agan weofodoenas to smeagenne symble pret hi ingly, clergy who serve at the altar must always ensure that
huruoinga heora lif fadian, swa swa to cyrcan gebyrige mid they especially set their lives in order in a manner rightly fit-
rihte. ting to the Church.
31 Cyrice is mid rihte sacerdes rewe, and se oe to cyrican The Church is properly the spouse of the priest, and no 31
weoroe gehadod, nage hine renig man, oe Godes lage recce, person who heeds God's law ought to remove from the
!,anon to donne, butan he hi mid heafodgylte fullice for- Church someone who has taken orders in it, lest he utterly
wyrce. And oonne sceall Cristes scirgerefa pret witan and perish in mortal sin. And then must Christ's representative
ymbe pret dihtan and deman swa swa bee trecan. And ne take notice of that and resolve and judge it just as the books
sceolde man refre cyrican derian ne renig woh beodan on instruct. And no one must ever damage a church or threaten
renige wisan. Ac nu syndon peah cyrcan wide and side wace it with wrongdoing in any way. Yet nonetheless, churches far
gegrioode and yfele geoeowode and clrene berypte ealdra and wide are now weakly protected and oppressed by evil
gerihta and innan bestrypte relcera gerisena. And cyricpenas and entirely deprived of ancient rights and stripped inside
syndon mreoe and munde gewelhwrer bedrelde. And wa }:>am of everything proper. Moreover, the Church's servants are
pe ores wealt, }:>eh he swa ne wene, foroam a:lc oara byo everywhere deprived of honor and protection. And woe
witodlice Godes sylfes feond, pe byo Godes cyricena feond unto him who causes this, even if he does not realize it, for
and oe Godes cyricena riht wanao oopon wyrdep, ealswa hit each of those who is the enemy of God's churches and who
awriten is: Inimicus enim Christi efficitur omnis, qui ecclesiasticas weakens or violates the rights of God's churches is assuredly
res usurpare iniuste conatur; et reliqua. And egeslice sprrec sanc- the enemy of God himself; as it is written: For anyone becomes
tus Gregorius be oam eac, pa oa he pus cwreo: Si quis eccle- the enemy ofChrist who attempts to wrongly make use ofthe goods
siam Christi denudaverit vel sanctimonia vio/averit, anathema ofthe Church, etc. And Saint Gregory spoke fearsomely about
sit. Ad quod respondentes omnes dixerunt: Amen. Mycel is neod- this also, when he said thus: Whoever plunders the Church of
pearf manna gehwilcon pret he wio pas <'Sine beorge him Christ or violates its sanctity is to be anathema. Responding to
georne, and reghwyk Godes freond warnige hine symble which, all said· Amen. Everyone has a great duty to defend
pret he Cristes bryde to swyoe ne misbeode. Ealle we sculon himself vigorously against these things; and each friend of
renne God lufian and weordian and renne Cristendom God is to always watch over himself, so that he not mistreat
the bride of Christ too greatly. We all must love and praise
one God and diligently adhere to one Christian faith and

94 95
 POLITICAL TRACTS THE INSTIT U TES OF POLITY (2)

georne healdan and relcne hrependom mid ealre mihte awyr- reject every heathen practice with all our might. And let us
pan. And utan renne cynehlaford holdlice healdan, and faithfully uphold one royal lord, and let each friend support
freonda gehwylc ooerne healde mid rihtan getrywoan. the other with true devotion.

31 Be eallum Cristenum mannum ConcerningAll Christian People 32

Riht is oret ealle Cristene men heora Cristendom rihtlice It is right that all Christian people properly uphold their
healdan, and oam life libban pe heom to gebyrao refter Christian faith, and live the life appropriate to them accord-
Godes rihte and refter woruldgerysenum; and heora wisan ing to the law of God and the customs of the world; and dili-
ealle be pam c5ingan geornlice fadian, pe cfa wisian, oe hywis- gently arrange all manner of things according to the guid-
lice and wrerlice wisian cunnon. And pret is ponne rerest ance of those who can advise them wisely and truly. And
neda firmest: pret manna gehwylc ofer ealle oore pine renne this, then, is the most important of precepts: that each per-
God lufige and renne geleafan anrredlice hrebbe on o:ene, pe son love the one God over all other things and resolutely
us ealle rerest geworhte and mid deorwyroum ceape eft us have one faith in him who first created us all and purchased
gebohte. And eac we agan pearfe pret we geornlice smeagan us again at a dear price. And we also have need to reflect sin-
hu we symble magan Godes agene beboda rihtlicost healdan cerely how we can always keep God's own commandments
and eall pret gelrestan pret pret we behetan pa we fulluht un- most rightly and perform all that we- or those who were
derfengon oopon pa pe ret fulluhte ure forespr:econ wreron. our sponsors- promised when we received baptism. This,
Dret is oonne rerest: j:>ret j:>ret man behatel> }>onne man ful- then, is first: that one promises when one seeks baptism to
luhtes gyrnd pret man a wile deofol ascunian and his unlare always spurn the devil and zealously avoid his evil teachings
georne forbugan and ealle his unlaga symble awyrpan and and always reject his injustice and eternally resist all of his
ecelice wiosacan ealles his gemanan; and manisides sona company; and swiftly thereafter one sincerely proclaims
prerafter mid rihtan geleafan soolice swytelao pret man many times with true faith that one thenceforth will always
j:>ananforo aa wile on renne God refre gelyfan and ofer ealle believe in one God forever, always love him over all other
oore ping hine a lufian and refre his )arum geornlice fylgean things, zealously heed his teachings forever, and keep his
and his agene beboda rihtlice healdan. And j:>onne bio pret own commandments properly. And then that baptism will
fulluht swylce hit wedd sy ealra }>.-era worda and ealles o:es become like a covenant of all those words and all those
behates, gehealde se oe wille. And soo is pret ic secge: englas promises, fulfil! it who will. And what I say is true: thence-
beweardiao pananforo refre manna gehwylcne, hu he gelreste forth, angels oversee every man forever after his baptism,
refter his fulluhte, j:>ret man behet rer, pa man fulluhtes how he fu)fills what he earlier promised when he sought
gyrnde. baptism.
 POLITICAL TRACTS THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (2)

33 Utan }:>ret gec~encan oft and gelome and georne gelrestan Let us reflect upon this repeatedly and sincerely abide by 33
}:>ret pret we behetan l>a we fulluht underfengan, ealswa us that which we promised when we received baptism, just as is
pearf is. And utan word and weorc rihtlice fadian, and ure our obligation. And let us order our words and deeds rightly,
inge6anc clrensian georne and aa and wedd werlice healdan fervently cleanse our inmost thoughts, truly keep our oath
and gelome understandan f>one mycclan dom, pe we ealle to and pledge, and frequently reflect on the great judgment to
scylon; and beorgan us georne wia pone weallendan bryne which we all must go; and zealously shield ourselves against
hellewites, and geearnian us aa mreroa and oa myrhoa, oe the surging flame of hellish torments, and earn for ourselves
God hrefc5 gegearwod pam <Se his willan on worulde gewyr- the glories and happiness which God has prepared for those
ca6. Amen. who work his will in the world. Amen.
 TRACTS ON
ECCLESIASTICAL
GOVERNANCE
 On Episcopal Duties On Episcopal Duties

Item Furthermore
1 Bisceope gebyreo relc rihting, ge on godcundan pingan 1 It is proper for a bishop to offer guidance in all things,
ge on woruldcundan. both in religious and secular matters.
2 He sceall gehadode men rerest gewissian, pret heora relc 2 First, he must oversee men in orders so that each of
wite hwret him mid rihte gebyrige to donne and eac hwret hy them may know what is properly fitting for him to do and
woruldmannum agan to beodanne. also what they should preach to the laity.
3 He sceal beon symle ymbe some and ymbe sibbe swa he 3 He must always be concerned with reconciliation and
geornost mreg. peace as fervently as he can.
4 He sceall georne saca sehtan and frio wyrcan mid pam 4 He must readily resolve disputes and make peace along
worulddeman pe riht lufian. with those secular judges who love justice.
5 He sceall ret tihtlan ladunge gedihtan, pret renig man 5 He must oversee the defense in response to an accusa-
oorum renig woh beodan ne mrege aoor oooe on ape oooe on tion, so that no one can inflict harm on another through an
ordale. oath or an ordeal.
6 Ne sceall he gepafian renig unriht, ne woh gemet ne fals 6 He must not permit any injustice, neither an incorrect
gewiht; ac hit gebyrea f>ret be his rrede fare and be his gewit- measurement nor a false weight; but it is proper that every
nesse reghwylc lahriht, ge burhriht ge landriht. And relc law- both law in the town and law in the country- undergo
burhgemet and relc wregpundern beo be his dihte gescift his review and consent. And every town measurement and
swiae rihte, f>e Ires renig man oarum misbeode and aurh pret every weigh scale is to be properly adjusted under his super-
syngige ealles to swype. vision, lest any man defraud another and thereby sin all too
7 A he sceal scyldan Cristenum mannum wio relc prera greatly.
pinga pe synlic bio; and py he sceal on reghwret hine pe 7 He must always shield Christians against each of those
swyaor teon, pret he pe geornor wite hu seo heord fare pe he things which are sinful; and thus he must devote himself the
more deeply in all matters so that he might know the more
truly how the flock fares which he must tend on God's

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 TRACTS ON ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNANCE ON EPISCOPAL D U TIES

to Godes handa gehealdan sceall, pret deofol to swyoe preron behalf, so that the devil may not inflict harm too greatly on
na sceaj:>ige, ne his falses to fela ongemang ne gesawe. them nor sow too much of his falseness among them.
8 Ne wyro nrefre folces wise wel gerrede ne wio God well 8 The people's ways will never be well reasoned or well
geborgen on pam earde, pe man wohgestreon and mrest protected by God in that land where ill-gotten gains and the
falses lufao. I>y sculan Godes freond relc unriht alecgan greatest falsehoods are held dear. Thus, God's friends must
and riht arreran and na gepafian, pret 6urh fals and ourh quell each injustice and encourage what is right and never
wohgestreon men to swycie forwyrcean hi sylfe wio prene permit men to ruin themselves too greatly through false-
rihtwisan God, j:>e relc unriht ascunaj:>. hood and ill·gotten gains before the righteous God who de-
9 Eallum Cristenum mannum gebyreo j:>ret hi riht lufian spises all injustice.
and unriht ascunian; and huru gehadode men scylon a riht 9 It is proper for all Christians to love righteousness and
reran and unriht alecgan; py sculon bisceopas mid woruld- hate injustice; and indeed, men in orders must always sup-
deman domas dihtan, pret hi ne gepafian, gyf his waldan port what is right and reject what is wrong; thus, bishops
magan, j:>ret orer renig unriht up aspringe. must pronounce sentences with secular judges so that they
10 And sacerdum gebyrej:> eac on heora scriftscirum pret do not permit, if it is in their power, any injustice to spring
hi georne to rihte rethwam fylstan and na gej:>afian, gif hi hit up there.
gebetan magan, pret renig Cristen man oorum derige ealles 10 And likewise it is proper for priests in their parishes to
to swy6e, ne se maga pam unmagan, ne se hearra j:>am hean- readily assist each person to obtain justice and never permit,
ran, ne se scirman his gingran, ne se hlaford his mannum, ne if they can correct it, any Christian to inflict injury on an-
furoum his nydpeowan. other all too greatly, neither the strong on the weak, nor the
II Be pres scriftes dihte and be his sylfes gemete gebyret:, higher on the lower, nor the shire official on his inferior, nor
mid rihte, pret oa nydpeowan hlaferdum wyrcan ofer ealle pa the lord on his men, nor even his slaves.
scire, pe he on scrife. II It is rightly proper that slaves work for their lords ac-
12 And riht is, pret ne beo renig metegyrd lengre ponne cording to the guidance of the confessor and under his own
ooer, ac beon be pres scriftes gemete ealle gescyfte; and relc supervision throughout the entire shire in which he hears
gemet on his scriftscire and reghwylc gewihte beo be his confession.
dihte gescyft swioe rihte; and gif 6rer hwret bisreces sy, seme 12 And it is right that there not be any measuring stick
se biscop. longer than another, but all are to be standardized according
to the confessor's measure; and each measure in his parish
and each weight is to be standardized very precisely accord-
ing to his direction; and if anything there is disputed, the
bishop will judge.

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 TRACTS ON ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNANCE ON EPISCOPAL DUTIES

13 Hit bio celces hlafordes agen pearf pret he his nydpeo- 13 It is the responsibility of every master to protect his
wum byrge swa he betst ma!ge, for oam pe hy syn Gode efen slaves as best he can, for they are loved by God as much as
leofe and pa oe syndon freolse, and us ealle he gebohte mid those who are free, and he bought us all for the same price.
gelican weoroe. 14 We are all God's own slaves, and he judges us just as we
14 Ealle we syndon Godes agene nydpeowan; and swa he judge those over whom we hold power here on earth.
gedemo us, swa we her demao pam pe we on eoroan <lorn 15 Accordingly, we have an obligation to protect those
oferagan. compelled to serve us; then we may experience a greater
15 l>y we agan pearfe pret we oam beorgan pe us scylan hy- protection at God's own judgment.
ran; ponne gebide we pe mare gebeorh ret Godes agenum
dome.
 On the Remedy of Souls On the Remedy of Souls

De medicamento animarum On the Remedy ofSouls

1 Episcopi igitur et presbyteri prae omnibus sint semper sol Thus, let bishops and priests always be attentive above all to 1

liciti de cura ecclesiarum et de medicamento animarum non the care of churches and the remedy of souls, not just their
solum suarum verum etiam et omnium. Confitentibus quo- own but everyone's. Let them provide treatment by all
que ac paenitentibus omnimodo succurrant et indifferenter means to all those confessing and doing penance, and im-
paenitentiae leges paenitentibus iniungant, divinis eos in- pose the laws of penance fairly upon the penitent, instruct-
struentes dogmatibus et consolatoriis verbis ortantes, ut in ing them in divine teachings and exhorting them with con-
vigiliis et ieiuniis et fletibus et diversis corporum castigatio- soling words, so that with vigils and fasting and weeping and
nibus, sed et orationibus assiduis et elemosinis multis virili- various forms of physical punishment, and also with con-
ter paeniteant. Episcoporum enim est omnia iudicia aeclae- stant prayers and much almsgiving, they may fervently re-
siastica rite disponere. Et ut non solum verbis sed etiam pent. Indeed, it is the responsibility of all bishops to prop-
exemplis omnes homines instruant, quia status Christianae erly oversee ecclesiastical judgments. And they are to in-
religionis et aeclaesiasticae dignitatis ad eorum curam max- struct all people not just by words but also by examples, be-
ime pertinent. cause the state of the Christian faith and the dignity of the
i Laicorum autem non est sed sacerdotum dei de aeclae- Church depend wholly on their care.
siasticis disputare iudiciis. Isidorus enim <licit: Omnis mundi- Moreover, it is not for the laity but for God's priests to 2

alis sapiens, si sapiens sit, non iudicet iudicia aeclesiae. Quondam question the judgments of the Church. For Isidore said: No
igitur fuit vir quidam Oza nomine, qui extendebat manum wise man ofthe world, even ifhe is wise, may passjudgment on the
ad arcam do mini quam calcitrabant boves, et pro ilia temeri judgments of the Church. Thus, there once was a certain man
tate percussit eum dominus, et mortuus est. Saul quoque, named Uzza who reached out to touch the ark of the Lord
quia sacerdotis usurpare ausus est ministerium, merito a when the oxen upset it, and for his temerity the Lord smote
propheta audivit: Nequaquam regnum tuum ultra consurget. him and he died. Likewise, Saul, because he dared to usurp
the role of the priest, deservedly heard from the prophet:
But thy kingdom shall not continue. Also King Ozias, who had

108 10 9
 TRACTS ON ECCLESIAST ICAL GOVERNANCE ON THE REMEDY OF SO U LS

Ozias etiam rex, cum feliciter regnasset in populo, nefanda reigned happily over his people, out of contemptible pre-
tandem praesumptione sacerdotium contra ius arripuit. Pro sumption finally seized the office of the priest, contrary to
qua temeritate lepra percussus regnum simul et salutem am- the law. For this effrontery, he was struck with leprosy, and
misit. lost his throne and his health at the same time.
3 His exemplis declaratur valde perniciosum esse regi vel By these examples, it is proven to be entirely sinful for a J
principi vel alicui ex laico ordine disputare aut tractare de king or prince or anyone from the laity to question or chal-
ecclesiasticis iudiciis sive canonicis causis. Paulus enim lenge the judgments of the Church or cases of canon law. In-
apostolus <licit: Divitibus huius saeculi praecipe non sublime sa- deed, the apostle Paul said: Charge the rich ofthis world not to
pere. Alexander quoque ad Demetrium regem ait: Numquam be high-minded. Alexander likewise said to King Demetrius:
auditum vel ah aliquo factum sit ut praesentihus episcopis laici Let it never he heard ofor done by anyone that the laity should dis-
disputent de canonicis vet aliis ecclesiasticis causis; sed omnium pute canonical or other ecclesiasticalproceedings in the presence of
ecclesiasticarum rerum episcopi curam haheant et ea velut deo bishops, but let bishops have responsibility far all church matters
contemplante dispensent. and let them oversee them as ifthey were under the watchful eye of
4 Episcopi quoque nullatenus saecularibus iudiciis aut ne- God.
gotiis, curis vel causis se importune occupent sed eccle- Also, by no means are bishops to concern themselves in- 4
siasticis. Lectioni itaque et orationi et verbi dei praedica- appropriately with business dealings or cases in secular judg-
tioni instanter vacent. Apostolus enim dicit: Nemo militans ments or legal proceedings rather than ecclesiastical mat-
deo implicet se negotiis saecularibus. Sicut enim distantia est ters. In this way, let them be free for reading and prayer and
ordinum, sic et distantia esse debet inter sacerdotale et for the zealous preaching of God's word. For the Apostle
saeculare iudicium, et nullus sibi usurpare praesumat quod said: No man, being a soldier to God, entangleth himselfwith secu-
suo ordini non convenit. Bonus enim pastor super gregem lar businesses. Indeed, just as there is a difference between or-
Christi semper sollicitus esse debet. Quapropter episcopi ders, so there should also be a difference between priestly
curam animarum indesinenter habeant et nequaquam sae- and secular judgments, and let no one be so bold as to usurp
culares curas assumant; sed habeant sub se advocatos et for himselfwhat is not fitting for his order. Indeed, the good
praepositos, qui populares causas exerceant et sine semper pastor of the flock of Christ should always be watchful. For
parati ad resistendum rebellium pertinacium. Et quoniam that reason, let bishops always have the care of souls and no
sunt nonnulli qui parvipendunt divinam doctrinam, ideo concern at all with secular matters; but let them have repre-
oportet eos per saecularis potentiae disciplinam a tarn prava sentatives and managers below them who can oversee the
people's affairs and always be ready for the opposition of ob-
durate rebels. And since there are some who neglect holy
doctrine, it is thereby fitting that they be corrected and

no III
 TRACTS ON ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNANCE ON THE REMEDY OF SO U LS

consuetudine coercere et corrigere. Sunt quoque multi qui turned away from such perverse practices by the force of
fingunt et dicunt se habere hurnilitatem in Christo, sed de- secular punishment. Likewise, there are many who deceive
spiciunt obedientiam mandatorum eius, spernuntque prae- and proclaim themselves to be humble before Christ, but
dicatores salutis. Et propterea mentiuntur, quia non sunt they scorn obedience to his commands and despise the call
humiles sed superbi. Dominus enim dicit; ~i vos audit, of his preachers. And therefore they lie, for they are not
me audit et qui vos spernit, me spernit. Et item <licit: ~odcum- humble but proud. Indeed, the Lord says: He that heareth
que ligaveritis super ten-am, et reliqua. Alibi etiam scriptum you, heareth me; and he that despiseth you, despiseth me. And he
est: Quodcumque benedixeritis sit benedictum, et cetera. Et also says: Whatsoever thou shalt bind upon earth, etc. Elsewhere
psalmista de maligno terribiliter loquitur, dicens: Qui noluit it is written: And whatsoever He that blesseth thee shall also be
benedictionem prolongabitur ab eo. blessed, etc. And the psalmist speaking with terrible anger,
5 Quapropter ammonemus et obsecramus omnes vere fidei says: He who would not have blessing, and it shall be far from
cultores ut suimet curam exibeant et ut timorem domini him.
semper habeant, praedicatoribusque salutis ut humiliter Thus we admonish and entreat all true believers to show 5
obedient, quia ipsi rationem reddituri sunt in die tremendi care for themselves, and always have fear of God, and hum-
iudicii quomodo subiectos erudiant, et subditi quomodo bly heed the calls of his preachers, for they themselves must
doctoribus obtemperent. Est itaque opus cotidianum hoe render an account at the dreaded Day of Judgment as to
episcoporum regulariter viventium, ut in lege domini sint how they instructed his subjects and how his subjects fol-
meditantes die ac nocte, deumque iugiter laudantes, disci- lowed their teachers. It is therefore the daily work of those
pulos docentes, populo praedicantes et assiduis precibus bishops living rightly that they be meditating day and night
exorantes divine maiestatis clementiam pro salute omnium. upon the law of God, praising him always, teaching stu-
dents, preaching to the people, and pleading for the mercy
of the divine majesty with constant prayer for the salvation
of all.

Ill n3
 Instructions for Bishops Instructions for Bishops

lncipit de synodo: From the synod:

1 ''Deus in adiutorium meum intende," ter; "Gloria patri';- 1 "O God, come to my aid," to be recited three times; "Glory be
''KJrie eleison'; ''Paternoster" et "Ne nos inducas'; ':Adiuva nos, to the Father'; "Lord, have mercy';- "Our Father" and "Lead us
Deus"; ':Adiutorium nostrum"; "Benedicamus Domino';- ''Benedi- not';- "Help us, 0 God';• "Our help'; "Let us bless the Lord';- "Glo-
cite'; benedictio: rify the Lord';- a benediction:
2 Omnipotens Deus sua vos dementia benedicat et sensum in 2 May almighty Godbless you with mercy and impart to you a
vobis sapientiae salutaris infundat. Cathoiicae vos fidei documen- sense ofredemptive wisdom. May he support you with the doctrines
tis enutriat et in sanctis operibus perseverabiies reddat. Gressus ves- of the Catholic faith and render you constant in holy works. May
tros ab e"ore convertat et viam vobis pacis et caritatis ostendat. he turn your stepsfrom e"or and show to you the way of peace and
%od ipse praestare dignetur. charity. May he grant that it be so.
3 Bisceopum gebyred on sinope :erost pinga, pret hi smea- 3 Above all things, it is appropriate for bishops in a synod
gan ymbe anrrednesse and sode gesibsumnesse heom be- to seek out unanimity and true harmony between them-
tweonan, and hu hi Cristendom magan fyrmest arreran and selves, and how they might best uphold the Christian faith
hrependom swybost afyllan; and hrebbe relc bisceop canon- and most firmly reject heathen practices; and each bishop is
boc to sinode. to have a book of canon law at the synod.
4 Bisceopum is mycel pearf for Gode and for worulde, 4 There is a great need for bishops to be truly unanimous
pret hi rihtlice anrrede weor5an and ealla an lufian; and gif and all value the same thing in spiritual and secular matters;
man anum woh beode, betan hit ealle. and if a wrong is done to one of them, they all are to remedy
5 Bisceopum gebyred, pret :elc operne warnige gyf he it.
hwret be obrum gehyre oMe sylf agyte, and relc operne bref- 5 It is appropriate for bishops that each one warn his col-
tan werige and nan odrum his pearfe ne hele, ac weor5pige league if he hears or himself discovers anything about him,
and each is to defend his colleague behind his back, and no
one is to withhold from his colleague that which he needs,
but each is to show respect to his colleague in word and

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 INSTR UC TIONS FOR BI S HOPS
TRAC TS ON E CCLESIASTICAL GOVERNANC E

relc operne wordes and dre:de, and beon, swa heom to geby- deed, and to be, as is proper for them, as ifofone heart and one
reo: ~asi cor unum et anima una. soul.
6 Bisceopum gebyre<'S pret symle mid heom faran and mid 6 It is appropriate for bishops that experienced counsel-
heom wunian wel ge]:>ungene witan, huru sacerdhades, ]:>rer ors, particularly in holy orders, travel with them always and
hi wio ra:dan magan for Gode and for worulde and pa:t dwell with them so that they can confer with them concern-
heora gewitan beon on reghwylcne timan, weald hwret heom ing spiritual and secular issues and so that they can act as
tide. witnesses for them at any time, should anything befall them.
7 Bisceopum gebyreo pa:t refre sy god lar on heora hire- 7 It is appropriate for bishops that there always be proper
dum, and beon, prer hi beon, beon a ymbe wisdom and doctrine in their households and that, wherever they are,
a:ghwylc gefieard heom unwyro lretan. they always concern themselves with wisdom and deem all
8 Bisceopum gebyrep pa:t hi ne beon to gliggeorne, ne folly unworthy of them.
hunda ne hafeca hedan to swyoe, ne woruldwlence ne idelre 8 It is appropriate that bishops not be overly concerned
rence. with trifling amusements, nor care too much for hounds or
9 Bisceopum gebyre<'S pret hi ne beon to feohgeorne ret hawks, nor worldly pomp or empty pride.
hadunge, ne ret halgunge ne a:t synbote, ne on renige wisan 9 It is appropriate that bishops not be too greedy at their
on unriht ne strynan. ordination, nor at their consecration, nor when accepting
10 Bisceopum gebyred, gif a:nig odrum abelge, ]:>ret man
penance for sins, and they are not to acquire anything
gepyldige 06 geferena some, butan heom sylfe geweoroan wrongly in any way.
mrege, and na sceotan na to lrewedum mannum ne ne scen- 10 It is appropriate for bishops that, if one of them angers
dan na hy sylfe. another, the latter await patiently the mediation of their fel-
II Bisceopum gebyreo gyf hwylcum hwret eglige swyoe, pe lows, unless they can come to an agreement between them-
he ne betan ne mrege, cyoe hit his geferum and beon syMan selves, but they are never to refer it to laymen nor to demean
ealle georne ymbe pa bote and na ne geswican, a:r hi hit ge- themselves.
betan. II It is appropriate for bishops that if something troubles
12 Bisceopum gebyrep pret hi a:fre on renine man curs ne any one of them too greatly; and he cannot resolve it, he is to
settan butan hy nyde scylan. Gyf hit ponne renig for mic- make it known to his colleagues and they are to offer assis-
clum gewyrhtum nyde gedo, and man gebugan nelle ponne tance readily; and not cease until it is resolved.
12 It is appropriate for bishops never to sentence anyone
to excommunication unless they must out of necessity. If
anyone must do so out of necessity for a great offense, and
the miscreant still refuses to submit to justice, then he is to

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 TRACTS ON ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNANCE INSTRUCTIONS FOR BISHOPS

gyt to rihte, ponne cyoe hit man eallum geferum, and hi ealle announce it to all of his fellows, and they are to sentence
ponne settan on pret ylce and him pret cyoan. Gebuge ponne him in the same way and make that known to him. Then af-
syooan and gebete pe deoppor, gif he Godes miltse and blet- terward he is to submit and repent all the more deeply, if he
sunge recce. seeks the mercy and blessing ofGod.
13 Bisceopum gebyreo J:>ret hi regoer ge heora agene wisan 13 It is appropriate for bishops both to conduct their own
rihtlice fadian ge relces hades men to rihte gemyngian. lives virtuously and to remind those of every rank of what is
14 Bisceopum gebyreo J:>ret hi mid ge):>ylde gepolian pret hi right.
sylfe gebetan ne magan od pret hit pam cyncge gecyped 14 It is appropriate for bishops to suffer patiently that
weoroe, and bete he syooan Godes rebylhpe prer bisceop ne which they themselves cannot resolve until it is made known
mrege, gif he Godes willan rihte wylle wyrcean and his agene to the king, and he then must rectify the offense against
cynescype rihtlice arreran. God when the bishop cannot, if he desires to do God's will
properly and rightly uphold his own royal dignity.
 An Admonition to Bishops An Admonition to Bishops
Biscpas scoldan symle Godes riht bodian and unriht forbeo- Bishops must always proclaim God's justice and forbid in-
dan. And witodlice, sona swa biscpas rihtes adumbiao, and justice. And indeed, just as soon as bishops fall silent about
sona swa hy eargiap and hy rihtes forscamiao and clumiao what is right and as soon as they grow fearful and come to be
mid ceaflum ponne hy scoldan clypian, sona heora wyro- ashamed of what is right, and mumble with their mouths
mynt bio waniende swide. Donne is hit yfel soo peh pret ic when they should cry out, immediately their integrity
secge: sume we synt gewunode pret we syn to lioie and to lof- greatly diminishes. Yet nonetheless it is an evil truth which I
georne; and we willwyrdao mannum refter freondscipe and speak: some of us are inclined to be too accommodating and
purh pret ohecao oftost on unnyt, and sopes geswygiao ealles too eager for praise; and we offer sweet words to men for
to swype. And hit is egeslic gewuna pret we eac habbao: sylfe their friendship and thereby most often flatter needlessly,
we bysniao oft and gelome p.:et we geornost scoldan reg- and all too often do we remain silent about the truth. More-
hwrer forbeodan, pret is woroldwlence and idele rence; and over, we also have a terrible habit: over and over again we
we oferdruncen lufiac:5 to georne, and mid pam huru pencao exemplify in ourselves what we should forbid most zealously
pret we us sylfe weoroian wide, pe we o<Sre men drencan to everywhere, that is, worldly pride and idle vanity; and we
swype. Ac us eallum gebyrede, gyf we riht woldan, pret we embrace drunkenness too eagerly, and indeed, we believe
mid wisdome regper drrenctan ge ure agen andgyt ge relces that our acclaim grows far and wide when we intoxicate oth-
pera pe us to come, and na mid o<Srum drince to oferlice ers too greatly. Yet it would be appropriate for us all, if we
swyc:5e, ac be mannes mreoe mid fullan gescade. desired what is right, that we intoxicate with wisdom both
2 La, yfele gebyrede biscopum refre J:>ret hyworoldmannum our own intellect and that of each of those who come to us,
for idelum gylpe cwemdon on unriht ahwar to swy<Se; eac hit and not with other drink in great excess, but with proper
is pe wyrse, J:>e hy unmannum olrecad georne .:efter here- distinction according to one's capacity.
worde. Wio gligmen we ficia<S and pam ure feoh gifao, and Sadly, it has always poorly suited bishops that, for the 2

purpose of idle boasting, they wrongfully curried favor with

secular people everywhere too greatly; and it is worse that
they willingly flatter the wicked in search of praise. We de-
lude ourselves with entertainers, and give them our money,

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wio scandwyrde we olrecao georne, willao habban hereword and we willingly offer flattery in exchange for shameful
and scyldan wio unword. Eal pret is idel and Gode unge- words; we desire praise and to shield ourselves from insult.
cweme. Ne gebyrao us ;,efre pret we on unriht awiht ge- All of these are vain and displease God. It is never appropri-
strynan, ne hit eac rred ne bio p;,et we rihte begytan myrran ate for us to obtain anything unlawfully, nor indeed is it sen-
on unnyt; ac us syrnle gebyreo p;,et swyoe rihte pret we Godes sible that we squander what has been rightly obtained on
pearfan geornlice gladian mid feo and mid fodan, p;,es pe we foolishness; but it is always most truly appropriate for us to
donmagan. comfort God's needy willingly with money and food, insofar
Eac us bio gerisenlic pret we urum freondum luffeorme as we can.
3
drelan, swa swa hit gerise. And huru ne geriseo biscopum Moreover, it is suitable for us to give our friends loving J

refre on renigum ealasele pret hy to lange clyfian on brence, hospitality, as is appropriate. And indeed, it is never suitable
ne ret ham ne on sioe, ac regoer gemedmigan. Ac we syn for bishops to linger too long on the bench at a drinking
gewunode, swa we na ne scoldan, pret we taliao to rihte, loc hall, either at home or on a journey, but they are to be mod-
hwret us gelicigie, and fylgao urum luste ealles to swyoe. And erate in both. But we are accustomed, as we never should be,
we hogiao eac swypost a yrnbe l>a l>ing l>e we lrest scoldan: to consider whatever pleases us to be right and to pursue our
smeagao ymbe woroldcara and idele bisga, and l>ringao refter desires all too greatly. And we also always reflect the most
l>ryrnme and refter woroldwlence. And we unriht gestreon upon those things which we should the least: we contem-
eac lufiao to swype: syllao wio weoroe oore hwile, pret we plate worldly cares and idle pursuits, and we seek after glory
orcepe scoldan mid rihte. and worldly vanity. And we also love unlawful gain too
Ac soo is pret ic secge, gecnawe se oe wille: a syMan greatly: we sell sometimes for a price that which we properly
4
biscpas awendan heora wisan of regollicre wisan eall to should give for free.
woroldwisan, syooan heora weoroscipe wres waniende But what I say is true, recognize it who will: ever since 4

swype. Donne is t>rere bote timlice micel l>ear£ La, utan l>ret bishops have turned wholly away from canonical practices
gepencan oft and gelome and georne ure wisan gelogian mid to worldly practices, their honor has been diminishing
gepincpan, and understandan t>ret soo is: pret nrefre ne greatly. Therefore, there is much need for repentance imme-
geriseo gepungenre ylde to geonclic wise ealles to swyoe; ne diately. Indeed, let us think on that often and frequently,
ealdan esne ne bio buton tale pret he hine sylfne wyrce to and diligently order our practices with integrity, and under-
wencle on dollican d;,edan oppon on gebreran. stand what is true: that immature behavior is never appro-
priate for one of mature age in any way; nor is an old man
without fault when he makes himself like a child through
foolish actions or behavior.

1.22 123
 The Canons of Edgar The Canons of Edgar

Synoda/ia decreta Synodal Decrees

1 Riht is pret preostas beon geornlice Gode peowiende I It is right that priests are to be obeying and serving
and oeniende and for eall Cristen folc oingiende; and pret God willingly and praying for all Christian people; and that
hig ealle beon a heora ealdre holde and gehyrsume, and ealle they all be faithful and obedient to their lord always, and
anrrede to gemrenre pearfe; and pret relc sy oorum on ful wholly single-minded for the common good; and that each
tume and on helpe ge for Gode ge for worulde; and pret heo be supportive and helpful to others in both spiritual and sec-
beon heora woruldhlafordum eac holde and getrywe refter ular matters; and that they also be faithful and true to their
Godes rihte. secular lords, in keeping with God's law.
2 And riht is pret relc wurc:Sie ooerne; and hyran pa gin- 2 And it is right that each respect the other; and the
gran georne heora yldrum, and lufian and !reran pa yldran younger willingly obey their elders, and the elders willingly
georne heora gingran. love and instruct the younger.
3 And we lrerao pret hi to relcon sinooe habban relce geare 3 And we instruct that at each yearly synod they are to
becc and reaf to godcundre penunge, and blrec and bocfel to have books and robes for the holy service, and ink and
heoragerrednessum, and preora daga biwiste. parchment for their decrees, and provisions for three days.
4 And we lrerao pret preosta gehwilc to sinooe hrebbe his 4 And we instruct that each priest at the synod is to have
cleric and gefa:dne man to cnihte, and nrenigne unwitan pe his clerk and a well-mannered man as an attendant, and no
disig lufige; ac faran ealle mid gefrede and mid Godes relmih- one ignorant who loves foolishness; but all are to proceed
tiges ege. with decorum and with fear of almighty God.
5 And riht is pret preostas on sinooe gif heom hwret de- 5 And it is right that priests make it known at a synod if
rige and gif heom renig man healice misboden hrebbe. Fon hi anyone injures them and if anyone has seriously abused
ponne ealle on swylce hit hym eallum gedon beo and ge- them. Let them receive it just as if it had been done to them
fylstan to pret man hit gebete swa bisceop getrece. all and assist so that it can be rectified just as the bishop di-
rects.

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6 And riht is pret preosta gehwylc on sinode gecyck gyf 6 And it is right that every priest make it known at the
he on his scriftscyre renine man wite Gode oferhyre opc)on synod if he knows of anyone in his parish disobedient to
on heafodleahtrum yfele befallen, pe he to bote gebigean ne God or plunged by evil into mortal sin whom he cannot
mrege rnxk ne durre for woruldafole. sway to repentance or dares not because of their power in
7 And riht is pret nan sacu pe betweox preostum sy ne the world.
beo gescoten to woruldmanna some, ac seman and sibbian 7 And it is right that no dispute between priests is to be
heora agene geferan oMe sceoton to oam bisceope gyf man submitted to the adjudication oflaymen, but their own col-
nyde sceole. leagues are to settle it and make peace or submit it to the
8 And riht is pret renig preost sylfwilles ne forlrete pa bishop if one must.
cyrican pe he to gebletsod wres, ac hrebbe pa him to rihtrewe. 8 And it is right that no priest out of his own self-will
9 And riht is pret nan preost oorum ne retdo renig prera abandon the church into which he was ordained, but he is to
pinga pe him to gebyrige, neon his mynstre, ne on his scrift- keep it as his lawful wife.
scire, ne on his gyldscipe, ne on renigum prera oinga pe him 9 And it is right that no priest deprive another of any
to gebyrige. of those things which belong to him, neither in his church,
10 And riht is pret renig preost ne underfo oores scolere nor in his parish, nor in his guild, nor in any of those things
butan pres leafe pe he rer folgade. which belong to him.
n And riht is pret preosta gehwylc toeacan lare leornige 10 And it is right that a priest not receive another's stu-

handcrreft georne. dent without the consent of him he followed previously.

12 And riht is pret renig gelrered preost ne scende pone n And it is right that every priest study a handcraft as
samlreredan, ac gebete hine gifhe bet cunne. well as his scholarship.
13 And riht is pret renig foroboren preost ne forseo pone 12 And it is right that a learned priest not insult someone
lresborenan, foroam gif hit man ariht asmeap, ponne syn poorly taught, but correct him if he knows better.
ealle men anra gebyrda. 13 And it is right that a highborn priest not disparage one
14 And riht is pret preosta gehwylc tylige him rihtlice and of lower birth, for if one understands it properly, then all are
ne beo renig mangeara mid unrihte ne gytsiende massere. of equal birth.
15 And riht is pret preosta gehwylc fulluhtes and scriftes 14 And it is right that every priest support himself prop-
tyoige sona swa man gyrne; and reghwrer on his scriftscyre erly and not be any sort of corrupt dealer or grasping mer-
chant.
15 And it is right that every priest consent to baptism
and confession as soon as anyone requests it; and he is to
instruct that each child throughout his parish is to be

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 TRACTS ON ECCLESIASTICAL G O VERNANCE THE CANONS OF EDGAR

beode pret relc cild sy gefullod binnon VII nihtum and pret baptized within seven nights and that one is not to remain
renig man to lange unbiscopad ne wyrde. unconfirmed for too long.
16 And riht is pret preosta gehwylc Cristendom geornlice 16 And it is right that every priest ardently preach the
lrere and relcne hrel>endom mid ealle adwresce; and forbeode Christian faith and wholly eradicate every heathen practice;
wyllweordunga and licwigelunga, and hwata, and galdra, and and forbid the worship of wells and the raising of the dead,
treowwurdunga and stanwurdunga, and <Sone deofles crreft and divination and sorcery, and the worship of trees and
pe man dryM prer man pa cild purh pa eordan tihd, and da stones, and that devil's trick which is performed when chil-
gemearr pe man drihd on geares niht on mislicum wigelun- dren are drawn through the earth, and the deception per-
gum and on fridsplottum, and on ellenum and on manegum formed on New Year's night in various magical practices,
mislicum gedwimerum l>e men on dreogad fela pres pe hi ne and in heathen refuges, and in elder trees, and in the many
sceoldan. diverse superstitions in which people do much that they
17 And riht is pret relc Cristen man his beam to Cristen- should not.
dome geornlice wenige and him pater noster and credan 17 And it is right that every Christian readily tutor his
getrece. children in Christianity and teach them the Paternoster and
18 And riht is pret man geswice freolsdagum hredenra the Creed.
leoda and deofles gamena. 18 And it is right that on holy days one refrain from hea-
19 And riht is pret man geswice sunnandreges cypincge. thenish songs and devil's games.
20 And riht is pret man geswice higleasra gewreda and 19 And it is right that one refrain from trade on a Sunday.
dyslicra gerreda and bysmorlicra efesunge. 20 And it is right that one refrain from frivolous clothing

21 And we lrerad pret man geswice cifesgemanan and lu- and thoughtless elegance and shameful hairstyles.
fige rihtrewe. 21 And we instruct that one is to refrain from fornication
22 And riht is pret relc man leornige pret he cunne pater with a concubine and love one's lawful wife.
noster and credan be dam pe he wille on gehalgodum Hegan 22 And it is right that every man study so that he learns
opdon husles wyrcSe beon; fordam he ne bid wel Cristen pe his Paternoster and Creed if he wishes to lie in a consecrated
pret geleornian nele, ne he nah mid rihte odres mannes to grave or be worthy to receive the sacrament; for he is not
onfonne ret fulluhte ne ret bisceopes handa, se c)e pret ne truly a Christian who will not learn it, nor may he who does
can, rer he hit geleornige. not know it legitimately sponsor another at baptism or con-
23 And riht is pret freolsdagum and rihtfrestendagum renig firmation until he learns it.
geflit ne beo betweox mannum. 23 And it is right that on holy days and legally designated
fast days there be no conflict between people.

n8 u9
 TRACTS ON ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNANCE THE CANONS OF EDGAR

24 And riht is pa:t man freolsdagum and rihtfrestendagum 24 And it is right that one forgo oaths and ordeals on holy
forga apas and ordela. days and legally designated fast days.
25 And riht is pret relc wer forga his wif freolstidum and 25 And it is right that every man forgo his wife during holy
rihtfrestentidum. times and legally designated fast times.
26 And riht is pa:t preostas cyrican healdan mid ealre ar- 26 And it is right that priests, with all reverence, preserve
wyrclnysse to godcundre penunge and to clrenan peowdome, churches for holy observances and pure service, and for
and to nanum o6rum pingum; ne hy prer a:nig unnyt inne ne no other use; nor are they to permit any foolishness inside
on neaweste ne gepafian; ne idele spa:ce, ne idele da:de, ne nor in the vicinity; neither idle speech, nor idle deeds, nor
unnyt gedryh, ne a:fre a:nig idel; ne binnan cyrictune renig thoughtless actions, nor any idleness ever; nor that any dog
hund ne hors ne cume, ne swyn pe ma, pres pe man wealdan nor horse come within the church precincts, much less a
ma:ge. pig, if it can be avoided.
27 And riht is pret man into cyrican renig ping ne logie pres 27 And it is right that nothing be brought into a church
pe pa:rto ungedafenlic sy. that is unbecoming of it.
28 And riht is pret man ret cyricwreccan swycle dreoh sy, 28 And it is right that one be very sober at church vigils,
and georne gebidde, and a:nig gedrync ne a:nig unnytt orer and pray fervently, and not engage in any drinking nor fool-
ne dreoge. ishness there.
29 And riht is pa:t man innan cyrican a:nine man ne byrige 29 And it is right that no one be buried inside the church
butan man wite pret he on life Gode to 6am wel gecwemde unless it is known that he pleased God so well in his life that
pret man purh pret lrete pret he sy pa:s legeres wyroe. he is therefore believed to be worthy of that burial place.
30 And riht is pret a:nig preost on renigum huse ne ma:s- 30 And it is right that a priest not celebrate Mass in any
sige butan on gehalgodre cyrican, butan hyt sy for hwilces building except a consecrated church, except in the case of
mannes oferseocnesse. someone's extreme sickness.
31 And riht is pret preost refre ne mressige butan onufan 31 And it is right that a priest never celebrate Mass except
gehalgodum weofode. on a consecrated altar.
32 And riht is pret preost refre ne mressige butan bee; ac 32 And it is right that a priest never celebrate Mass with-
beo se canon him retforan eagum. Beseo to gyf he wylle, pre out the book; but the canon is to be before his eyes. He may
Ires pe him misse. consult it if he wishes, so as not to make a mistake.
33 And riht is pret relc preost hrebbe corporate ponne he 33 And it is right that every priest have a corporal when he
mressige and subumbrale under his alban, and eall ma:ssereaf celebrates Mass and an amice under his alb, and all the Mass
wurolice behworfen. vestments in a worthy state.

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34 And riht is pret relc preost tylige georne pret he gode 34 And it is right that every priest strive conscientiously
and huru rihte bee hrebbe. to have good and, likewise, correct books.
35 And riht is pret renig mressepreost ana ne mressige pret 35 And it is right that a priest not celebrate Mass alone so
he nrebbe pone pe him acwe<Se. that he has no one to answer him.
36 And riht is pret renig unfrestende man husles ne abyrige, 36 And it is right that no one receive the sacrament with
butan hit for oferseocnysse sy. out fasting, except in the case of extreme sickness.
37 And riht is pret renig preost anes dreges oftor ne mres- 37 And it is right that a priest not celebrate Mass more of-
sige ponne priwa mrestra <Singa. ten than three times in one day at most.
38 And riht is pret preost a geara husel hrebbe pam pe 38 And it is right that a priest always have the host pre-
pearf sy; and pret georne on clamnysse healde, and warnige pared for those who need it, and that he carefully keep it in a
pret hit ne forealdige. Gyf <Sonne hit forhealden sy, pret his pure condition, and be sure that it does not decay. Then, if it
man brucan ne mrege, ponne forbrerne hit man on clrenum is not cared for, so that one cannot use it, it is to be burned
fyre and da axan under weofode gebringe, and bete wio God in a clean fire and the ashes placed under the altar, and he
georne se oe hit forgyrne. who neglects it is to atone sincerely to God.
39 And riht is pret preost refre ne gepristlrece pret he mres- 39 And it is right that a priest not presume to celebrate
sige butan he eall hrebbe pret to husle gebyrige: pret is clrene Mass unless he has all that is necessary for the sacrament:
oflete and clrene win and clrene wreter. Wa pam pe mressan that is, a pure wafer, pure wine, and pure water. Woe to him
ongino butan he relc para hrebbe, and wa pam pe prer ful to who commences the Mass unless he has each of these, and
deo; foroam he de<S ponne gelice pam oe Iudeas dydon pa woe to him who puts anything foul in there; for he does then
hi mengdon eced and geallan togredere and hit syMan on just as the Jews did when they mixed vinegar and gall to
bysmor Criste gebudon. gether and afterward gave it in mockery to Christ.
40 And riht is pret refre ne geweoroe pret preost mressige 40 And it is right that it never transpire that a priest cele
and sylfpret husel ne picge, ne man gehalgod husel refre eft brate Mass and not himself receive the host, nor should he
halgige. ever consecrate the Eucharist after it has been consecrated.
41 And riht is pret relc calic gegoten beo pe man husel on 41 And it is right that every chalice in which the host is
halgige, and on treowenum ne halgige man renig; ne nrenne consecrated be cast of metal, and that it not be consecrated
man fullige oftor ponne rene. in one made of wood; nor should anyone be baptized more
42 And riht is pret ealle pa ding pe weofode neah beon than once.
and to cyrcan gebyrian beon swyoe clrenlice and wuralice 42 And it is right that all those things which are near
behworfene, and orer renig ping fules neah ne cume; ac the altar and belong to the church be kept most cleanly
and worthily, and that nothing foul come near there; but the

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 TRACTS ON ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNANCE THE CANONS OF EDGAR

gelogige man pone haligdom swyoe arwurolice. And a sy hallowed objects are to be arranged most reverently. And a
byrnende leoht on cyrican ponne man mressan singe. light is always to be burning in church when one sings the
43 And riht is pret man ne forgyme reniggehalgod ping: ne Mass.
halig wreter, ne sealt, ne stor, ne hlaf, ne gehalgode axan, ne 43 And it is right that nothing consecrated be overlooked:
gehalgod oflete, ne renig ping haliges. Ac forbrerne hit man not the holy water, nor the salt, nor the incense, nor the
on clrenum fyre, butan his man elles notian mrege, and oa bread, nor the consecrated ashes, nor the consecrated host,
axan under weofode gebringe. nor anything holy. But it is to be burned in a pure fire, unless
44 And riht is pret renig wifman neah weofode ne cume pa it can still be used, and the ashes placed under the altar.
hwile pe man mressige. 44 And it is right that no woman approach the altar while
45 And riht is pret man on rihtne timan tida hrincge, and Mass is being celebrated.
preosta gehwyk t>onne his tidsang on cyrcan gesece and 45 And it is right that one ring the hours at the proper
orer, mid Gades ege, hi georne gebiddan and for eall fok time, and then every priest is to attend his service in the
pingian. church and there, for fear of God, fervently pray and inter-
46 And riht is t>ret mressapreosta nan ne cume gewrepned cede for all people.
binnan cyrican dura, ne binnan weofodstealle butan his 46 And it is right that no priest come within the church
oferslope, ne huru ret oam weofode pret he prer penige bu- doors while armed or within the sanctuary without his stole,
ran prere wrede. or especially that he serve at the altar without that garment.
47 And riht is pret renig gehadod mann his sceare ne he- 47 And it is right that a man in orders not hide his tonsure,
lige, ne hine misefesian ne lrete, ne his beard renige hwile nor permit his hair to be cut improperly, nor keep his beard
hrebbe, be t>am pe he wille Gades bletsunga habban and for any length of time, insofar as he desires to have God's
sancte Petres and ure. blessing and Saint Peter's and ours.
48 And riht is pret ealle preostas ret freolsan and ret freste- 48 And it is right that all priests be ofone mind about holy
nan anrrede bean, and ealle on ane wisan beodan pret hi fok days and fasts, and all proclaim them in the same way so that
ne dwelian. they do not mislead the people.
49 And riht is pret relc fresten beo mid relmessan gewurood, 49 And it is right that every fast be observed with almsgiv-
pret is pret gehwa on Gades est relmessan georne sylle; ing, that is, that one should give alms willingly for the grace
ponne bio his fresten Gode gecweme. of God; then his fast will be pleasing to God.
50 And riht is pret preostas on cyricpenungum ealle an 50 And it is right that priests conduct church services all
dreogan, and beon efenforoe ofer geares free on eallum in the same way, and be equally far along over the course of
cyricpenungum. the year in all church services.

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51 And riht is pret preostas geogo5e geornlice lreran and 51 And it is right that priests willingly teach the young and
to crreftum teon, pret hy cyricfultum habban. instruct them in handiwork, so that they may have assis-
52 And riht is pret preostas relce sunnandrege folce bodian tance in church.
and a wel bysnian. 52 And it is right that priests preach to the people each
53 And riht is pret renig Cristen man blod ne pycge. Sunday and always set a good example.
54 And riht is pret preostas folc mynegian pres pe hi Gode 53 And it is right that Christians not consume blood.
don sculon to gerihtum on teopungum and on o5rum 54 And it is right that priests remind the people of that
pingum. And riht is pret man pisses mynegige to Eastrum, which they must give to God as dues in the form of tithes
o5re si5e to gangdagum, priddan si5e to middan sumera and in other ways. And it is right that one remind them of
ponne bi5 mrest folces gegaderod. ..tErest sulhrelmessan XV this at Easter, again at Rogation, and a third time at mid-
niht ofer Eastran, geogode teo5unge be Pentecosten, Rom- summer, when the most people are gathered. First plow
feoh be Petres mressan, eor5wrestma be Ealra Halgena mres- dues are fifteen nights after Easter, the tithing of the young
san, cyricsceat to Martinus mressan, and leohtgesceotu animals by Pentecost, the dues to Rome by the Feast of
priwa on geare: rerest on Easter refen, and o5re side on Can- Saint Peter, the tithe on the fruits of the earth by the Feast
delmresse refen, priddan si5e on Ealra Halgena mresse refen. of All Saints, Church dues by the Feast of Saint Martin, and
55 And riht is pret preostas swa drelan fakes relmessan dues for the lighting of the church three times a year: first
pret hi reg5er don ge God gegladian ge folc to relmessan we- on Easter eve, a second time on Candlemas eve, and a third
nian. time on the eve of the Feast ofAll Saints.
56 And riht is l>ret man betrece renne drel preostum, 55 And it is right that priests distribute the people's alms
operne drel to cyricneode, priddan drel l>am pearfum. in a manner that both pleases God and accustoms the peo•
57 And riht is pret preostas sealmas singan ponne hy da pie to almsgiving.
relmessan drelan, and da J:>earfan georne biddan pret hi for 56 And it is right that one portion be set aside for the
pret folc pingian. priests, a second portion for the church's needs, a third por-
58 And riht is pret preostas beorgen wi5 oferdruncen and tion for the poor.
hit georne belean odrum mannum. 57 And it is right that priests sing psalms when they give
out alms, and that the poor ardently beg that they intercede
for the people.
58 And it is right that priests preserve themselves against
drunkenness and zealously forbid it in others.
 TRACTS ON ECCLESIASTICAL GOVERNANCE THE C ANONS OF EDGAR

59 And riht is pret renig preost ne beo ealusceop, ne on 59 And it is right that a priest not be a singer among
renige wisan gliwige mid him sylfum oorum mannum, ac beo drunkards, nor himself entertain other men in any way, but
swa his hade gebyrao, wis and woerofull. he is to act in keeping with his status, wise and respectable.
60 And riht is pret preostas wio apas beorgan heom georne 60 And it is right that priests fervently guard themselves
and hi eac swyJ:>e forbeodan. against oaths and also zealously forbid them.
62 And riht is pret renig preost ne stande on leasre gewit• 62 And it is right that a priest not stand in false witness or
nesse, ne J:>eofa gewita beo. be an accessory of thieves.
63 And riht is pret preost bisrece ordol refre ne gere):>e. 63 And it is right that a priest never use his oath to vali-
64 And riht is pret preost wio J:>egen ne ladige butan date a questionable ordeal.
pegenes forape. 64 And it is right that a priest not defend himself against a
65 And riht is pret preost ne beo hunta ne hafecere ne tref- thane unless that thane has sworn an initial oath.
lere, ac plege on his bocum swa his hade gebyrao. Se canon 65 And it is right that a priest not be a hunter or a hawker
sego: Gyfhwylc gehadod man on huntaJ> fare, gyf hit bio c!erec or a gambler, but entertain himself with his books in keep-
forga XII monao jlt2sc, diacon twa gear; mt2ssepreost preo, bisceop ing with his status. The canon says: If anyone in orders goes
VJI. hunting, if he is a cleric he is to abstain from meat for twelve
66 And gyf hwylc bisceop oooe mressepreost oooe renig months, a deacon for two years, a priestfor three, a bishopfor seven.
gehadod man hine sylfne rredlice oferdrince, oooe he pres 66 And if any bishop or priest or any man in orders know-
geswice, oooe his hades polige. ingly makes himself drunk, either he must cease doing so or
67 And riht is J:>ret preostas aa gearuwe beon to fakes ge- lose his status.
rihtum. 67 And it is right that priests always be ready to perform
68 And riht is J:>ret relc preost scrife and dredbote trece the rites to which the people are entitled.
}>am pe him andette, and eac to bote fylste, and seoce men 68 And it is right that every priest absolve and assign pen-
huslige J:>onne heom l>earf sy, and eac hy smyrige gif hi J:>res ance to anyone who confesses to him, and also guide him to
gyrnan, and refter forosioe georne behweorfe, and ne ge- atonement, and administer the sacrament to the sick when
}:,afige renig unnytt ret pam lice, ac hit mid Gades ege wislice they need it, and also anoint them if they desire it, and will-
bebyrge. ingly see to the arrangements after death, and not permit
68a And riht is ):>ret ,wig preost ne lufige wifmanna any carelessness around the body, but bury it wisely with
neawiste ealles to swipe, ac lufige his rihtrewe, pret is his fear of God.
cyrice. 68a And it is right that a priest not love the company of
women all too greatly, but love his lawful wife, that is, his
church.

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68b And riht is gif weofodpen his agen lif be boca trecincge 68b And it is right that if a clergyman who serves at the al-
rihtlice fadige, ponne sy he fulles pegnscipes wyrpe ge on tar orders his own life properly according to the precepts of
life ge on legere. Gyf he his lif misfadige, wanige his wyrd- the books, then he is worthy of the full status of a thane,
scipe be 6am pe seo dred sy. Wite, gif he wylle, ne gebyrao both in life and in death. If he does not order his life prop-
him naoor ne to wife ne to woruldwige, gif he Gode wile erly, his status is to diminish according to his deeds. May he
rihtlice hyran and Godes lage rihtlice healdan. know, if he will, that he is not to involve himselfwith a wife
68c Dunstan gedemde ):>ret se mressepreost nrere, gif he wif or with the warfare of this world, if he desires to heed God
hrefde, renige odre lade wyrpe butan eallswa lrewede sceolde properly and properly keep God's laws.
pe efenboren wrere, gif man mid tihtlan prene belede. 68c Dunstan ruled that a priest, if he had a wife, was not
68d And riht is gyf weofodpen hine hrihtlice healde, ponne entitled to clear himself by any means other than that of a
sy he fulles weres and wurdscipes wyrde. layman who was born his equal, if one accused him.
68e And gyf hit gewurde pret man mid tihtlan and mid un- 68d And it is right that if a clergyman who serves at the al-
crreftum sacerd belecge pe regollice libbe, and he hine sylfne tar conducts himself properly, then he is to be entitled to
wite ]:>as clrene, mressige gyf he durre, and ladige on ]:>am full wergild and honor.
husle, hine sylfne ret anfealdre sprrece . .!Et oryfealdre sprrece 68e And if it so happens that a priest who lives according to
ladige gif he durre, eac on ]:>am husle, mid twam his gehadan. a rule is charged with an allegation and a claim of wrongful
68f Gif man diacon tihtlige pe regollice libbe anfealdre behavior, and he knows himself to be innocent of that, he
sprrece, nime twegen his gehadan and ladige hine mid pam. may celebrate Mass if he dares, and clear himself through
And gif man hine tihtlige dryfealdre sprrece, nime six his ge- the Eucharist against a simple accusation. Against a three-
hadan and ladige mid pam, and beo he sylf seofeda. fold accusation, he may also, if he dares, clear himself
68g And gif man folciscne mressepreost mid tihtlan belecge through the Eucharist with two of his rank.
pe regollif nrebbe, ladige hine swa diacon pe regollife libbe. 68f Ifa deacon who lives according to a rule is charged with
a simple accusation, he may select two of his rank and clear
himself with them. And if he is charged with a threefold ac-
cusation, he may select six of his rank and clear himself with
them, and he himself shall be the seventh.
68g And if a charge is brought against a secular priest who
does not live according to a rule, he may clear himself in the
manner of a deacon who lives according to a rule.

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68h And gyf man freondleasne weofodpen mid tihtlan 68h And if a charge is brought against a clergyman who
belecge pe adfultum nrebbe, ga to corsnrede, and drer f:>onne serves at the altar and who lacks friends and supporters for
ret gefare pret pret God wylle, butan he on husle ladian mote. his oath, he is to undergo the ordeal of the consecrated
68i And gif man gehadodne mid freMe belecge and secge bread, and thereby experience that which God wills, unless
pret he wrere dredbana, ladige mid his magum pe freMa he is allowed to clear himselfwith the Eucharist.
motan mid beran oMe fore betan. And gyf he sy mregleas, 68i And if a man in orders is charged with feud and it is al-
ladige mid geferan oMe on frestan fo, gif he pret purfe, and leged that he is a murderer, he is to clear himself with his
ga to corsnrede, and prer.et gefare swa swa God rrede. kin, who may either extend the feud or compensate for it.
69 And riht is pret preosta gehwylc regper hrebbe ge ful- And if he has no kin, he may exonerate himselfwith the sup-
luhtele ge seocum smerels, and a gearu sy to folces gerihtum, port of his colleagues or fast to prepare for the ordeal of
and Cristendom fyrdrige georne on :eghwylce wisan, and consecrated bread, and there endure whatever God decides.
regder do ge wel bodige ge wel bysnige. l>onne geleanad him 69 And it is right that every priest have both baptismal oil
pret God relmihtig swa him leofost bid. Amen. and oil for anointing the sick, and always be prepared to per-
form the rites to which the people are entitled, and zeal-
ously promote Christianity in every way, and both preach
well and set a good example. Then almighty God will reward
him for that, in the manner most pleasing to him. Amen.
ROYAL LEGISLATION
 5 .JEthelred 5}Ethelred

In nomine Domini, anno Dominicae incarnationis MVIII: In the name of the Lord, 1008 years since the incarnation of the
Lord·
Pr Dis is seo gerrednes ]:>e Engla cyng and regoer ge ge-
hadode ge lrewede witan gecuran and gerreddan. Pr This is the decree which the king of the English and
1 Dret is ]:>onne rerest: ]:>ret we ealle renne God lufian and both his ecclesiastical and secular councilors have approved
weoroian, and renne Cristendom georne healdan, and relcne and proclaimed.
hredendom mid ealle aweorpan; and ]:>ret we habbao ealle 1 Therefore this is foremost: that we all love and praise
reg]:>er ge mid worde ge mid wedde gefrestnod, ]:>ret we under the one God, and fervently uphold one Christian faith, and
anum cynedome renne Cristendom healdan willao. entirely reject all heathen practices; and that we have all
I.I And ures hlafordes gerrednes and his witena is ]:>ret man committed, both by word and by pledge, that we will adhere
rihte laga up arrere and relce unlaga georne afylle, and pret to one Christian faith under one royal authority.
man lrete beon reghwylcne man rihtes wyr]:>e. 1.1 And the decree of our lord and his councilors is that
1.2 And ]:>ret man frio and freondscype rihtlice healde in-
just laws be upheld and each injustice zealously eradicated,
nan pysan earde for Gode and for worolde. and that each person be afforded their legal rights.
1.2 And that peace and friendship be justly preserved in
2 And ures hlafordes gerrednes and his witena is pret man
Cristene menn and unforworhte of earde ne sylle, ne huru this land before God and the world.
on hrepene leode; ac beorge man georne, pret man pa sawla 2 And the decree of our lord and his councilors is that
ne forfare pe Crist mid his agenum life gebohte. those who are Christian and free of guilt shall not be sold
3 And ures hlafordes gerrednes and his witena is ]:>ret man out of this land, and especially not to heathen people; but
Cristene men for ealles to lytlum to deaoe ne fordeme. we must zealously ensure that the souls not be destroyed
which Christ purchased with his own life.
3 And the decree of our lord and his councilors is that
Christians are not to be sentenced to death for entirely too
little.

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3.1 Ac elles gerrede man fri6lice steora folce to t:>earfe, and 3-1 Instead, merciful penalties are to be established for the
ne forspille for lytlum Godes handgeweorc and his agenne good of the people, and so that God's handiwork, which he
ceap, pe he deore gebohte. paid for himself at a high cost, not be destroyed.
4 And ures hlafordes gerrednes and his witena is pret rel- 4 And the decree of our lord and his councilors is that
ces hades menn georne gebugan for Gode and for worolde, those of every rank shall faithfully submit before God and
relc to pam rihte, pe him to gebyrige. the world to the duty most appropriate for them.
4.1 And hurupinga Godes peowas-biscopas and abbudas, 4.1 And indeed, God's servants - bishops and abbots, male
munecas and mynecena, preostas and nunnan- to rihte ge- and female monastics, priests and nuns-are to submit to
bugan and regollice libban, and for eall Cristen folc pingian their duty and live according to their rule, and fervently in-
georne. tercede for all Christian people.
5 And ures hlafordes gerrednes and his witena is pret 5 And the decree of our lord and his councilors is that
muneca gehwyk pe ute sy of mynstre and regoles ne gyme, each monk who is out of a monastery and not in compliance
do swa him }:>earf is: gebuge georne into mynstre mid eallum with his rule shall do what is necessary for him: readily sur-
eadmettum and misdreda geswice and bete swype georne render himself to a monastery with all humility, renounce
}:>ret he abrocen hrebbe. Geoence word and wedd, pe he his misdeeds, and sincerely repent for the rules he has bro-
Gode betrehte. ken. Let him reflect upon the word and pledge that he de-
6 And se munuc l:>e mynster nrebbe cume to scirebiscope voted to God.
and trywsie hine sylfne wio God and wio men, pret he huru 6 And the monk who does not have a monastery shall
preo ping panan foro healdan wille: pret is his clrennese and come to the bishop of the diocese and commit himself be-
munuclice scrudware and peowian his Drihtne, swa wel swa fore God and men to especially observe three things thence-
he betst mrege. forth: that is, his celibacy, his monastic habit, and his service
6.1 And gyf he pret gelreste, ponne bio he wyroe, pret hine to God as best he can.
man pe bet healde, wunige prer he wunige. 6.1 And if he fulfills that, then he will be worthy of higher
7 And canonicas, prer seo ar sy l:>ret hy beoddern and esteem wherever he resides.
slrepern habban magan, healdan heora mynster mid rihte 7 And canons, when their holding is such that they pos-
and mid clrennesse, swa heora regol trece; oooon riht is, l:>ret sess a refectory and a dormitory, shall hold their monastery
polige prere are se oe pret nelle. with propriety and celibacy, just as their rule instructs; or
8 And ealle mressepreostas we biddac:S and lrerao pret hy else he who will not do that must forfeit his holding.
beorgan heom sylfum wio Godes yrre. 8 And we require and instruct all priests to protect them-
selves against the wrath of God.

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9 Fulgeorne hy witan pret hy nagon mid rihte purh 9 They know full well that they may not rightfully engage
hremedping wifes gemanan. in sexual relations with a woman.
9.1 And se oe pres geswican wille and clrennesse healdan 9.1 But he who will renounce marriage and practice celi-
hrebbe he Godes miltse, and prertoeacan to woroldweorcS- bacy will have God's favor, and also, as a privilege in this
scype, pret he sy pegenweres and pegenrihtes wyroe, ge on world, he shall be deemed worthy of a thane's wergild and a
life ge on legere. thane's rights, both in life and after death.
9.2 And se pe pret nelle pret his hade gebyrige wanige his 9.2 But he who will not act in a manner fitting for his order
weoroscype ge for Gode ge for worolde. shall diminish his honor before God and the world.
ro And reghwylc Cristen man eac unrihthremed georne 10 And every Christian must diligently avoid unlawful in-
forbuge and godcunde laga rihtlice healde. tercourse and rightly uphold the divine law.
ro.1 And sy relc cyrice on Godes gricSe and on ores cynges 10.1 And each church shall be under the protection of God
and on ealles Cristenes folces. and of the king and of all Christian people.
ro.2 And renig man heonan ford cyrican ne oeowige, ne 10.2 And henceforth no one shall persecute the church, nor
cyricmangunge mid unriht ne macie, ne cyricpen ne utige wrongfully make it an object of exchange, nor expel a cleric
butan biscopes gej:>ehte. without the bishop's permission.
11 And gelreste man Godes gerihta georne reghwylce 11 And God's dues are to be paid readily every year:
geare. 11.1 that is, plow dues fifteen nights after Easter, the tithe
II.I Dret is sulh:l!lmessan xv niht onufan Eastran and of the young animals by Pentecost, the tithe on the fruits of
geogocSe teoounge be Pentecosten and eorowrestma be Ealra the earth by the Feast ofAll Saints, the dues to Rome by the
Halgena mressan and Romfeoh be Petres mressan and leoht- Feast of Saint Peter, and the dues for the lighting of the
gescot priwa on geare. church three times a year.
12 And saulsceat is rihtast j:>ret man symle gelreste .et 12 And it is most appropriate that dues for the souls of the
openum grrefe. dead always be paid while the grave is yet open.
12.1 And gyf man renig lie of rihtscriftscire elles hwar lecge, 12.1 And if any person's body is buried other than in its
gel.este man saulsceat swa peh into pam mynstre j:>e hit to proper parish, the dues should still be paid to the church to
hyrde. which he belonged.
12. 2 And ealle Godes gerihta fyrorige man georne, ealswa 12.2 And all God's dues are to be given willingly, just as is re-
hit j:>earf is. quired.
12.3 And freolsa and frestena healde man rihtlice. 12.3 And feasts and fasts are to be properly observed.
13 Sunnandreges freols healde man georne, swa prerto ge- 13 The Sunday holy day shall be held properly, as is fitting
byrige. thereto.

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 ROYAL LEGISLATION 5 AlTHELRED

13.1 And cypinga and folcgemota on oam halgan drege ge- 13.1 And one must assiduously avoid markets and meetings
swice man georne. on that holy day.
14 And sancte Marian freolstida ealle weoroie man georne, 14 And each ofthe Feasts of Saint Mary is to be celebrated
rerest mid frestene and syooan mid freolse. faithfully, first with fasting and then with a holiday.
14.1 And to reghwylces apostoles heahtide freste man and 14.1 And for the feast of each apostle there is to be fasting
freolsige; buton to Philippus and Iacobus freolse ne beode and a holiday, but we order no fast for the Feasts of Philip
we nan fresten for l:>am Eastorlican freolse. andJames because of Easter.
15 Elles oore freolsa and frestena healde man georne, swa 15 Otherwise, feasts and fasts are to be kept assiduously,
swa l:>a heoldan l:>a oe betst heoldan. just as they were kept when they were kept best.
16 And sancte Eadwerdes mressedreg witan habbao 16 And the council has determined that the Feast of Saint
gecoren, pret man freolsian sceal ofer eal Englaland on xv Edward shall be celebrated throughout England on the fif-
kalendas Aprilis. teenth day before the kalends ofApril.
17 And frestan relce Frigedreg butan hit freols sy. 17 And there shall be a fast each Friday unless it is a feast.
18 And ordal and aoas syndan tocweoen freolsdagum and 18 And ordeals and oaths are prohibited during feasts and
rihtymbrendagum and fram Adventum Domini oo octabas Ember Days and from Advent until the fourteenth night af-
Epiphanie and fram Septuagessiman oo xv niht ofer East- ter midwinter and from the Septuagesima until the fifteenth
ran. night after Easter.
19 And beo oam halgum tidan, ealswa hit riht is, eallum 19 And at holy times, just as is proper, there is to be peace
Cristenum mannum sib and som gemrene, and relc sacu ge- and friendship among all Christians, and each dispute is to
twremed. be resolved.
20 And gyf hwa oorum scyle borh oMon bote ret worold- 20 And if anyone must pay a debt or compensation to an-
lican l:>ingan, gelreste hit georne rer oMon refter. other because of a worldly matter, he is to do so promptly
21 And sy relc wydewe, pe hy sylfe mid rihte gehealde, on before or after the feast.
Godes grioe and on l:>res cynges. 21 And all widows who comport themselves properly shall
21.1 And sitte a!lc XII monao werleas; ceose syooan l:>ret heo be under the protection of God and the king.
sylf wille. 21.1 And each of them is to remain husbandless for twelve
22 And reghwylc Cristen man do, swa him t:>earf is: gyme months; then she may choose as she pleases.
his Cristendomes geome and gewunige gelornlice to scrifte 22 And every Christian shall do what is required: attend
and unforwandodlice his synna gecyoe and geornlice bete, diligently to his Christian faith, go frequently to confession,
swa swa him man trece. confess his sins without hesitation, and sincerely repent just
as he is instructed.
 ROYAL LEGISLATION 5 ..£THELRED

22.1 And gearwige eac to huslgange oft and gelome gehwa 22.1 And everyone is also to prepare themselves often and
hine sylfne. frequently to receive the sacrament.
22.2 And word and weorc fadige mid rihte and ao and wedd 22.2 And words and deeds are to be ordered properly, and
wrerlice healde. oath and pledge carefully upheld.
23 And reghwylc unriht aweorpe man georne of pysan 23 And all injustice is to be banished from this land as
earde, p:es pe man gedon m:ege. much as possible.
24 And swicollice dreda and laolice unlaga ascunige man 24 And fraudulent deeds and hateful injustices are to be
swyoe, pret is: false gewihta and woge gemeta and lease ge- entirely rejected, that is: false weights and counterfeit mea-
witnessa and fracodlice ficunga; sures and perjured testimony and shameful deceptions;
25 and egeslice manswara and deoflice d:eda on moro- 25 and dreadful falsehoods and devilish deeds, such as
weorcan and on manslihtan, on stalan and on strudungan, murder and manslaughter, theft and robbery, avarice and cu-
on gitsungan and on gifernessan, on ofermettan and on ofer- pidity, gluttony and overindulgence, treachery and countless
fyllan, on swiccrreftan and on mistlican lahbrycan, on had- violations of the law, of holy orders, of marriage vows, and
brycan and on rewbrican and on mreniges cynnes misdredan. misdeeds of many kinds.
26 Ac lufige man Godes riht heonan fora georne wordes 26 But God's law is to be willingly embraced henceforth in
and drede; ponne wyro pysse peode sona God milde. word and deed; then will God immediately show mercy to
26.1 And beo man georne ymbe frioes bote and ymbe feos this people.
bote reghwar on earde, and ymbe burhbota on reghwylcan 26.1 And the improvement of public safety, the improve-
ende and ymbe fyrdunga eac, be lfam pe man gerrede, aa ment of the currency throughout the land, the improve-
ponne neod sy; ment of fortifications everywhere, and military service are
27 and ymbe scipfyrorunga, swa man geornost m:ege, pret to be carefully overseen in the manner decreed as the need
reghwylc geset sy sona ofer Eastran reghwylce gea.re. arises;
28 And gyf hwa butan leafe of fyrde gewende pe se cyning 27 and the provisioning of ships as fully as possible so that
sylf on sy, plihte him sylfum and ealre his a.re. they will be prepared just after Easter each year.
28.1 And se pe elles of fyrde gewende, beo se cxx scillinga 28 And if anyone deserts an army Jed by the king himself,
scyldig. he shall risk forfeiture of his life and all his property.
29 And gyf renig amansumad man, butan hit friabena sy, 28. 1 And he who deserts any other army is to be penalized
on pres cynges neaweste ahwa.r gewunige, rer oam pe he 120 shillings.
hrebbe godcunde bote georne gebogene, ponne plihte he 29 And if anyone who has been excommunicated, unless
him sylfum and eallan his rehtan. he is seeking protection, remains anywhere in the king's
proximity before he has fully submitted to spiritual penance,
he shall risk forfeiture of his life and all his possessions.
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30 And gyf hwa ymb cyninges feorh syrwe, sy he his feores JO And if anyone conspires against the king's life, his life
scyldig; and gif he ladian wille, do pret be clres cynges wer- wi1J be forfeit; and if he wishes to be exonerated, he can do
gylde oMe mid pryfealdan ordale on Engla !age. so by paying t he king's wergild or with the threefold ordeal
31 And gyf hwa forsteal oMon openne wipercwyde on- under English law.
gean lahriht Christes oMe cyninges ahwar gewyrce, gylde 31 And if anyone anywhere acts to obstruct or openly op-
swa wer swa wite swa lahslite, aa be dam pe seo dred sy. pose the legal prerogatives of Christ or the king, he shall pay
31.I And gyf he ongean rih t purh rehlyp geonbyrde and swa either wergild, a fine, or labs/it, according to the nature of
gewyrce, pret hine man afylle, liege regylde eallan his the crime.
freondan. 31.1 And if he resists the law with violence and, so doing,
32 And refre alicgan heonan fore! pa unlaga pe rer pysan causes his own death, no wergild shall be paid to his friends.
wreran to gewunelice wide. 32 And forever henceforth the unlawful practices are to
32.1 Dret is ponne an rerest ret dam retfengan, pe swicigen cease which beforehand were too often found widely:
manswican lufedan be westan, pe mrenigne man geswrenc- 32.1 First of all, concerning the property seizures loved by
tan and on unriht gedrehtan. lying swindlers in the west, which have distressed and
32.2 And ocler is, pret gewitnessa ne moston standan, peah wrongfully afflicted many people.
hi fulgetreowe wreron and hi swa sredan swa hi to woldon 32.2 And the second is that witnesses were not deemed le-
swerian. gitimate, though they were fully trustworthy and willing to
32.3 Dridde is ret swigean, pret man wolde sweogian and on swear to that which they testified.
reftergrengan eft siMan sprecan, pret man on forgrengan 32.3 Thirdly, concerning the bringing oflawsuits against an
nrefre becliopode. heir after remaining silent that were never brought against
32-4 And be nordan stod seo unlagu pret man moste ban- his predecessor.
weorc on unsacne secgan, and pret scolde standan gif hit 32.4 And in the north there has been the unlawful practice
wurde swa gecycled ydreges sona. that one can level an accusation of murder against an inno-
32.5 Ac pret unriht alegde ure hlaford. l>ret he ma mote! cent person and it shall be permitted to stand if it was made
33 And reghwylce unlaga alecge man georne. immediately on the same day.
33.1 Forpam }:mrh pret hit sceal on earde godian to ahte, pe 32.5 But our lord has brought an end to this wrongful prac-
man unriht alecge and rihtwisnesse lufie for Gode and for tice. May he do so to others!
worolde. 33 And all injustice is to be utterly eradicated.
33.r Because it is by purging injustice and embracing righ-
teousness before God and the world that improvement shall
be brought to the land.
 ROYAL LEGISLATION
5 Jf:THELRED

34 We must all love and praise the one God and entirely
34 Ealle we scylan ~nne God lufian and weoroian and
reject all heathen practices.
~lcne h:eoendom mid ealle aweorpan.
35 And utan renne cynehlaford holdlice healdan and lif 35 And let us faithfully support one royal lord and all to-
gether defend our lives and our land as best as we can, and
and land samod ealle werian swa wel swa we betst magan,
pray for help to God almighty with our innermost hearts.
and God ealmihtigne inwerdre heortan fultumes biddan.

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 6..tEthelred 6 ..tEthelred

Be witena gmednessan: Concerning the decrees ofthe councilors:

Pr I>is syndan pa gerrednessa pe Engla rredgifan gecuran Pr These are the decrees which the councilors of the Eng-
and gecwredan and geornlice lrerdan, )>a':t man scolde heal- lish determined upon, pronounced, and solemnly ordered to
dan. be obeyed.
I And pret is ponne rerest pa':ra biscpa frumrred: pret we r And this is the principal decree of the bishops: that we
ealle fram synnum georne gecyrran J>res J>e we don magan, all readily turn from sins as much as we can, and sincerely
and ure misdreda andettan georne, and geornlice betan, and confess our misdeeds, and earnestly repent, and rightly love
renne God rihtlice lufian and weorcSian, and renne Christen- and praise the one God, and unanimously hold to the one
dom anrredlice healdan, and a':lcne hrependom georne for- Christian faith, and zealously reject all heathen customs,
bugan, and gebedrredene arreran georne us betweonan, and and truly revere among ourselves the practice of prayer, and
sibbe and some lufian georne, and anum cynehlaforde hold- genuinely cherish peace and reconciliation, and loyally obey
lice hyran and georne hine healdan mid rihtan getrywaan. one royal lord, and willingly follow him with proper devo-
2 And witena gerrednes is, ):>ret abbodas and abbodissan tion.
heora agen lif rihtlice fadian and eac heora heorda wislice 2 And the decree of the councilors is that abbots and ab-
healdan. besses are to order their own lives rightly and also oversee
2.1 And pret relces hades men georne gebugan for Gode their Aocks wisely.
and for worolde, a':lc to pam rihte pe him to gebyrige. 2.1 And people of every rank shall faithfully submit before

2.2 And hurupinga Godes peowas-biscpas and abbodas, God and the world to the duty appropriate for them.
munecas and mynecena, canonicas and nunnan - to rihte 2.2 And indeed, God's servants-bishops and abbots, male

gecyrran and regollice libban and for eall Christen folc pin- and female monastics, canons and nuns-are to submit to
gian georne. their duty and live according to their rule, and fervently in-
3 And witena ger:ednes is, pret muneca gehwilc, pe ute of tercede for all Christian people.
mynstre sy, and regoles ne gyme, do swa him J>earf is: gebuge 3 And the decree of the councilors is that each monk
who is out of a monastery and not in compliance with his
rule shall do what is necessary for him: readily surrender
 ROYAL LEGISLATION 6 ..£THl!LRED

georne into mynstre mid eallum eaomettum and misdreda himself to a monastery with all humility, and renounce his
geswice and bete swype georne pret he abrocen hrebbe. misdeeds, and sincerely repent for the rules he has broken.
Ge):>ence word and wedd, J:>e he Gode betrehte. Let him reflect upon the word and pledge that he devoted to
3.1 And se munuc J:>e mynster nrebbe, cume to scirebiscop God.
and trywsige hine sylfne wio God and wio men J:>ret he huru 3.1 And the monk who does not have a monastery shall
J:>reo J:>ing ):>anon fora healdan wille, pret is: his clrennesse come to the bishop of the diocese and commit himself be-
and munuclice scrudware and peowian his Drihtne, swa wel fore God and men to especially observe three things thence-
swa he betst mrege. forth: that is, his celibacy, his monastic habit, and his service
3.2 And gifhe J:>ret gelreste, ponne bia he weorae, J:>ret hine to God as best he can.
man J:>e bet healde, wunige prer he wunige. 3.2 And if he fulfills that, then he will be worthy of higher
4 And canonicas, J:>rer seo ar sy, pret hy beodern and esteem, wherever he resides.
slrepern habban magan, healdan heora mynster mid clren- 4 And canons, when their holding is such that they pos-
nesse, swa heora regol trece; o):>pon riht is, pret ):>olige prere sess a refectory and a dormitory, shall hold their monastery
are se J:>e J:>ret nelle. with propriety and celibacy, just as their rule instructs; or
5 And ealle Godes peowas, and hurupinga sacerdas, we else he who will not do that must forfeit his holding.
biddao and lrerao ):>.et hy Gode hyran and clrennesse Jufian 5 And we require and instruct that all servants of God,
and beorhgan him sylfum wio Godes yrre. especially priests, obey God, embrace celibacy, and protect
5-1 Fulgeorne hi witan pret hy nagon mid rihte purh renig themselves against God's wrath.
hremedping wifes gemanan. 5- 1 They know full well that they may not rightfully engage
5-2 Ac hit is J:>e wyrse J:>e sume habbacS twa ooae ma, and in sexual relations with a woman.
sum-peh he forl.ete pa he rer hrefde-he be lifiendre prere 5.2 But it is the worse in that some have two or more, and
eft opere nimo, swa renigan Cristenan mren ne gedafenacS to some-though they abandon those they had before- then
donne. take others while these are yet living, which it does not be-
5.3 And se c:Se f>res geswican wille and clrennesse healdan hoove any Christian man to do.
hrebbe he Godes miltse, and prertoeacan to woroldweoro- 5.3 And he who will renounce it and practice celibacy will
scipe, ):>ret he sy J:>egenweres and J:>egenrihtes wyrJ:>e, ge on have God's favor, and also, as a privilege in this world, he
life ge on legere. shall be deemed worthy of a thane's wergild and a thane's
5.4 And se pe pret nelle pret his hade gebyrige, wanige his rights, both in life and after death.
weorc:Sscipe regoer ge for Gode ge for worolde. 5.4 And he who will not act in a manner fitting for his order
shall diminish his honor before God and the world.

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6 And la, gyt we willao biddan freonda gehwylcne and eal 6 And indeed, we entreat all our friends and likewise
folc eac ]reran georne pa:t hy inwerdre heortan renne God zealously instruct all the people that they love the one God
lufian and relcne hrependom georne ascunian. with their innermost hearts and vehemently renounce all
7 And gif wiccan oooe wigeleras, scincrreftcan oooe heathen practices.
horcwenan, morowyrhtan oooe mansworan ahwar on earde 7 And if wizards or magicians, conjurors or prostitutes,
wuroan agytene, fyse hy man georne ut of pysan earde and murderers or perjurers be found anywhere in this land, they
clrensige pas peode, oppe on earde forfare hy mid ealle, are to be zealously expelled from the realm and the people
butan hy geswican and pe deoppor gebetan. cleansed, or they shall be entirely abolished from the earth,
8 And witena gera:dnes is pret man rihte laga up arrere for unless they cease and most sincerely repent.
Gode and for worolde and reghwilce unlaga georne afylle. 8 And the decree of the councilors is that just laws shall
8.1 And pret man heonan foro lrete manna gehwylcne, ge be upheld before God and the world, and all that is unlawful
earmne ge eadigne, folcrihtes wyrde. zealously renounced.
8.2 And pret man frio and freondscipe rihtlice healde in- 8.1 And that henceforth all people, rich and poor, shall be
nan pysan earde for Gode and for worolde. granted their legal rights.
9 And witena gerrednes is pret man Christene men and 8.2 And that peace and friendship shall be properly pre-
unforworhte of earde ne sylle, ne huru on hrepene peode; ac served throughout this land before God and the world.
beorge man georne, pa:t man pa sawla ne forfare pe Crist 9 And the decree of the councilors is that those who are
mid his agenum life gebohte. Christian and free of guilt shall not be sold out of this land,
10 And witena gera:dnes is pret man Christene men for especially not to heathen people; but we must zealously en-
ealles to lytlan to deaoe ne forra:de. sure that the souls not be destroyed which Christ purchased
10.1 Ac elles gera:de man friolice steora folce to pearfe, and with his own life.
ne forspille for lytlum Godes agen handgeweorc and his 10 And the decree of the councilors is that Christians are
agenne ceap, pe he deore gebohte. not to be sentenced to death for entirely too little.
10.2 Ac a:ghwilce drede toscade man wa:rlice and dom refter 10 .1 Instead, merciful penalties are to be established for the
drede medemige be mrepe, swa for Gode sy gebeorhlic and good of the people, and so that God's handiwork, which he
for worolde aberendlic. paid for himself at a high cost, not be destroyed.
10.2 But each deed is to be carefully weighed and judgment
appropriate to the deed handed down in such a way as shall
be justifiable before God and acceptable to the community.

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10.3 And gepence swype georne se pe oprum deme, hwres 10.3 And the person who judges another shall reflect sin-
he sylf gyrne, ponne he pus cweoe: Et dimitte nobis debita cerely upon his own motivations when he recites: Forgive us
nostra, et reliqua. our debts, etc.
n And we lrerao swype geornlice, pret reghwilc Christen 11 And we very fervently charge each Christian to dili-
man unrihthremed georne forbuge and Christene lage riht- gently avoid unlawful intercourse and rightly uphold the di-
lice healde. vine law.
12 And refre ne geweoroe, pret Christen man gewifige in 12 And it must never so happen that a Christian man take
vr manna sibfrece on his agenum cynne, pret is binnan pam a wife within six degrees of kinship in his own family, that is,
feorpan cneowe, ne on pres lafe pe swa neah wrere on his fourth cousin or closer, nor the widow of one so closely
woroldcundre sibbe, ne on pres wifes nydmagan, pe he rer related within his earthly family, nor a close relative of his
hrefde. first wife.
12.1 Ne on gehalgodre renigre nunnan, neon his gefrederan, 12.1 Nor may a Christian man ever marry a professed nun,
ne on relretan renig Cristen man ne gewifige refre. nor his godmother, nor a divorced woman.
12.2 Ne na ma wifa ponne an hrebbe; ac beo be prere anre, pa 12.2 He may not have more than one wife; but he who de-
hwile pe heo libbe, se pe wille Godes lage gyrnan mid rihte sires to obey the law of God rightly and guard his soul from
and wip hellebryne beorgan his sawle. hellfire must stay with one wife as long as she lives.
13 And sy relc cyrice on Godes gripe and on pres cynges 13 And each church shall be under the protection of God
and on ealles Cristenes folces. and of the king and ofall Christian people.
14 And sy relc cyricgrio binnan wagum and cyninges hand- 14 And all sanctuary within church walls and the sanctu-
grio efenunwemme. ary received from the hand of a Christian king are to remain
15 And renig man heonan foro cyrican ne peowige, ne equally inviolable.
cyricmangunge mid unrihte ne macige. 15 And henceforth no one shall persecute the Church, nor
15-1 Ne cyricpen ne utige butan biscopes gepehte. wrongfully make it an object of exchange.
16 And gelreste man Godes gerihta reghwilce geare rihtlice 15-1 Nor may a cleric be expelled without the bishop's per-
georne, pret is sulhrelmessan huru xv niht ofer Eastron, mission.
17 and geogooe teopunge be Pentecosten and eoro- 16 And God's dues are to be paid readily every year, that
wrestma be Ealra Halgena mressan, is, plow dues fifteen nights after Easter,
18 and Romfeoh be Petres mressan, 17 and the tithe of the young animals by Pentecost, and
18.1 and cyricsceat to Martinus mressan, the tithe on the fruits of the earth by the Feast ofAll Saints,
18 the dues to Rome by the Feast of Saint Peter,
18.1 and church dues by the Feast of Saint Martin,

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19 and leohtgescot priwa on geare. 19 and the dues for the lighting of the church three times
20 And saulsceat is rihtast, pret man symble gelreste aa ret a year.
openum grrefe. 20 And it is most appropriate that dues for the souls of the
21 And gif man renig lie of rihtscire elles hwar lecge, dead always be paid while the grave is yet open.
gelreste man pone saulsceat swa peh into pam mynstre, pe 21 And if any person's body is buried other than in its
hit to hyrde. proper parish, the dues should still be paid to the church to
21.I And ealle Godes gerihta fyrprige man georne, ealswa which he belonged.
hit pearf is. 21.1 And all God's dues are to be given willingly, just as is

22 And freolsa and frestena healde man rihtlice. required.

22.1 Sunnandreges freols healde man georne swa prerto ge- 22 And feasts and fasts are to be properly observed.
byrige; and cypinga and folcgemota and hunta<ffara and 22.1 The Sunday holy day shall be kept appropriately as is
woroldlicra weorca on l>am halgan drege geswice man fitting for it, and markets, meetings, hunts, and worldly
georne. business are to be assiduously avoided on that holy day.
22.2 And sancta Marian heahfreolstida ealle weoroige man 22.2 And each of the Feasts of Saint Mary is to be celebrated
georne, rerest mid frestene and syppan mid freolse. faithfully, first with fasting and then with a holiday.
22.3 And to reghwilces apostoles heahtide freste man 22.3 And one must fast readily for the feast of each apostle,
georne, butan to Philippus and Iacobus freolse ne beode we but we order no fast for the Feasts of Philip and James be-
nan fasten for pam Easterlican freolse, butan hwa wille. cause of Easter, unless one wishes to do so.
22.4 Elles opre freolsa and frestena healde man georne, swa 22.4 Otherwise, feasts and fasts are to be kept assiduously,
swa pa heoldan pa pe betst heoldan. just as they were kept when they were kept best.
23 And ymbrenfastena, swa swa sanctus GregoriusAngel- 23 And the Ember Fasts are to be kept, just as Saint Greg-
cynne sylf hit gedihte. ory himself ordained for the English.
24 And freste man relce Frigedrege butan hit freols sy. 24 And there shall be a fast each Friday unless it is a feast.
25 And ordal and apas and wifunga refre syndan tocwe- 25 And ordeals and oaths and marriages are always pro-
dene heahfreolsdagum and rihtymbrenum and fram Aduen- hibited during feasts and authorized Ember Days and from
tum Domini oo octabas Epiphanige and fram Septuages- Advent until the eighth day of Epiphany and from Septua-
sima oo xv niht ofer Eastran. gesima until the fifteenth night after Easter.
25-1 And beo pam halgan tidan, ealswa hit riht is, eallum 25-1 And at holy times, just as is proper, there is to be peace
Cristenum mannum sibb and som gemrene, and relc sacu and friendship among all Christians, and each dispute is to
totwremed. be resolved.

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25-2 And gif hwa oorum scyle borh oMe bote ret worold- 25.2 And if anyone must pay a debt or compensation to an-
Iican pingan, gelreste hit him georne rer oMon refter. other because of a worldly matter, he is to do so promptly
26 And sy relc wydewe, pe hy sylfe mid rihte gehealde on before or after the feast.
Godes grioe and on pres cynges. 26 And all widows who comport themselves properly shall
26.1 And sitte relc x11 monao werleas; ceose syppan pret heo be under the protection of God and the king.
sylfwille. 26.1 And each of them is to remain husbandless for twelve
27 And reghwilc Christen man do, swa him pearf is: gyme months; then she may choose as she pleases.
his Christendomes georne and gewunige gelomlice to scrifte 27 And each Christian shall do what is required of him: at-
and unforwandodlice his synna gecyoe and geornlice bete, tend diligently to his Christian faith, go frequently to con-
swa swa him man trece. fession, confess his sins without hesitation, and sincerely
27.1 And gearwige eac to huslgange huru priwa on geare repent just as he is instructed.
gehwa hine sylfne, pe his agene pearfe wille understandan, 27.1 And anyone who wishes to understand his own obliga-
swa swa him pearf is. tions must prepare himself to receive the sacrament at least
28 And word and weorc freonda gehwilc fadige mid rihte, three times during the year, just as is required of him.
and ao and wedd wrerlice healde. 28 And all ofour friends must order their words and deeds
28.1 And reghwilc unriht aweorpe man georne of pysan properly, and carefully uphold their oath and pledge.
earde, pres pe man don mrege. 28.1 And all injustice is to be banished from this land as
28.2 And swicollice dreda and laolice unlaga ascunige man much as possible.
swyoe: pret is false gewihta and woge gemeta and lease ge- 28.2 And fraudulent deeds and hateful injustices are to be
witnessa and fracodlice ficunga and fule forligra and egeslice entirely rejected, that is: false weights and counterfeit mea-
manswara; sures and perjured testimony and shameful deceptions and
28.3 and deoflice dreda on moroweorcum and on man- foul adulteries and dreadful falsehoods;
slihtan, on stalan and on strudungan, on gitsungan and on 28.3 likewise, devilish deeds, such as murder and man-
gifernessan, on ofermettan and on oferfyllan, on swiccrref- slaughter, theft and robbery, avarice and cupidity, gluttony
tan and on mistlican lahbrican, on rewbrican and on hadbri- and overindulgence, treachery and countless violations of
can, on freolsbricon and on frestenbricon, on cyricrenan and the law, of marriage vows, of holy orders, of feasts and fasts,
on mreniges cynnes misdredan. of church property, and misdeeds of many kinds.
29 And la, understande man georne pret ealswylc is to 29 And indeed it is to be wholly understood that all such
leanne and nrefre to lufianne. sins are to be condemned and never to be admired.

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30 Ac lufige man Godes riht heonan forp georne wordes 30 But God's law is to be willingly embraced henceforth in
and weorces; ponne wyro pysse peode sona God milde. word and deed; then will God immediately show mercy to
31 Wutan eac ealle ymbe fripes bote and ymbe feos bote this people.
smeagean swyoe georne. 31 Let us all also consider very carefully the enhancement
32 Swa ymbe fripes bote, swa pam bondan sy selost and of public safety and the improvement of the currency
pam peofan sy lapost. 32 Public safety is to be improved such that it is best for
32.1 And swa ymbe feos bote, pa:t an mynet gange ofer ealle the citizen and worst for the thief.
pas peode butan a:lcon false. 32.1 The currency is to be improved so that there is one
32.2 And gemeta and gewihta rihte man georne, and a:lces standard coinage throughout the realm without any adul-
unrihtes heonan ford geswice. teration.
32.3 And burhbota and bricbota aginne man georne on 32.2 And weights and measures are to be assiduously made
a:ghwilcon ende, and fyrdunga eac and scipfyrdunga ealswa, right, and all unlawful practices abolished henceforth.
a ponne neod sy; swa swa man gera:de for gema:nelicre 32.3 And improvements to fortifications and bridges are to
neode. be undertaken with care on all sides, and also the provision-
33 And wa:rlic bio pa:t man a:ghwilce geare sona a:fter ing of the army and navy as the need arises, just as has been
Eastron fyrdscipa gearwige. ordained for the common good.
34 And gyf hwa folces fyrdscip awyrde, gebete pret georne 33 And it is prudent to have the warships prepared each
and cyninge pa munde; and gif hit man amyrre pa:t hit a:note year just after Easter.
weoroe, forgylde hit fullice, and cyninge pone mundbrice. 34 And if anyone damages one of the realm's warships, he
35 And gif hwa of fyrde butan leafe gewende pe cyning sylf is to atone sincerely for that and compensate the king for
on sy; plihte his are. violating his protection; and if it is destroyed so that it is no
36 And gif morowyrhtan oooe mansworan oooe a:ba:re longer of any use, he is to make restitution in full and pay
manslagan to pam gepristian, pa:t hy on pa:s cyninges the king for the breach ofhis peace.
neaweste gewunian a:r flam pe hy habban bote agunnen for 35 And if anyone deserts an army led by the king himself,
Gode and for worolde, ponne plihton hy heora are and eal- he shall risk forfeiture of his property.
lon heora a:htan, butan hit friobenan syndan. 36 And if murderers or perjurers or convicted killers are so
bold as to remain in the king's proximity before they have
undertaken to do penance before God and the world, then
they will be at risk oflosing their property and all their pos-
sessions, unless they are seeking protection.

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37 And gyf hwa ymbe cyninges feorh syrwe, sy he his 37 And if anyone conspires against the king's life, his life
feores scyldig and ealles pres I:>e he age gif hit him ongesol:>od and all that he owns will be forfeit ifhe is shown to be guilty;
weoroe; and gif he hine ladian wille and mage, do pret be and if he wishes to exonerate himself and is granted permis-
l:>arn deopestan aoe ol:>l:>e mid pryfealdan ordale on .IEngla sion, he can do so with the most serious oath or with the
lage, and on Dena lage be l>am pe heora lagu sy. threefold ordeal under English law, and in the Danelaw ac-
38 And gif hwa forsteal ongean lahriht Cristes ol>pe cy- cording to their legal customs.
ninges ahwar gewyrce, gylde wer oppe wite be pam pe seo 38 And if anyone anywhere acts to obstruct the legal pre-
dred sy; and gif he geonbyrde and sylfgewyrce, pret hine man rogatives of Christ or the king, he shall pay either wergild or
afylle, liege regylde. a fine, according to the nature of the crime; and if he resists
39 And gif hwa nunnan gewemme oppe wydewan nyd- the law with violence and, so doing, causes his own death,
na:me, gebete pret deope for Gode and for worolde. no wergild is to be paid for him.
40 And smeage man symle on reghwike wisan human fyr- 39 And if anyone defiles a nun or assaults a widow, he must
mest mrege rred aredian peode to pearfe, and rihtne Chris- solemnly repent before God and the world.
tendom swypost arreran and reghwilce unlaga geornost afyl- 40 And consideration must always be given in every way to
lan. how first to establish policy to meet the needs of the people
4 0 .1 Forpam purh pret hit sceal on earde godian to ahte, pe and to best uphold the true Christian faith and to most zeal-
man unriht alecge and rihtwisnesse lufige for Gode and for ously eradicate all injustice.
worolde. 40.1 For it is in this way that improvement in this land can
41 Nu wille we eac lreran Godes peowas georne pret hy be achieved: by rejecting injustice and embracing righteous-
huru hy sylfe wrerlice bepencan and purh Gades fultum ness before God and the world.
clrennesse lufian, and georne heora bocum and gebedum 41 Now we likewise wish to earnestly instruct God's ser-
fylgean, and dreges and nihtes oft and gelome clypian to vants to give thought to themselves with special care and
Christe and for eal Christen folc pingian georne. with God's help embrace celibacy, and attend diligently to
42 Eac we gyt willao myngian georne freonda gehwilcne, their books and prayers, and call upon Christ often and fre-
ealswa us neod is gelome to donne, pret gehwa hine sylfne quently both day and night, and zealously intercede for all
georne bepence. Christian people.
42. 1 And pret he fram synnan georne gecyrre and ol>rurn 42 Moreover, we also earnestly desire to admonish each of
mannum unrihtes styre. our friends, just as there is often need for us to do, to sin-
cerely give thought to themselves.
42.1 And they are to readily turn from sin, and to curb the
injustice caused by others.
 ROYAL LEGISLATION 6 ..£THELRED

42.2 And pret he oft and gelome hrebbe on gemynde, l>ret 42.2 And they are to bear in mind often and frequently that
mannum is rarest pearf oftost to gemunene, pret is pret hy which there is the greatest need to remember, that is, to
rihtne geleafan anrredlice habban on pone sopan God l>e is wholeheartedly maintain proper faith in the true God, who
wealdend and wyrhta ealra gesceafta, and pret hy rihtne is the lord and maker of all creation, and to properly adhere
Christendom rihtlice healdan, and pret hy godcundan larea- to the true Christian faith, and to willingly heed their spiri-
wan geornlice hyran, and Godes larum and lagum geornlice tual teachers, and sincerely follow God's laws and teachings.
fylgean. 42.3 And they are to everywhere diligently preserve and
42.3 And pret hy Godes cyrican reghwar georne grioian and protect God's churches, and to visit them frequently with
fripian, and mid leohte and lacum hi gelome gegretan, and candles and offerings, and there themselves pray fervently
hy sylfe prer georne to Christe gebiddan. to Christ.
43 And pret hy Godes gerihta reghwylce geare mid rihte 43 And that each year God's dues are to be paid promptly
gelrestan 43,1 and feasts and fasts properly kept.
43,1 and freolsa and frestena rihtlice healdan. 44 And that on Sundays markets and public meetings are
44 And pret hy Sunnandaga cypinga and fokiscra gemota to be assiduously avoided.
georne geswican. 45 And that God's servants are to be protected and hon-
45 And pret hy Godes peowas symle werian and weoroian. ored.
46 And pret hy Godes pearfan frefrian and fedan. 46 And that God's poor are to be comforted and fed.
47 And pret hy wydewan and steopcild to oft ne ahwrenan, 47 And that widows and orphans are not to be continually
ac georne hy gladian. persecuted, but instead uplifted.
48 And pret hy relpeodige men and feorrancumene ne tyr- 48 And that strangers and those who have come from afar
ian ne ne tynan. are not to be harassed or mistreated.
49 And pret hy ol>rum mannum unriht ne beodan ealles to 49 And that they are not to offer injustice to others all too
swype; ac manna gehwyk oprum beode 1:>ret riht, pret he greatly; but that to the best of their ability, everyone is to
wille, pret man him beode, be pam pe hit mreo sy; and pret is show that justice to others that they desire to be shown to
swyl:>e riht lagu. themselves; and that is a very just law.
50 And se pe ahwar heonan foro rihte laga wyrde, Godes 50 And henceforth, those who anywhere violate the just
oppon manna, gebete hit georne, swa hwreper swa hit geby- laws of God or of men are to diligently make compensation
rige, swa mid godcundre bote swa mid woroldcundre steore. in whichever manner is appropriate, either by spiritual pen-
51 And gif for godbotan feohbot ariseo, swa swa wise wor- ance or secular punishment.
oldwitan to steore gesettan, pret gebyreo rihtlice, be biscpa 51 And if money is paid as ecclesiastical compensation, as
determined by wise secular judges, according to the decrees

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 ROYAL LEGISLATION 6 )ETHELRED

dihte, to gebedbigene and to J:>earfena hy):>):>e and to cyric- of the bishops it is to be used for prayer and for the benefit
bote and to lardome and to wrede and to wiste ):>am pe Gode of the needy and for church upkeep and for teaching and for
peowian and to bocan and to bellan and to cyricwredan, and clothing and feeding God's servants and for books and for
nrefre to woroldlican idelan glengan; ac for woroldsteoran to bells and for church vestments, but never for idle worldly
godcundan neodan, hwilum be wite, hwilum be wergylde, vanities; instead, secular penalties are to go toward ecclesi-
hwilum be halsfange, hwilum be lahslite, hwilum be are, astical needs, whether from fines or from wergild, from
hwilum be rehte, and hwilum be maran, hwilum be lressan. healsfang or from labs/it, from property or from personal pos-
52 And a swa man bio mihtigra her nu for worulde oppon sessions, and whether great or small.
purh gepingoa hearra on hade, swa sceal he deoppor synna 52 And the mightier a person is now in this world or the
gebetan and reke misdreda deoror agyldan, for ):>am pe se greater the prerogatives of his station, so shall he repent his
maga and se unmaga ne beoo na gelice, ne ne magon na ge- sins all the more deeply and compensate for his misdeeds
lice byr):>ene ahebban, ne se unhala pe ma pam halum gelice. the more dearly, for the great and the meek are not alike any
And py man sceal medmian and gescadlice toscadan, ge on more than the sick are like the healthy, nor can they bear a
godcunda scriftan ge on woroldcundan steoran, ylde and similar burden. And thus age and youth, wealth and poverty,
geogope, welan and wredle, hrele and unhrele, and hada ge- health and sickness, and each social status is to be weighed
hwikne. and appropriately assessed in both spiritual penances and
52.1 And gif hit geweorpeo J:>ret man unwilles oppe unge- secular punishments.
wealdes renig ping misdeo, na bio pret na gelic pam pe willes 52.1 And if it befalls that someone commits a crime in any
and gewealdes sylfwilles misdeo: and eac se pe nydwyrhta way unwillingly or unknowingly, that shall not be treated as
bio pres pe he misdeo, se bio gebeorhges and py beteran if he intentionally committed a crime, willingly and know-
domes symle wyroe, pe he nydwyrhta wres pres J:>e he worhte. ingly; and accordingly, the person who is compelled so that
53 ,,£lee drede toscade man wrerlice and a dom be drede he commits a crime is always to be deemed worthy of mercy
fadige mid rihte and medemige be mrepe for Gode and for and lighter judgments, because he acted out of compulsion.
worolde; and miltsige man for Godes ege and lipige man 53 Each deed is to be carefully assessed and the judgment
georne and beorge be drele pam, J:>e pres pearf sy; forpam always measured with justice in accordance with the deed
ealle we bepurfan, pret us ure Drihten oft and gelome his and administered fairly before God and the world; and
miltse geunne. Amen. mercy and kindness and a degree of forgiveness are to be ex-
tended to those who have need of them; for we all need God
to grant us his mercy often and frequently. Amen.

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 7 ...-Ethelred 7...-Ethelred

Pr Hoe instituerunt .tEpelredus rex et sapientes eius apud Pr King.tEthelred and his councilors decreed this at Bath:
Badam. 1 First, that the one God is to be praised and honored
1 Inprimis ut unus Deus super omnia diligatur et honore- above all, and that all should obey their king according to
tur, et ut omnes regi suo pareant, sicut antecessores sui me- the best customs of their ancestors, and together with him
lius fecerunt, et cum eo pariter defendant regnum suum. defend his kingdom.
1.1 Et constituerunt inprimis Dei misericordiam et auxi- 1.1 And they first agreed to call upon God's mercy and

lium invocare ieiuniis, elemosinis, confessione et abstinen- help by fasting, almsgiving, confession, and abstaining from
tia a malefactis et iniustitia. sins and injustice.
1.2 Hoe est ut detur de omni carruca denarius vel denarii 1.2 Thus, a penny or the value of a penny is to be given

valens. from every plowland.

1.3 Et omnis qui familiam habet efficiat, ut omnis hyre- 1.3 And everyone who has a household is to ensure that
mannus suus det unum denarium. Qui si non habeat, det each of those under him gives one penny. If anyone does not
dominus eius pro eo; et omnis tainus decimet totum quic- have it, the lord is to give it for him; and every thane is to
quid habeat. give one-tenth of all he has.
2 Et instituimus, ut omnis Christianus, qui aetatem ha- 2 And we have decreed that every Christian who has
bet, ieiunet tribus diebus in pane et aqua et herbis crudis. reached adulthood is to fast for three days upon bread, wa-
2.1 Et omnis homo ad confessionem vadat et nudis pedi- ter, and raw herbs.
bus ad ecclesiam et peccatis omnibus abrenuntiet emen- 2.1 And each person is to go to confession and, with bare

dando, cessando. feet, to church; and by repenting and abstaining, repudiate

2.2 Et eat omnis presbyter cum populo suo ad proces- all his sins.
sionem tribus diebus nudis pedibus. Et super hoe cantet 2.2 And for three days every priest is to go barefoot in

omnis presbyter xxx missas et omnis diaconus et clericus the procession along with his people. And moreover, every
xxx psalmos. Et apparetur 111 diebus corredium uniuscuius- priest is to sing thirty Masses, and every deacon and cleric
que sine carne; in cibo et potu, sicut idem comedere debe- thirty psalms. And for three days everyone is to be served
ret, et dividatur hoe totum pauperibus. meals without meat; and food and drink in the amount that
would have been eaten is to be shared out among the poor.
 ROYAL LEGISLATION 7 ,ETHELRED

2.3 Et sit omnis servus liber ah opere illis tribus diebus, 2.3 And all slaves are to be freed from work on those three
quo melius ieiunare possit, et operetur sibimet quod vult. days so that they will be able to fast better and make what
Hii sunt illi tres dies: dies Lunae, dies Martis, et dies Mercu- they wish for themselves. These are the three days: the
rii proximi ante festum sancti Michaelis. Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday just before the Feast of
2.4 Si quis ieiunium suum infringat, servus corio suo com- Saint Michael.
ponat, liber pauper reddat xxx denarios et tainus regis cxx 2.4 If anyone breaks the fast: a slave is to be whipped, a
sol.; et dividatur hec pecunia pauperibus. poor freeman is to pay thirty pence and a king's thane one
2.5 Et sciat omnis presbyter et tungravius et decimales ho- hundred twenty shillings; and this money is to be distrib-
mines, ut haec elemosina et ieiunium proveniat, sicut in uted to the poor.
sanctis iurare poterunt. 2.5 And let every priest, town reeve, and tithingman over-
3 Et praecipimus, ut in omni congregatione cantetur co- see the almsgiving and fasting, so that they can swear to it
tidie communiter pro rege et omni populo suo una missa ad on holy relics.
matutinalem missam, quae inscripta est contrapaganos. 3 And we command that a Mass entitled Against the Pa-
3.1 Et ad singulas horas decantet totus conventus extensis gans is to be sung daily at Matins in every religious founda-
membris in terra psalmum illum: Domine, quid multiplicati tion by the entire community for the king and his people.
sunt et collectam contra paganos; et hoe fiat, quamdiu ne- p And at each of the canonical hours, all members of the
cessitas ista nobis est in manibus. community, lying on the ground with limbs extended, are to
3.2 Et in omni coenobio et conventu monachorum cele- chant the psalm, Why, 0 Lord, are they multiplied, and the
bret omnis presbyter singulatim xxx missas pro rege et omni Collect against the pagans; and this is to be done as long as
populo, et omnis monachus xxx psalteria. we have the need.
4 Et praecipimus, ut omnis homo super dilectionem Dei 3.2 And in every monastery or community of monks, every
et omnium sanctorum det cyricsceattum et rectam deci- priest is to individually celebrate thirty Masses for the king
mam suam, sicut in diebus antecessorum nostrorum stetit, and for all the people, and every monk to chant his psalter
quando melius stetit: hoe est sicut aratrum peragrabit per thirty times.
decimam acram. 4 And we command that everyone, for the love of God
4.1 Et omnis consuetudo reddatur super amicitiam Dei ad and all the saints, is to render their Church dues and proper
matrem ecclesiam, cui adiacet. tithes, just as was done and done better in the days of our
ancestors; that is, according to every tenth acre turned up
by the plow.
4.1 And all dues are to be paid, for the love of God, to the
appropriate mother church.

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 ROYAL LEGISLATION 7 .i£THELRED

4.2 Et nemo auferat Deo quod ad eum pertinet et praede- 4.2 And no one is to take from God that which belongs to
cessores nostri concessenmt ei. him and which our forebears granted to him.
5 Et prohibemus, ne aliquis extra vendatur. Si quis hoe 5 And we forbid anyone to be sold out of the country. If
presumat, sit praeter benedictionem Dei et omnium sanc- anyone presumes to do so, he is to be excluded from the
torum et praeter omnem Christianitatem, nisi paeniteat et blessing of God and all the saints, and from the entire Chris-
emendet, sicut episcopus suus edocebit. tian communion, unless he does penance and makes amends
6 Et prohibemus omnem robariam omni homini. as his bishop shall instruct.
6.I Et sit omnis homo dignus iure publico, pauper et dives. 6 And we forbid to all people all forms of theft.
6.2 Et reddatur omnis robaria, si quis aliquam fecerit et 6.1 And all persons, poor or wealthy; are entitled to legal
emendet, sicut prius et postea stetit. remedies.
6.3 Et si quis praepositus earn fecerit, dupliciter emender 6.2 And if anyone has committed theft, let him return all
quod alii iudicaretur. that has been stolen and make amends, as was the practice
7 Et reddatur pecunia elemosinae hinc ad festum sancti before and will be afterward.
Michaelis, si alicubi retro sit, per plenam witam. 6.3 And if a reeve has committed theft, he shall make
7.1 Et omnibus annis deinceps reddantur Dei rectitudines amends at twice the rate imposed upon anyone else.
in omnibus rebus quae supradictae sunt per arniciciam Dei 7 And if anyone is behind in his almsgiving, let it be paid
et sanctorum omnium, ut Deus omnipotens misericordiarn between now and the Feast of Saint Michael, or the full pen-
nobis faciat et de hostibus triumphum nobis et pacem in- alty shall be assessed.
dulgeat; quern sedulo deprecemur, ut misericordiam eius 7.1 And every year henceforth God's dues are to be paid in
consequamur et gratiarn hie et in futuro requiem sine fine. every case as decreed above, for the friendship of God and
Amen. all the saints, so that the omnipotent God will grant us
mercy; and victory over our enemies, and peace. Let us ear-
nestly beseech him to grant us mercy and grace here and rest
without end in the future. Amen.

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 7a .,..E,thelred 7a .,..E,thelred

Dis man ger'2dde, oa se micele here com to lande: This was decreed when the great army came to this land·
Pr Ealle we bepurfan }>ret we geornlice earnian pret we Pr We all must strive diligently so that we may receive
Godes miltse and his mildheortnesse habban moton and God's mercy and compassion and, with his help, withstand
p.et we, purh his fultum, magon feondum wi~standan. our enemies.
1 Nu wille we p.et eal folc to gem.enelicre dredbote prig 1 Now we ordain that the whole realm consume only
dagas be hlafe and wirtum and wretere, pret is on Monandreg bread, herbs, and water in shared penance for three days,
and on Tiwesdreg and on Wodnesdreg rer Michaeles mressan. that is, the Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday before the
2 And cume manna gehwilc brerefot to circan, buton Feast ofSaint Michael.
golde and glrencgum, and ga man to scrifte. 2 And everyone is to come to church barefoot, without
2.1 And gan ealle ut mid halidome and clipian inweardre gold or ornaments, and they are to go to confession.
heortan georne to Criste. 2.1 And all shall process out with the holy relics and fer-

2.2 And sceote man reghwike hide prenig oMe preniges vently call upon Christ with their innermost hearts.
weor~. 2.2 And a penny or the equivalent of a penny is to be paid

2.3 And bringe man pret to cirican and siMan on preo d.ele by every hide.
be scriftes and be tunes gerefan gewitnesse. 2.3 And it is to be brought to church and subsequently di-

3 And gif hwa pis ne gelreste, ~onne gebete he pret, swa vided in three with the confessor and town reeve acting as
swa hit gelagod is: bunda mid xxx prenigum, prrel mid his witnesses.
hide, pegn mid xxx scillingum. 3 And if anyone does not pay this, then he shall compen-
4 And swa hwar swa pret feoh up arise, drele man on sate for it in the manner that the law decrees: a householder
Godes est reghwilcne prenig. with thirty pence, a slave with a beating, and a thane with
thirty shillings.
4 And wherever that levy comes to be assessed, every
penny is to be distributed for God's favor.

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 ROYAL L E GISLATION 7A A!THELREO

4.1 And ealswa pone mete pe gehwa brucan wolde gif him 4.1 Furthermore, all the food that would have been en-
pret fresten swa geboden nrere, drele man on Godes est joyed had the fast not been decreed is to be diligently dis-
georne refter ):>am frestene eal J:>earfigendum mannum and tributed for God's favor after the fast to the poor, the bed-
bedridan and swa gebrocedum mannum, ):>e swa frestan ne ridden, and those so afflicted that they are not able to fast.
magon. 5 And every retainer is to give a penny as alms, or his lord
5 And hiredmanna gehwilc sille prenig to relmessan, oooe is to give it for him if he does not have it himself, and those
his hlaford sille for hine buton he silf hrebbe, and heafod- of high status shall pay tithes.
men teooian. 5.1 And slaves are to be released from work on these three
5-1 And ):>eowemen pa orig dagas beon weorces gefreode days to attend church and keep the fast more readily.
wio ciricsocne and wio oam, pe hi pret fresten pe lustlicor ge- 6 And in every monastery, the whole community is to
frestan. chant from their psalters on these three days.
6 And on reghwilcan mynstre, singe eal geferrreden ret- 6.1 And each priest is to celebrate Mass for our lord and all
gredere heora saltere J:>a ory dagas. of his people.
6.1 And ;:elc mressepreost m;:essige for urne hlaford and for 6.2 Additionally, a special Mass is to be celebrated each day
ealle his peode. in every church because of the peril that confronts us until
6.2 And partoeacan mressige man reghwilce drege on relcan it is resolved.
minstre ane mressan sinderlice for oare neode, pe us nu on 6.3 And at each service, the whole community, prostrate
handa stent, oo J:>ret hit betere wuroe. with outstretched arms before God's altar, is to sing the
6.3 And ret .elcan tidsange eal hired apenedum limum ret- psalm, "Lord, how are they multiplied," and the prayers and
foran Godes weofode singe pone sealm: "Domine, quid multi- Collect.
plicati sunt," andpreces and col 7 And all collectively, clerical and lay, are to submit to
7 And ealle gemrenelice, gehadode and lrewede, bugan to God wholeheartedly and deserve his mercy.
Gode georne and geearnian his mildse. 8 And every year henceforth, Church dues are to be paid
8 And :eghwilce geare heonon foro gelreste man Godes with special conscientiousness, so that the almighty God
gerihta huru rihtlice, wio oarn pe us God relmihtig gemilt- will have mercy on us and enable us to overcome our ene-
sige and us geunne, p:et we ure fynd ofercuman motan. God mies. May God help us. Amen.
ure helpe. Amen.

188 189
 8JEthelred 8~thelred
Anno Mx1111 ah incarnatione Domini nostri Iesu Christi: In the ror4th year since the incarnation ofour LordJesus Chnst:
Pr l>is is an cSara gerrednessa J:>e Engla cyningc gedihte mid Pr This is one ofthe decrees which the king of the English
his witena gepeahte. issued with the advice of his councilors.
I l>ret is rerest, pret he wile, pret ealle Godes circan beon 1 First, he desires that all God's churches be entitled to
fulles gric5es wurcSe. offer full sanctuary.
1.1 And gif refre renig man heonan forc5 Godes ciricgric5 1.1 And henceforth, if anyone ever violates the sanctuary
swa abrece, pret he binnon ciricwagum mansleaga wurc5e, of God's church by committing murder within its walls,
ponne sy pret botleas and ehte his relc para pe Godes freond then no compensation can be made and all of God's friends
sy, buton pret gewurcSe pret he panon retberste and swa must track him down, unless it so happens that he escapes
deope fricSsocne gesece pret se cyningc him purh pret feores and obtains such powerful protection that the king there-
geunne wicS fulre bote ge wio God ge wio men. fore grants him his life in exchange for full penance to God
2 And pret is ponne rerest: pret he his agenne wer gesille and the community.
}>am cyninge and Christe and mid }>am hine silfne inlagige to 2 And the first component of this shall be that he is to
bote. pay his own wergild to the king and to Christ, and thereby
2.1 ForcSam Cristen cyning is Cristes gespelia on Cristenre restore for himself the right to offer compensation.
peode, and he sceal Cristes abilgcSe wrecan swic5e georne. 2 .1 For a Christian king is Christ's representative among a
3 And gif hit ponne to bote gega, and se cyngc pret Christian people, and he must avenge most zealously of-
gepafige, ponne bete man pret ciricgricS into cSare circan be fenses against Christ.
pres cyninges fullan mundbryce and pa mynsterclrensunge 3 And then if compensation becomes possible, and the
king allows it, the fine for violating the church's sanctuary is
to be paid to that church in an amount equal to the fine paid
for a full violation of the king's protection, and the purifica-
tion of the church is to begin, just as is appropriate, and

19 0 19 1
 ROYAL LEGISLAT ION 8 ..£THELRED

begite, swa parto gebirige, and regper ge mregbote ge man- compensation is to be fully paid to the victim's family and
bote fullice gebete, and wio God huru pingian georne. lord, and most importantly, God is to be appealed to zeal
4 And gif elles be cwicum mannum ciricgrio abrocen ously.
beo, betan man georne be pam pe seo dred sy, sy hit purh 4 And if the church's sanctuary is violated yet the victim
feohtlac, si hit purh reaflac si hit purh unrihthremed, si purh nonetheless remains alive, compensation must be readily
J:>ret pret hit sy. made according to the nature of the crime, whether it be
4.1 Bete man refre rerest pone griobryce into <Sare circan be fighting or theft or sexual misconduct or anything else.
pam pe seo dred sy and be pam J:>e pare circan mreo sy. 4.1 Compensation for the violation of a church's sanctuary
5 Ne syn ealle cyrcan na gelicre mreae worldlice wiroe, must always be paid first to that church according to the na-
peah hi godcundlice habban halgunge gelice. ture of the crime and the status of the church.
p Heafodmynstres griobryce ret botwun1an J:>ingan bete 5 Not all churches are to be considered alike in worldly
man be cyninges munde, pret is mid v pundurn on Engla status, although they all possess the same spiritual sanctity.
lage; and rnedemran mynstres mid hundtwelftigan scil- 5.1 In the case of crimes for which restitution can be made,
lingum pret is be cyninges wite; and ponne git lressan, prer the compensation for violating the sanctuary of a cathedral
legerstow peh sy, mid si:xtigan scillingum; and ret feldcircan shall be a fine equal to that paid for violation of the king's
mid xxx scillingum. protection, that is, five pounds under English law; and for
5-2 A sceal mid rihte dom refter drede and medmung be midlevel churches one hundred and twenty shillings, that is,
mrepe. the penalty for disobeying the king; and for those still
6 And be teoounge, se cyng and his witan habbaa gecoren smaller, though which possess a graveyard, sixty shillings;
and gecweden, ealswa hit riht is, pret <Sriddan drel pare teo- and for a country church thirty shillings.
ounge, pe to circan gebyrge, ga to ciricbote, and ooer drel 5.2 In accordance with justice, judgment must always re-
parn Godes peowum, pridde Godes J:>earfum and earman flect the nature of the deed and punishment the seriousness
J:>eowetlingan. of the crime.
7 And wite Cristenra manna gehwilc, pret he his Drih- 6 And with reference to tithing, the king and his council-
tene his teopunge - a swa seo sulh pone teooan a:cer gega- ors have decided and decreed, just as is right, that a one-
third portion of the tithes belonging to the Church are to go
to the upkeep of the church, and another portion to God's
servants, and one-third to God's poor and impoverished
slaves.
7 And for the grace of God, every Christian must under-
stand that he is to offer up his tithes properly to the Lord-
 ROYAL LEGISLATION 8 ..£THELRED

rihtlice gelreste be Godes miltse and be pam fullan wite pe always to be a one-tenth yield of every acre traversed by the
Eadgar cyningc gelagode. plow-or suffer the full penalty set forth by King Edgar.
8 Dret is: gif hwa teopunge rihtlice gehestan nelle, ponne 8 That is: if anyone refuses to offer up his tithes properly,
fare to pres cyninges gerefa and pres mynstres mresse- then the king's reeve and the priest of the church-or the
preost-oMe J>res landrican and l>res biscopes gerefa-and reeves of the landlord and bishop-are to go and seize with-
niman unpances done teodan drel to dam mynstre l>e hit to out consent a one-tenth portion for the church to which it
gebirige, and trecan him to dam nigooan drele, and todrele belongs, and the next tenth is to be left for the recreant, and
man c:Sa eahta drelas on twa and fo se landhlaford to healfum, the remaining eight-tenths are to be divided in two and the
to healfum se biscop, si hit cyninges man, sy hit l>egnes. landlord shall receive half and the bishop the other half,
9 And sy rek geoguck teoc:Sung gelrest be Pentecosten be whether he is a king's man or a thane's.
wite. 9 And each tithe of the young animals is to be paid by
9.1 And eordwestma be emnihte oMe huru be Ealra Hal- Pentecost or there will be a penalty.
gena mressan. 9.1 And the tithe of the fruits of the earth by the equinox,
10 And Romfeoh gelreste man reghwilce geare be Petres or at least by the Feast ofAll Saints.
mressan. 10 And the dues to Rome are to be paid each year by the
10.1 And se pe pret nelle gelrestan sille partoeacan xxx Feast of Saint Peter.
preniga and gilde pam cyninge cxx scillinga. 10.1 And anyone who refuses to pay them are to give an ad-
n And ciricsceat gelreste man be Martinus mressan. ditional thirty pence and pay one hundred and twenty shil-
11.1 And se pe dret ne gelreste forgilde hine mid twelffeal- lings to the king.
dan, and parn cyninge CXX scillinga. II And Church dues are to be paid by the Feast of Saint
12 Sulhrelmessan gebired l>ret man gelreste be wite reg- Martin.
hwilce geare, ponne XV niht beod agan ofer Eastertid. II.I And anyone who does not pay them must render them
12.1 And leohtgescot gelreste man to candelmressan; do twelvefold and pay one hundred and twenty shillings to the
oftor se c:Se wille. king.
13 And sawlsceat is rihtast, l>ret man symle gelreste a ret 12 It is appropriate that plow dues be paid each year fif
openum grrefe. teen nights after Easter or there will be a penalty.
12.1 And the dues for the lighting of the church are to be
paid by Candlemas, but may be rendered more often if one
wishes.
13 And it is most appropriate that dues for the souls of the
dead always be paid while the grave is yet open.

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14 And ealle Godes gerihta firorige man georne, ealswa hit 14 And all God's dues are to be paid readily, just as is re-
quired.
pearf is.
15 And gif hwa pret nelle, gewilde man hine to rihte mid 15 And if anyone will not do so, he is to be brought to jus-
worldlicre steore; and pret si gemrene Criste and cyninge, tice by means of a civil penalty; and this shall be shared be-
ealswa hit iu wres. tween Christ and the king, just as it was of old.
16 And freolsa and fastena be wite healde man rihtlice. 16 And feasts and fasts are to be properly observed or
17 And Sunnondaga cypinga forbeode man georne be ful- there will be a penalty.
lan worldwite. 17 And Sunday markets are entirely prohibited, or suffer
18 And weofodpena mreoe medemige man for Godes ege. the full civil penalty.
19 Gif man mressepreost tihtlige, pe regollice libbe, and- 18 And the rights of the clergy who serve at the altar are to
fealdre sprrece, mressige, gif he durre, and ladige hine on be respected for fear of God.
oam husle silfhine silfne. 19 If a simple accusation is brought against a priest who
19.1 And ret prifealdre sprrece ladige, gif he durre, eac on lives according to a rule, he shall celebrate the Mass if he
oam husle mid twam his gehadan. dares, and exculpate himself on his own through the sacra-
20 Gif man diacon tihdige, pe regoltice libbe, andfealdre ment.
sprrece, nime twegen his gehadan and ladige hine mid pam. 19.1 And if it is a threefold accusation, he shall, if he dares,
20.1 And gif man hine tihtlige pryfealdre sprrece, nime six exonerate himself through the sacrament and the oaths of
his gehadan and ladige mid pam and beo he silf seofooa. two clerics of his rank.
21 Gif man folciscne mressepreost mid tihtlan belecge pe 20 If a simple accusation is brought against a deacon who

regollif nrebbe, ladige hine swa swa diacon pe regollife libbe. lives according to a rule, he is to take two clerics of his rank
22 Gif man freondleasne weofodpen mid tihtlan belecge, and exculpate himselfwith them.
pe aofultum nrebbe, ga to corsnrede, and par ponne ret ge- 20 .1 And if a threefold accusation is brought against him, he

fare pret pret God wille, buton he on husle ladian mote. is to take six clerics of his rank and, himself being the sev-
enth, exculpate himself with them.
21 If an accusation is brought against one of the secular
clergy who does not live according to a rule, he may exoner-
ate himself as does a deacon who lives according to a rule.
22 If an accusation is brought against a friendless cleric
who serves at the altar, one who does not have supporters
for his oath, he shall undergo the ordeal of consecrated
bread, and there endure whatever God wills, unless he is
permitted to exonerate himself by the sacrament.
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ROYAL LEGISLATION
23 And if charge of feud is brought against a member of
23 And gif man gehadodne mid fa:hoe belecge and secge, the clergy, and he is accused of either murder or complicity
pret he wrere dredbana oc:S6e rredbana, ladige mid his magan, in a murder, he shall exonerate himself with the help of his
pe freMe moton mid beran oMe fore betan. family, who must either share in the feud or make compen-
24 Andgifhe sy mregleas, ladige midgeferan oMe freste to sation for it.
corsnrede, and parret gefare pret pret God rrede. 24 And if he is without family, he shall exonerate himself
25 And ne pearf renig mynstermunuc ahwar mid rihte with the help of other clergy, or fast to prepare for the or-
frehc:Sbote biddan ne frehobote betan; he greo of his mreglage, deal of consecrated bread, and there endure whatever God
ponne he gebiho to regollage. decides.
26 Gif mressepreost manslaga wur6e oMe elles manweorc 25 And no monk anywhere who belongs to a monastery is
to swioe gewurce, ponne polige he regores ge hades ge permitted to either claim or pay compensation related to a
eardes, and wrrecnige swa wide swa papa him scrife and feud; he renounces the rights of his kindred when he ac-
dredbete georne. cepts the monastic rule.
27 Gif mressepreost ahwar stande on leasre gewitnesse 26 If a priest commits murder or any other deeds of great
oMe on mrenan aoe oMe peofa gewita and geweorhta beo, wickedness, then he is to be deprived of his office and his
ponne sy he aworpen of gehadodra gemanan and polige home, and he is to go on a pilgrimage as far as the pope pre-
a:goer ge geferscipes, ge freondscipes, ge reghwikes wuro- scribes for him and he is to repent sincerely.
scipes, buton he wio God and wic:S men pe deoplicor gebete 27 If a priest is anywhere guilty of bearing false witness or
fullice swa biscop him trece, and him borh finde, pret he committing perjury or being the aide or accomplice to
panan foro refre swilces geswice. thieves, then he is to be expelled from holy orders and de-
27.1 And gif he ladian wille, geladige be drede mre6e swa prived of companionship, friendship, and all entitlements
mid pryfealdre lade, swa mid anfealdre, be parn pe seo dred unless he repents most deeply to God and the community
sy. entirely as the bishop instructs, and finds surety that he
28 Gifweofodpen be boca trecincge his agen !if rihtlice fa- thenceforth will cease all wrongdoing.
dige, ponne sy he fulles pegnweres and weoroscipes wur<Se, 27.1 And if he wishes to clear himself, he shall do so in the
ge on life ge on legere. manner appropriate for the offense, either the triple mode
of proof or the single, whichever the deed calls for.
28 Ifa priest who serves at the altar conducts his life prop-
erly according to canon law, then he is to be deemed worthy
of the full wergild and privileges of a thane, both in life and
after death.

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29 And gif he his lif misfadige, wanige his weoroscipe be 29 And if he conducts his life wrongly, then his privileges
pam pe seo dred sy. are to be diminished according to the severity of his trans-
30 Wite, gif he wille: ne gebirao him nan pingc ne to wife gression.
ne to worldwige, gif he Gode wile rihtlice hyran and Gades 30 Let him understand, if he will do so, that it is not ap-
laga healdan, swa swa his hade gedafenacl mid rihte. propriate in anyway for him to take a wife or to become in-
31 Ac we lreracl georne and luflice biddacl pret relces hades volved in the warfare of this world, if he desires to obey God
men ):>am life libban pe heom to gebirige. properly and heed his laws, as rightly befits his office.
31.1 And heonan foro we willacl, pret abbodas and munecas 31 But we fervently instruct and lovingly beseech those of
regollicor libban, ponne hi nu rer clisan on gewunan hrefdon. every class to conduce their lives in the manner most fitting
32 And se cyngc beodeo eallum his gerefan on reghwilcere for them.
stowe pret ge pam abbodan ret eallum worldneodum beor- 31.1 And we order abbots and monks to live henceforth
gan swa ge betst magon, and be ):>am pe ge willan Godes more in accordance with their rule than they have been
oooe minne freondscipe habban, filstan heora wicneran wont to do previously.
reghwar to rihte, pret heo sylfe magan pe ofror on mynstrum 32 And the king commands all of his reeves in every com-
freste gewunian and regollice libban. munity to assist the abbots in all their worldly needs as best
33 And gif man gehadodne oooe relpeodigne man purh you can, and if you seek to obtain God's friendship and
renig pine forrrede ret feo oMe ret feore, oMe hine brende mine, support their representatives everywhere in their le-
oooe hine beate oooe gebismrige on renige wisan, ponne gal interests, so that they themselves may, more often, re-
sceal him cyngc beon for mreg and for mundboran, buton he main secure in their monasteries and live by their rule.
elles ooerne hrebbe. 33 And if anyone conspires against the property or life of a
34 And bete man regcler ge him ge pam cynge, swa swa hit cleric or a stranger, or ifhe is bound or beaten or humiliated
gebirige, be pam pe seo dred sy, oooe he oa drede wrece swicle in any way, then the king shall be his kinsman and protector,
deope. ifhe does not have another.
35 Cristenum mannan gebirao swioe rihte pret he Godes 34 And as is right, compensation suitable to the severity
abilgoe wrece swioe georne. of the crime is to be paid both to him and the king, or the
36 And wise wreran worldwitan pe to godcundan rihtlagan king will punish that crime most severely.
woroldlaga settan folce to steore, and Criste and cyninge 35 It is most justly appropriate that a Christian should
avenge affronts to God with the greatest resolve.
36 And wise were the secular councilors who established
worldly laws in support of divine justice, for the guidance of
the people, and to allocate compensation to Christ and the

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 ROYAL LEGISLATION 8 /ETH E LRED

gerehtan pa bote, par man swa scolde manega for neode king so that out of necessity many must therefore submit to
gewildan to rihte. the law.
37 Ac on l>am gemotan, peah rredlice wurdan on nam- 37 But in those assemblies that met after Edgar's lifetime,
cuoan stowan, refter Eadgares lifdagum, Cristes lage though wisely held in prominent places, Christ's laws have
wanodan and cyninges laga litledon. been ignored and the king's laws disparaged.
38 And pa man getwremde t,ret rer wres gemrene Criste 38 And then the proceeds from secular penalties that pre-
and cynincge on worldlicre steore; and a hit wearo pe wirse viously had been shared between Christ and the king were
for Gode and for worlde. Cume nu to bote, gif hit God wille. split, and ever since it has gotten worse in both divine and
39 And git mreg oeah bot cuman, wille hit man georne on worldly matters. May things now get better, if God so wills!
eornost aginnan. 39 And improvement may still come, assuming there is a
40 And gif man eard wille rihtlice clrensian, ponne mot sincere desire to act upon it in earnest.
man smeagan and geornlice spirian hwar <Sa manfullan 40 And if the land is to be cleansed properly, one must in-
wununge habban, pe nellac:S geswican ne for Gode betan; ac vestigate and diligently seek out the dwelling places of the
swa hwar swa hi man finde, gewilde hi to rihte pances oMe wicked who refuse to renounce their sins and repent before
unoances, oooe hi afirsige mid ealle of earde, buton hi gebu- God; and they are to be brought to justice, willingly or un
gan and to rihte gewrendan. willingly, wherever they are found, or they will be wholly ex-
41 Gif munuc oooe mressepreost wioersaca wurc:Se mid pelled from this land, unless they yield and submit to the
ealle, he sy amansumod refre, buton he pe rredlicor gebuge law.
to his pearfe. 41 If a monk or a priest turns entirely to apostasy, he is to
42 And se pe Godes utlagan ofer pone andagan, pe se be excommunicated forever, unless he resumes his duty
cyngc sette, hrebbe on gewealde, plihte to him sylfum and with greater prudence.
ealre his are wio Cristes gespelian, pe Cristendom and cyne- 42 And the person who keeps an excommunicate under
dom healdao and wealdaci pa hwile pe pres God geann. his protection beyond the period of time decreed by the
43 Ac uton don swa us pearf is: utan niman us to bisnan king risks forfeiting his life and all his possessions to the
t,ret rerran worldwitan to rrede gerreddon-/El>elstan and representatives of Christ, who are to uphold and defend the
Eadmund and Eadgar, pe nihst wres-hu hi God weoroodon Christian faith and royal authority for as long as God so per-
and Godes lage heoldon and Godes gafel lrestan, pa hwile pe mits.
hi leofodon. 43 But let us do what is required of us: let us take as our
example that which was wisely ordained by the secular
powers of old-/Ethelstan and Edmund and Edgar, the
most recent-how they worshipped God and obeyed his law
and paid tribute to him as long as they lived.
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43,1 And utan God lufian innewerdre heortan and Godes 43.1 And let us love God with our innermost heart and heed
laga giman, swa wel swa we betst magon. his laws as best as we can.
44 And uton rihtne Cristendom geornlice wurcHan and 44 And let us fervently exalt the true Christian faith, and
relcne hreoendom mid ealle oferhogian. wholly reject all heathen practices.
44.1 And uton renne cynehlaford holdlice healdan and 44.1 And let us faithfully support one royal lord, and let
freonda gehwilc mid rihtan getriwoan ooerne lufige and each of our friends love each other with true devotion and
healde mid rihte. heed him properly.
 9 ..tEthelred 9 ./Ethelred

Pr Dis is sio gerrednes pe .tEJ:>elred cyning and ealle his wi- Pr This is the decree which King .!Ethelred and his whole
tan ret Wudustoce gerreddan. council proclaimed at Woodstock.
1 An rerest ):>ret J:>e ealle to Gode relmihtigan georne ge- 1 First, that we all willingly submit to almighty God and
bugan and his bebodu healdan and unrihtes ealle geswi- observe his commandments and wholly reject injustice....
can.... Ex And let us love and praise the one God and keep to the
Ex And uton renne God lufian and weoroian and renne one Christian faith and wholly repudiate every heathen
Cristendom ealle healdan and relcne hrependom mid ealle practice. Let us faithfully support one royal lord....
aweorpan. Uton renne cynehlaford holdliche....
 10 .!Ethelred 1 o .!Ethelred

Pr An is ece Godd wealdend and wyrhta ealra gesceafta; Pr One is the eternal God, ruler and maker of all creation;
and on pres naman weordunge, ic, .t£delred cyning, rerest and in praise of his name, I, King .t£thelred, first contem-
smeade hu ic Cristendom refre mihte and rihtne cynedom plated how I might always best uphold the Christian faith
fyrmest arreran, and hu ic mihte pearflicast me sylfum gerre- and just kingship, and how I might govern in a manner most
dan for Gode and for worolde, and eallum minum leodscype suitable for myself before God and the world, and legislate
rihtlicast lagian pa ping to pearfe, pe we scylan healdan. most justly for all my people concerning those necessities
Pr.1 Me arn to gemynde oft and gelome prette godcunde which we must heed.
Iara and wislice woroldlaga Cristendom fyrdriad and cyne- Pr.I It occurred to my mind often and frequently that di-
dom micliad, folce gefremiad and weordscypes wealdad, sib- vine teachings and wise secular laws advance the Christian
biad and sehtad and sace twremad and peode peawas ealle faith and enhance the king's power, support the people and
gebetad. bring renown, make peace and lead to reconciliation and
Pr.2 Nu wille ic georne a:fter pam spyrian hu we Iara and end dissension and wholly improve the habits of the people.
laga betst magan healdan and reghwylce unlaga swypost Pr.z Now I fervently wish to discover how we might best
aweorpan. adhere to the teachings and laws and totally reject all injus-
Pr.3 And pis is seo gerrednes pe we willad healdan, swa swa tice.
we ret Eanham freste gecwredon. Pr.3 And this is the decree that we wish to observe, just as
1 Dret is ponne rerest: pret we ealle fram synnan geome we firmly established at Enham.
gecyrran and ure misdreda geornlice betan and renne God 1 This is foremost: that we all zealously turn from sin and
refre lufian and weordian and renne Christendom georne sincerely repent for our misdeeds and love and praise the
healdan and relcne hredendom mid ealle aweorpan. one God forever and fully abide by the one Christian faith
2 And witena gerrednes is pret man rihte laga upp arrere and entirely reject all heathen practices.
and relce unlaga georne afylle, and pret man lrete beon reg- 2 And the judgment of the council is that just laws be up-
hwylcne man rihtes wyrde, held and each injustice zealously eradicated, and that each
2.1 and pret man frid and freondscype rihtlice healde for person be afforded their legal rights,
Gode and for worolde. 2.1 and that peace and friendship be justly preserved be-
fore God and the world.
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 Cnut's Oxford Legislation of 1018 Cnut's Oxford Legislation of 1018

Pr In nomine Domini. Dis is seo gerrednes pe witan gerred- Pr In the name of the Lord. This is the decree which the
don and be manegum godum bisnum asmeadon. And pret council decided upon and deemed to be in accordance with
wres geworden sona swa Cnut cyngc, mid his witena many good practices. And that came about just as soon as
gepeahte, fri6 and freondscipe betweox Denum and Englum King Cnut, on the advice of his council, fully established
fullice gefastnode and heora rerran saca ealle getwremde. peace and friendship between the Danes and the English
1 l>onne is pret rerest t,ret witan gerreddan: pret hi ofer and resolved all their former strife.
ealle o6re pingc renne God refre wur6odon and renne Cris- 1 And this is the first decree of the council: that above all
tendom anrredlice healdan and Cnut cyngc lufian mid rihtan other things, they would always honor the one God and
and mid tryw6an and Eadgares lagan geornlice folgian. steadfastly observe the one Christian faith and love King
1.1 And big gecwredan pret hi fur6or on remtan smeagan Cnut with virtue and loyalty and readily follow the laws of
woldan peode pearfe, mid Godes filste, swa hi betst mihton. Edgar.
1.2 Nu wille we swutelian hwret us mreg to rrede for Gode 1.1 And they proclaimed that, with God's help, when time
and for worlde, gime se pe wille. permitted they would reflect upon the needs of the realm as
1.3 Uton swi6e georne fram sinnan acirran and ure mis- best they could.
dreda geornlice betan, and renne God rihtlice lufian and 1.2 Now it is our will to make known that which may be to

wur6ian, and renne Cristendom anrredlice healdan, and our advantage before God and the world, take heed who
rekne hre6endom georne forbugan. will.
2 And uton Godes cirican gri6ian and fridian, and gelom- 1.3 Let us turn very readily from sins and sincerely repent
lice secan us silfan to pearfe. our misdeeds, praise and honor the one God, steadfastly ob-
2.1 ..£le cirice is mid rihte on Cristes agenan gride, and relc serve the one Christian faith, and zealously reject each hea-
Cristen man ah micele pearfe pret he on 6am gride micele then practice.
2 And let us preserve and protect God's churches, and at-
tend them frequently for our own benefit.
2.1 Every church is, by right, under Christ's own protec-
tion, and every Christian has the particular obligation to

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CNUT'S OXFORD LEGISLATION OF 1018

ma:oe wite: fordam Godes grid is ealra grioa selost to geear- show great respect for that protection; for of all forms of
nianne and geornost to healdenne, and par nihst cynges. protection, the best to be sought and the most faithfully to
2.2 Donne is swioe rihtlic, pret Gades ciricgrio binnon
be respected is the protection of God, and after that the
wagum and Cristenes cynges handgrio stande efenun- king's.
wremme. 2.2 Accordingly, it is most proper that the sanctuary within
3 And witena gera:dnes is pret man rihte laga upp ara:re the walls of God's church and the protection received from
and reghwilce unlaga georne afille, and pret man aweodige a Christian king's hand remain equally inviolate.
and awyrtwalige reghwilc unriht swa man geornost mrege of 3 And the council's decree is that just laws are to be up-
pisan earde, and arrere up Gades riht. held and all wrongdoing is to be zealously brought low, and
3.1 And heonan foro la:te manna gehwilcne, ge earmne ge all injustice is to be weeded out from this land and eradicate
eadigne, folcrihtes wuroe bean. as zealously as possible, and the law of God is to be exalted.
4 And witena gerrednes is pa:t peah hwa agilte and hine 3.1 And henceforth, all people, both poor and rich, shall be
silfne deope forwyrce, ponne medemige man pa steore swa entitled to their legal rights.
hit for Gode sy gebeorhlic and for worlde aberendlic. 4 And the council's decree is that even if someone sins
4.1 And gepence swioe georne se oe domes geweald age, and dishonors himself entirely, the penalty shall be assessed
hwret he ret us sylf gyrne, ponne he pus cweoe: Et dimitte in such a way as shall be justifiable before God and accept-
nobis debita nostra, sicut et nos dimittimus. able to the community.
5 And witena gerrednes is pret man Cristene men for 4.1 And the person who has the power to pass judgment
ealles to litlum huru to deaoe ne forrrede; ac elles gerrede shall reAect sincerely upon his own motivations when he re-
man friolice steora folce to oearfe, and ne forspille for litlum cites thus: Andforgive us our debts as we also forgive our debtors.
Godes handgeweorc and his agenne ceap, pe he deore ge- 5 And the council's decree is that Christians are espe-
bohte.
cially not to be sentenced to death for too little; instead,
6 And witena gerrednes is pret man Cristene men ealles merciful penalties are to be established for the good of the
to swioe of earde ne sille, ne on ha:oendom huru ne ge- people, and so that God's handiwork, which he paid for him-
brynge; ac beorge man georne pa:t man pa sawla ne forfare self at a high cost, not be destroyed because of petty crimes.
pe Crist mid his agenum life gebohte. 6 And the council's decree is that Christians are not to be
sold too frequently out of this land, and especially not be
brought into heathen lands; but we must zealously ensure
that the souls not be destroyed which Christ purchased
with his own life.

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7 And witena gera::dnes is pret man eard georne clrensian 7 And the council's decree is that the people are to un-
onginne on reghwilcon ende and manfulra da::da a:ghwar dertake to purify the entire land and eradicate everywhere
geswice; and gif wiccan oMe wigleras, morowirhtan oMe all sinful deeds; and if wizards or magicians, murderers or
h6rcwenan, ahwar on lande wuroan agitene, fise hi man prostitutes be found anywhere in this land, they are to be
georne ut of pisan earde, oooe on earde forfare hi mid ealle, zealously expelled from the realm or be entirely abolished
buton hi geswican and pe deoppor gebetan. from the earth, unless they cease and most sincerely repent.
8 And witena gerrednes is pret wioersacan and utlagan 8 And the council's decree is that apostates and those in
Godes and manna of earde gewitan, buton hi gebugon and defiance of the laws of God and the realm are to leave this
pe geornor gebetan. land unless they submit and most sincerely repent.
8.1 And peofan and peodscaoan to timan forwuroan, bu- 8. I And thieves and criminals will henceforth be de-
ton hig geswican. stroyed, unless they cease their crimes.
9 Manslagan and manswaran, hadbrican and rewbrican, 9 Murderers and perjurers, those who violate holy orders
gebugan and gebetan, oooe of cyooe mid synne gewitan. and those who violate their marriage vows shall submit and
IO Liceteras and leogeras, riperas and reaferas, Godes do penance or leave their native land with their sins.
graman habban, buton hig geswican. 10 Hypocrites and liars, thieves and looters will suffer

10.1 And se oe eard wille rihtlice clrensian and unriht alec- God's wrath unless they cease.
gan and rihtwisnesse lufian, ponne mot he georne pillices 10.1 And anyone who desires to properly purify the realm

styran and pillic ascunian. and eradicate injustice and embrace righteousness must dili-
11 And witena gerrednes is pret hi willao pret relces hades gently stamp out and condemn such crimes.
men georne gebugan, relc to oam rihte pe him to gebyrige; 11 And the council's decree is that that those of every
and hurupinga Godes peowas-biscopas and abbodas, rank shall faithfully submit to the duty most appropriate for
munecas and minicena, canonicas and nunnan-to rihte them; and God's servants especially- bishops and abbots,
gebugan and regollice libban, and da::ges and nihtes oft and male and female monastics, canons and nuns - are to submit
gelome clipian to Criste, and for eal Cristen folc pingian to their duty and live according to their rule, and often and
georne. frequently call on Christ by day and night, and fervently in-
11.1 And ealle Godes peowas we biddao and lrerao, and tercede for all Christian people.
hurupinga sacerdas, pret hi Gode hiran and clrennesse lufian 11.1 And we require and instruct that all servants of God,

and beorgan him silfum wio Godes irre and wio oone weal- especially priests, obey God, embrace celibacy; and protect
lendan bryne, pe wealleo on helle. themselves against the burning fire that rages in hell.
n.2 Fulgeorne hi witan pa::t hi nagan mid rihte purh 11.2 They know full well that they may not rightfully engage

hremedpingc wifes gemanan, and se c:)e pa:s geswican wille in sexual relations with a woman, but he who will renounce

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and clrennesse healdan, hrebbe he Godes miltse, and to marriage and practice celibacy will have God's favor, and
worldwuroscipe sy he pegenlaga wyr6e. also, as a privilege in this world, he shall be deemed worthy
11.3 And reghwilc Cristen man eac for his Drihtenes ege un- r of a thane's rights.
rihthremed georne forbuge and godcunde laga rihtlice 11.3 And for fear of the Lord, every Christian must dili-
healde. gently avoid unlawful intercourse and rightly uphold the di-
12 And we lrera6 and we biddao and on Godes naman beo- vine law.
dao pret renig Cristen man binnon six manna sibfrece on his 12 And we instruct, pray, and decree in God's name that
agenum cynne refre ne wifige, neon his mreges lafe pe swa no Christian man shall ever take a wife within six degrees of
neahsib wrere, kinship in his own family, nor the widow of one so closely
12.1 ne on dres wifes nydmagan pe he silf rer hadde, ne on related,
his gefrederan, ne on gehalgodre nunnan. 12.1 nor a close relative of his first wife, his godmother, or a
12.2 Ne on alretan renig Cristen man ne wifige refre. professed nun.
12-3 Ne renig forligeru ahwar ne begange. 12.2 Nor may a Christian man ever marry a divorced woman.
12.4 Ne na ma wifa hrebbe ponne an, ac beo be pare anre, pa 12.3 Nor may he ever commit adultery anywhere.
hwile pe heo libbe, se pe wille Godes laga giman mid rihte 12.4 Nor may he have more than one wife, but he who de-

and wio hellebryne beorgan his sawle. sires to obey the law of God rightly and guard his soul from
13 And gelreste man Godes gerihta georne rihtlice reg- hellfire must stay with one wife as long as she lives.
hwilce geare. 13 And God's dues are to be paid readily every year.
13.1 I>ret is sulhrelmessan huru xv niht ofer Eastron. 13.1 That is, plow dues fifteen nights after Easter.

13.2 And geoguoe teo6unge be Pentecosten. 13.2 And the tithe of the young animals by Pentecost.

13.3 And eor6wrestma be Ealra Halgene mressan. 13.3 And the tithe on the fruits of the earth by the Feast of
13.4 And Romfeoh be Petres mressan. All Saints.
13.5 And leohtgescot priwa on geare. 13.4 And the dues to Rome are to be paid by the Feast of
13.6 And sawlsceat is rihcast pret man gelreste ret 6am Saint Peter.
openum grrefe. 13.5 And the dues for the lighting of the church are to be
13.7 And gif man renig lie of rihtre scriftscire elles hwar paid three times a year.
lecge, gelreste man pone sawlsceat swa oeah into 6am myn- 13.6 And it is most appropriate that dues for the souls of the

stre pe hit to hyrde. dead always be paid while the grave is yet open.
13.7 And if any person's body is buried other than in its
proper parish, the dues should still be paid to the church to
which he belonged.

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14 And ealle Godes gerihta frioige man georne, ealswa hit 14 And all God's dues are to be given willingly, just as is re-
pearf is, and freolsa and frestena healde man rihtlice. quired, and feasts and fasts are to be properly observed.
14.1 Sunnandreges freols healde man georne swa ):>arto ge- 14.1 And the Sunday holy day is to be diligently observed in
birige, and cipincga, and folcgemota, and huntaofara, and the manner most appropriate for it, and markets, public
worldlicra weorca on oam halgan drege geswice man georne. meetings, hunts, and secular business are to be assiduously
14.2 And sancta Marian freolstida wuroige man georne, avoided on that holy day.
rerost mid frestene and siocfan mid freolse. 14.2 And the Feasts of Saint Mary are to be celebrated faith-
14.3 And to reghwilces apostoles heahtide freste man fully, first with fasting and then with a holiday.
georne, buton Philippus and Iacobus freolse ne beode we 14.3 And a fast is to be diligently observed on the feasts of
nan fresten foraam Eastran dreges freolse. each of the apostles, but we order no fast for the Feasts of
14.4 Elles oore freolsa and frestena healde man georne, swa Philip and James because of Easter.
swa pa heoldon pa oe betst heoldon. 14.4 Otherwise, feasts and fasts are to be kept assiduously,
14.5 And ymbrenfrestena, swa swa sanctus GregoriusAngel- just as they were kept when they were kept best.
cynne silf gedihte. 14.5 And the Ember Fasts are to be kept, just as Saint Greg-
14.6 And sancte Eadwardes mressedreg witan habbaa ge- ory himself ordained for the English.
coran ):>ret man freolsian sceal ofer eall Englaland on xv 14.6 And the council has determined that the Feast of Saint
kalendas Aprilis. Edward shall be celebrated throughout England on the fif-
14.7 And freste man relce frigedreg, buton hit freols sy. teenth day before the kalends ofApril.
15 And ordol and aoas syndon tocwedene freolsdagum 14.7 And there shall be a fast each Friday unless it is a feast.
and rihtymbrendagum and fram adventum Domini oo octa- 15 And ordeals and oaths are always prohibited during
bas Epiphania, and fram Septuagessima oo xv niht ofer feasts and authorized Ember Days and from Advent until
Eastron. the eighth day ofEpiphany and from Septuagesima until the
15.1 And beo pam halgan tidan, ealswa hit riht is, eallum fifteenth night after Easter.
Cristenum mannum sibb and som gemrene, and relc sacu 15.1 And at holy times, just as is proper, there is to be peace
totwremed. and friendship among all Christians, and each dispute is to
15-2 And gif hwa oarum scule borh oMe bote ret worldlican be resolved.
):>ingan, gelreste hit him georne, rer oooe refter. 15-2 And if anyone must pay a debt or compensation to an-
16 And sy relc wuduwe pe hy silfe mid rihte gehealde on other because of a worldly matter, he is to do so promptly
Godes gri<Se and on ores cynges. before or after the feast.
16 And all widows who comport themselves properly shall
be under the protection of God and the king.

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16.1 And sitte relc XII monad wereleas, and ceose siooan ):net 16.1 And each of them is to remain husbandless for twelve

heo silf wille. months, and then she may choose as she pleases.
17 And reghwilc Cristen man do swa him pearf is: gime his 17 And each Christian shall do what is required of him: at-
Cristendomes georne, and gewunige gelomlice to his scrifte, tend diligently to his Christian faith, and go frequently to
and unforwandodlice his synna gecyck, and geornlice bete confession, and confess his sins without hesitation, and sin-
swa swa him man trece. cerely repent just as he is instructed.
17.1 And gearwige eac to huselgange huru priwa on geare 17.1 And anyone who wishes to understand his own obliga-
gehwa hine silfne pe his agene pearfe understandan cunne tions must prepare himself to receive the sacrament at least
swa swa him J:>earf sy. three times during the year, just as is required of him.
18 And word and weorc freonda gehwilc fadige mid riht, 18 And all of our friends must order their words and deeds
and ao and wed wrerlice healde. properly, and carefully uphold their oath and pledge.
19 And reghwilc unriht awurpe man georne of J:>isan earde 19 And all injustice is to be banished from this land as
J:>res oe man don mrege, and lufige man Godes riht heonan much as possible, but God's law is to be willingly embraced
foro georne wordes and dreda. l>onne wuro us Godes miltse henceforth in word and deed. Then will God the more read-
pe gearuwre. ily show mercy to this people.
20 Wytan eac ealle ymbe frioes bote and ymbe feos bote 20 Let us all also consider very carefully the enhancement

smeagan swioe georne. of public safety and the improvement of the currency.
20.1 Swa ymbe fryoes bote swa beo ):>am bondan selost and 2 0 .1 Public safety is to be improved so that it is best for the

):>am peofan sy laoost. citizen and worst for the thief

20.2 And swa ymbe feos bote ):>ret an mynet gange ofer ealle 20.2 The currency is to be improved so that there is one

):>as J:>eode, buton relcon false. standard coinage throughout the realm without any adul-
21 And gemeta and gewihta rihte man georne, and relces teration.
unrihtes heonan foro geswice. 21 And weights and measures are to be assiduously made
22 And burhbota and bricbota aginne man georne, right, and all unlawful practices abolished henceforth.
23 and fyrdunga eac swa a ponne J:>earf sy, for gemrenelicre 22 And improvements to fortifications and bridges are to
neode. be undertaken zealously,
24 And smeage man symle on relce wisan hu man firmest 23 and also the provisioning of the army as the need arises,
mreg rred aredian J:>eode to J:>earfe, and rihtne Cristendom for the common good.
24 And consideration must always be given in every way to
how first to establish policy to meet the needs of the people
and to best uphold the true Christian faith and to most zeal-

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swidost arreran, and reghwilce unlaga geornost afillan. ously eradicate all injustice. For it is in this way that im-
Fordam purh pret hit sceal on earde godian to ahte pret man provement in this land can be achieved: by rejecting injus-
unriht alecge and rihtwisnesse lufige for Gode and for tice and embracing righteousness before God and the world.
worlde. 25 And anyone henceforth who promotes injustice or
25 And se oe unlaga arrere odde undom deme heonan ford, hands down unjust judgments, either because of bias or
for lreMe oMe feohfange, beo se wid pone cyngc cxx scil- bribery, shall be liable to the king for one hundred twenty
linga scildig, buton he geladige pret he na bet ne cude. shillings, unless he can declare under oath that he did not
26 And se de rihte lage and rihtne dom forsace beo se scil know how to deliver a more just sentence.
dig wid done pe hit age; 26 And anyone who rejects just laws and judgments is to
26.1 swa wid cyningc: cxx scillinga; be liable to the proper authority;
26.2 swa wid eorl: XL scillinga; 26.1 thus to the king: one hundred twenty shillings;

26.3 swa wid hundred: xxx scillinga; 26.2 thus to an earl: forty shillings;
26 .4 swa wid relc para gif hit swa gewurde on Engla lage. 26.3 thus to the hundred: thirty shillings;
27 And se oe on Denelaga, rihte laga wirde gilde he lah- 26.4 thus to all of them if it is appropriate in areas under
slite. English law.
28 And git we willao myngian freonda gehwilcne, ealswa 27 And in the Danelaw, anyone who rejects just law is to
us neod is gelome to donne, pret gehwa hine silfne georne pay labs/it.
bepence; and pret he fram sinnum georne gecirre, and 28 Moreover, we also earnestly desire to admonish each of
oorum mannum unrihtes stire; and pret he ofer ealle oore our friends, just as there is often need for us to do, to sin-
pingc lufige his drihten; and pret he oft and gelome hrebbe cerely give thought to themselves; and to readily turn from
on gemynde pret mannum is mrest pearf oftost to gemun- sin, and to curb the injustice caused by others; and to love
nenne, pret is pret hi rihtne geleafan habban on done sodan God above all other things; and to bear in mind often and
God pe is waldend and wirhta ealra gesceafta, and pret hi frequently that which there is the greatest need to remem-
rihtne Cristendom rihtlice healdan, and pret hi godcundum ber, that is, to maintain proper faith in the true God, who is
lareowum geornlice hyran, and Godes )arum and lagum the Lord and maker of all creation, and to properly adhere
rihtlice filigan. to the true Christian faith, and to willingly heed their spiri-
29 And pret hi Gades circan reghwar georne gridian and tual teachers, and sincerely follow God's laws and teachings.
frioian, and mid leohte and lacum gelome hig gegretan, and 29 And that they shall everywhere diligently preserve and
hig silfe par georne gebiddan. protect God's churches, and visit them frequently with can-
dles and offerings, and there themselves pray fervently to
Christ.

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ROYAL LEGISLATION

30 And that each year God's dues are to be paid promptly,

30 And J>ret hi Godes gerihta reghwilce geare mid rihte
and feasts and fasts properly kept.
gelrestan, and freolsa and frestena. rihtlice healdan.
31 And that on Sundays markets and public meetings are
31 And pret hi Sunnandreges cypinga and folciscra gemota
to be assiduously avoided.
georne geswican.
32 And that God's servants are to be protected and hon-
32 And J>ret big Godes J>eowas symle werian and wuroian.
ored.
33 And pret hi Godes J>earfan frefrian and fedan.
33 And that God's poor are to be comforted and fed.
34 And pret hi wuduwan and steopcild to oft ne ahwrenan,
34 And that widows and orphans are not to be continually
ac georne hi gladian.
persecuted, but instead readily uplifted.
35 And J>ret hi relpeodige men and feorran cumene ne
35 And that strangers and those who have come from afar
tyrian ne tynan.
are not to be harassed or mistreated.
36 And J>ret hi oorum mannum unriht ne beodan ealles to
36 And that they are not to offer injustice to others all too
swioe, ac manna gehwilc oorum beode pret riht sy, pret he
greatly, but that to the best of their ability, everyone is to
wille l>ret man him beode, be t>am pe hit mreo sy.
show that justice to others that they desire to be shown to
themselves.
 Cnut's Proclamation of 1020 Cnut's Proclamation of 1020

Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his leodbiscopas and King Cnut offers friendly greetings to his archbishops, his
I>urcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and ealne his peodscype, subordinate bishops, Earl Thurkil, all his earls, and all his
twelfhynde and twyhynde, gehadode and lrewede, on Engla- people in England, those with a wergild of twelve hundred
lande freondlice. And ic cyde eow pret ic wylle beon hold shillings and those with a wergild of two hundred shillings,
hlaford and unswicende to Godes gerihtum and to rihtre clergy and laymen. And I proclaim to you that I will be a gra-
woroldlage. le nam me to gemynde pa gewritu and pa word, cious lord, devoted to the rights of the church and to just
pe se arcebiscop Lyfing me fram pam papan brohte of Rome: secular law. I have taken to heart the letters and messages
pret ic scolde reghwrer Godes lof upp arreran and unriht alec- from the pope which Archbishop Lyfing brought to me
gan and full frid wyrcean be drere mihte pe me God syllan from Rome: that I should everywhere uphold God's wor-
wolde. ship and cast down injustice and establish perfect peace
2 Nu ne wandode ic na minum sceattum pa hwile pe eow through the power which God has chosen to give to me.
unfrio on handa stod; nu ic mid Godes fultume pret to- Now then, I did not withhold my money when a threat to 2

twremde mid minum scattum. l>a cydde man me pret us mara you was at hand; now with God's help, I have dispersed it
hearm to fundode, ponne us wel licode; and pa for ic me sylf, with my wealth. At that time, it was made known to me that
mid pam mannum pe me mid foron, into Denmearcon, pe a danger approached us greater than we would have pre-
eow mrest hearm of corn; and pret hrebbe ic mid Godes ful- ferred; then I myself went, alongside those who traveled
tume forene forfangen, pret eow nrefre heonon ford panon with me, to Denmark, from which the greatest danger
nan unfric) to ne cymd pa hwile pe ge me rihtlice healdao and threatened you; and with God's help I have forestalled it, so
min lif byo. Nu oancige ic Gode relmihtigum his fultumes that from now on hostility from there will never threaten
and his mildheortnesse, pret ic pa myclan hearmas pe us to you as long as you obey me faithfully and my life continues.
fundedon, swa gelogod hrebbe pret we ne purfon panon Now I thank almighty God for his help and benevolence, in
nenes hearmes us asittan, ac us to fullan fultume and to that I have resolved the great threat which loomed over us
ahreddingge hycgan gyf us neod byo. Nu wylle ic pret we so that we need not anticipate danger from there, but rather
ealle eadmodlice Gode relmihtigum pancian prere mild aid and relief if the need should arise. Now it is my will that
heortnesse, pe he us to fultume gedon hrefo. we all humbly thank almighty God for his favor, which
through his assistance he has granted to us.
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 ROYAL LEGISLATION CNUT'S PRO C LAMATION OF 1 0 20

3 Nu bidde ic mine arcebiscopas and ealle mine leodbisco- I now charge my archbishops and all my subordinate 3
pas j:>ret hy ealle neodfulle beon ymbe Godes gerihta, relc on bishops to be conscientious concerning the rights of the
his ende, pe him betreht is; and eac minum ealdormannum Church, each in the region assigned to him; and I also com-
ic beode pret hy fylstan ):>am biscopum to Godes gerihtum mand my ealdormen to support the bishops in advancing
and to minum kynescype and to ealles folces pearfe. the rights of the Church and my royal authority and the wel-
4 Gif hwa swa dyrstig sy-gehadod oooe lrewede, Denise fare of the whole people.
oMe Englisc-pret he ongean Godes lage ga and ongean If anyone-either cleric or lay, Danish or English-is so 4
minne cynescype oMe ongean woroldriht, and nelle betan bold as to act in opposition to the law of God and in opposi-
and geswican refter minra biscopa trecinge, ):>onne bidde ic tion to my royal authority or in opposition to secular law,
l>urcyl eorl and eac beode pret he orene unrihtwisan to rihte and he refuses to repent and refrain in keeping with the
gebige, gyf he mrege. Gyf he ne mrege, ponne wille ic, mid teachings of my bishops, then I ask, and indeed command,
uncer begra crrefte pret he hine on earde adwresce odde ut of Earl Thurkil to bring the offender to justice, if he can. If he
earde adrrefe, sy he betera sy he wyrsa. cannot, then I desire him to wipe him from the earth or
5 And eac ic beode eallum minum gerefum, be minum drive him from the land with our combined strength,
freondscype and be eallum ):>am pe hi agon and be heora whether he is of higher or lower status.
agenum life, pret hy reghwrer min folc rihtlice healdan and And further, I command all my reeves, for the sake of 5
rihte domas deman be c}rera scira biscopa gewitnesse and my friendship and all that they possess and their very lives,
swylce mildheortnesse j:>reron don, swylce prere scire bi- to govern my people with righteousness everywhere and to
scope riht pince and pe man acuman mrege. And gyf hwa hand down just rulings with the oversight of the bishops of
peof fri6ige oMe forena forlicge, sy he emscyldig wio me their shires, and to act with such mercy thereby that the
pam oe peof scolde, buton he hine mid fulre lade wio me ge- bishop deems it just and the subject can abide by it. More-
clrensian mrege. over, if anyone shelters a thief or intercedes on his behalf, he
6 And ic wylle, pret eal peodscype, gehadode and lrewede, will be as deserving of punishment before me as the thief,
frestlice Eadgares lage healde, pe ealle men habbao gecoren unless he can be cleared by fully vindicating himself before
and to gesworen on Oxenaforda. Foroam pe ealle biscopas me.
secgao pret hit swype deop is wio God to betanne pret man And I command that the entire populace, clergy and laity, 6
aoas oMe wedd tobrece. And eac hy us furoor lrerao, pret we shall faithfully obey the law of Edgar which all people have
accepted and to which they swore allegiance at Oxford, for
all the bishops decree that very great penance must be per-
formed before God for the violation of oaths or pledges. In
addition, they further instruct us that we should sincerely

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 ROYAL LEGISLATION CNUT'S PROCLAMATION OF 1020

sceolon eallan magene and eallon myhton pone ecan mildan seek, love, and honor the eternal merciful God with all
God inlice secan, lufian and weoroian, and relc unriht ascu- our power and all our might, and reject all forms of wrong-
nian, oret synd mregslagan and moroslagan and mansworan doing, especially those of parricides, murderers and perjur-
and wiccean and wrelcyrian and rewbrecan and syblegeru. ers, witches, enchantresses, adulterers, and the incestuous.
And eac we beoda6 on Godes relmihtiges naman and on And we also command, in the name of almighty God and all
ealra his haligra, pret nan man swa dyrstig ne sy pret on ge- of his saints, that no man be so bold as to wed a nun in or-
hadodre nunnan oMe on mynecenan gewifige. And gyf hit ders or a woman under monastic vows. And if anyone has
hwa gedon hrebbe, beo he utlah wicS God and amansumod done so, he is to be an outlaw before God and excommuni-
fram eallum Cristendome, and wio pone cyning scyldig cated from the Christian faith, and he is to be liable to the
ealles pres pe he age, buton he de ra6or geswice and pe deop- king for all that he possesses, unless he swiftly renounces
plicor gebete wio God. And gyt we furoor maniao pret man that union and greatly repents before God. And we yet fur-
Sunnandreges freols mid eallum m:egene healde and weor- ther emphasize that the Sunday holy day is to be kept and
dige fram Sreternesdreges none od Monandreges lyhtinge, honored with all effort from midafternoon Saturday until
and nan man swa dyrstig ne sy pret he ador oMe cypinge dawn on Monday; and no one is to be so bold as to either
wyrce oMe renig mot gesece on pam halgan drege. And ealle transact business or attend any meeting on that holy day.
men, earme and eadige, heora cyrcan secean and for heora And all people, the poor and the wealthy; are to attend their
synnum pingian and relc beboden fresten geornlice healdan churches and pray for their sins and readily observe every
and f>a halgan georne weoroian, pe us ma:ssepreostas beo- mandated fast, and sincerely honor the saints' days which
dan sceolan. l>a:t we magan and moton ealle samod purh the priests have set for us. Thus we all may and can reach the
pres ecean Godes mildheortnesse and his halgena pingrre- joy of the heavenly kingdom through the mercy of the eter-
dene to heofena rices myrhoe becuman and mid him wun• nal God and the intercession of his saints, and dwell with
ian, pe leofao and rih:xao a butan ende. Amen. him who lives and rules forever without end. Amen.

130 231
 rCnut 1Cnut

Pr Dis is seo gerrednys J:,e Cnut ciningc, ealles Englalandes Pr This is the decree which King Cnut, king of all England
ciningc and Dena cining, mid his witena gepeahte gerredde, and king of the Danes, decided upon on the advice of his
Gode to lofe and him sylfum to cynescipe and to pearfe; and councilors, for the glory of God and his own sovereignty and
J:,ret wres on <Srere halgan midewintres tide on Winceastre. the common welfare; and that was during the holy Christ-
1 Dret is ponne rerest: J>ret hi ofer ealle opre pingc renne mas season at Winchester.
God refre woldan lufian and wuroian, and renne Cristendom I This is foremost, then: that they always love and honor
anrredlice healdan, and Cnut cingc lufian mid rihtan ge- the one God above all else, and single-mindedly uphold the
trywpan. one Christian faith, and love King Cnut with true faithful-
2 And uton Godes cyrican gricSian and fricSian, and ge- ness.
lomlice secean saulum to hrele and us sylfum to pearfe. 2 And let us respect the peace and sanctity of God's
2.1 }Ek cyrice is, mid rihte, on Cristes agenan grUfo, and churches, and regularly attend them for the salvation of our
relc Cristen man ah mycele J:>earfe )::,ret he on pam gri& my- souls and our own benefit.
cele mrecSe wite; forcSam Godes gricS is ealra gricSa selost to 2.1 Every church is, by right, under Christ's own protec-
geearnigenne and geornost to healdenne, and prer nehst tion, and every Christian has the particular obligation to
cininges. show great respect for that protection; for of all forms of
2.2 l>onne is swicSe rihtlic pret Godes ciricgricS binnon protection, the best to be sought and the most faithfully to
wagum and Cristenes ciningces handgricS stande refre un- be respected is the protection of God, and after that the
wemme; and se oe acSor fulbrece polige landes and lifes, bu- king's.
tan him se ciningc gearian wylle. 2.2 Accordingly, it is most proper that the sanctuary within
2.3 And gyf refre renig mann heonon forcS Godes cyricgrio the walls of God's church and the protection received from
swa abrece, pret he binnon ciricwagum mannslaga weoroe, the Christian king's hand remain always inviolate; and the
person who defies either of them shall forfeit land and life
unless the king is willing to pardon him.
2.3 And henceforth, if anyone ever violates the sanctuary
of God's church by committing murder within its walls, that

1µ 2 33
 ROYAL LEGISLATION I CNUT

l>onne sig pret botleas, and ehte his relc prera pe Godes violation shall be deemed beyond compensation, and all
freond sig, butan pret geweoroe pret he panon retberste and those who are friends of God shall hunt him down, unless it
swa deope fri6socne gesece pret se cyningc him purh oret so happens that he escapes from there and seeks out protec-
feores geunne, wip fulre bote ge wi6 God ge wicS menn. tion so powerful that the king therefore spares his life as
2.4 And pret is ponne .:erest: pret he his agenne wer Criste long as he does full penance toward God and the commu-
and pam cyningce gesylle, and mid pam hine sylfne inlagie nity.
to bote. 2.4 And this is first: that he pay his own wergild to Christ
2.5 And gif hit ponne to bote gega and se cyningc f>ret and the king, and thereby make himself eligible to pay com-
gepafige, ponne bete man pret cyricgrio into prere cyricean pensation.
be ciningces fullan mundbryce, and pa mynsterclrensunge 2.5 And if it then reaches the point at which compensation
begyte, swa prerto gebyrige, and regper ge mregbote ge man- may be paid and the king allows it, payment of an amount
bote fullice gebete, and wid God huru pingie georne. equal to the full penalty for violating the king's protection
3 And gyf elles be cwicum mannum ciricgricJ abrocen sy, shall be given to the particular church as penance for the vi-
bete man georne be parn pe seo dred sy, sy hit purh feohtlac, olation of the church's sanctuary, and the cleansing of the
si hit purh reaflac, sig purh pret f>e hit sy. Bete man rerest church shall take place in the proper manner, and compen-
pone gricJbryce into f>rere cyrican, be pam pe seo dred sy and sation to both the family and lord of the victim shall be fully
be pam pe 6rere cyricean mre6 sy. paid, and most importantly, prayers are to be faithfully of-
3.1 Ne synd ealle cyricean na gelicre mrecSe woruldlice fered up to God.
wuroscipes wyroe, peah hig godcundlice habban halgunge 3 And if the sanctuary of the church is violated in some
gelice. other way without the loss of life, penance shall be readily
3.2 Heafodmynstres gricSbryce is :et botwyrpum pingum be carried out according to the nature of the deed, whether it is
cingces munde, pret is mid v pundum on Engla lage- and on violence or robbery or whatever it may be. Penance for the
violation of sanctuary is to be made first to the church ac-
cording to the nature of the deed and likewise according to
the status of the church.
3.r Not all churches are considered alike in worldly status,
although spiritually they all possess equal sanctity.
3.2 The penalty for a sanctuary violation at a cathedral,
when the violation is deemed eligible for compensation, is
to be equal to that paid for a violation of the king's protec-
tion, that is, five pounds under English law-and in Kent for

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Centlande ret pam mundbryce v pund ]:>am cingce and J:>reo a violation of protection, five pounds to the king and three
]:>am arcebiscope - and medemran mynstres mid cxx scil- to the archbishop-and at a midlevel church, one hundred
lingum, pret is be cingces wite, and J:>onne gyt lressan, prer twenty shillings, that is, equivalent to the penalty paid for an
lytel J:>eowdom sig, and legerstow peah sig, mid LX scil- offense to the king; and at one yet smaller, where there is
lingum, and feldcyricean, J:>rer legerstow ne sig, mid xxx scyl- little divine service but there is a graveyard, sixty shillings;
linga. and at a country church where there is no graveyard, thirty
4 Eallum Cristenum mannum gebyrao swioe rihte, pret shillings.
hig haligdom and hadas and gehalgode Godes hus refre 4 It very properly befits all Christians to always very zeal-
swipe georne grioian and fri6ian, and J:>ret hi hada gehwylcne ously ensure the peace and sanctity of holy places, of those
weor6ian be mreoe. in orders, and of consecrated houses of God, and to respect
4.1 ForJ:>am understande se oe cunne: mycel is and mrere all persons in orders according to their rank.
pret sacerd ah to donne foke to J:>earfe, gif he his Drihtne 4.1 For let this be understood by those who can: great and
gecweme6 mid rihte. wondrous are those things which a priest can do for the
4.2 Mycel is seo halsung and mrere is seo halgung pe deofla benefit of the people if he pleases his Lord rightly.
afyrsao and on fleame gebringeo, swa oft swa man fulla6 4.2 Great is the exorcising and wondrous is the sanctifying
oooe husel halgao; and halige englas ]::>rer abutan hwearfiao by which devils are cast out and brought to flight, just as of-
and ]:>a dreda beweardiao and purh Godes mihta J:>am sacer- ten as he baptizes anyone or consecrates the Eucharist; and
don fylsta6 swa oft swa hig Criste oeniao mid rihte. holy angels hover about that place and watch over those
4.3 And swa hi doo symle, swa oft swa hig geornlice in- deeds, and through the power of God they assist the priests
weardre heortan clypiao to Criste and for fokes neode pin- just as often as they serve Christ properly.
giao georne, and pi man sceal for Godes ege mreoe on hade 4.3 And thus the angels always do, just as long as the priests
gecnawan mid gesceade. zealously call upon Christ from their innermost hearts and
5 And gyf hit geweor6e ]::>ret man mid tyhtlan and mid fervently intercede for the needs of the people, and so the
uncrreftum sacerd belecge, t,e regollice libbe, and he hine different categories of holy orders must be recognized with
sylfne wite pres drenne, mressige, gyfhe durre, and ladige on discernment for fear of God.
J:>am husle he ana hine sylfne, ret anfealdre sprece. And ret 5 And if it so happens that a priest who lives according to
a rule is accused and charged with wrongdoing, and he
knows himself to be innocent, he shall celebrate Mass if
he dares, and exculpate himself on his own through the
sacrament in the case of a simple accusation. And if it is a

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]:>ryfealdre sprece ladige he, gyf he durre, eac on ]:>am husle threefold accusation, he shall, ifhe dares, exonerate himself
mid twam his gehadan. through the sacrament and the oaths of two clerics of his
5.1 Gif man deacon tihtlige, ]:>e regollice libbe, anfealdre rank.
sprece, nime twegen his gehadan and ladige hine mid ]:>am. 5,1 If a simple accusation is brought against a deacon who
And gyf man hine tihtlige ]:>ryfealdre sprece, nime VI his lives according to a rule, he is to take two clerics of his rank
gehadan and ladige hine mid oam, and beo he sylf seofe]:>a. and exculpate himself with them. And if a threefold accusa-
5,2 Gif man folciscne mressepreost mid tihtlan belecge, oe tion is brought against him, he is to take six clerics of his
regollif nrebbe, ladige hine swa diacon ]:>e regollife libbe. rank and, himself being the seventh, exculpate himself with
And gyf man freondleasne weofod]:>en mid tihtlan belecge, them.
pe aofultum nrebbe, ga to corsnrede, and ]:>rer ponne ret ge- 5.2 If an accusation is brought against one of the secular
fare pret ]:>ret God wylle, buton he on husle geladian mote. clergy who does not live according to a rule, he may exoner-
And gyf man gehadodne mid freh]:>e belecge and secge, pret ate himself as does a deacon who lives according to a rule.
he wrere dredbana oooe rredbana, ladige mid his magum, And if an accusation is brought against a friendless cleric
pe freMe moton mid beran oooe fore betan. And gyf he sig who serves at the altar, one who does not have supporters
mregleas, ladige mid geferan oMe on fresten fo, gif he ]:>ret for his oath, he shall undergo the ordeal of consecrated
purfe, and ga to corsnrede, and prer ret gefare swa swa God bread, and there endure whatever God wills, unless he is
rrede. And na pearf renig mynstermunuc ahwrer mid rihte permitted to exonerate himself by the sacrament. And if
frehobote biddan ne fahf>bote betan; he greo of his mrego- charge of feud is brought against a member of the clergy,
lage J:>onne he gebyho to regollage. and he is accused of either murder or complicity in a mur-
5.3 And gyf mressepreost refre ahwrer stande on leasre der, he shall exonerate himself with the help of his family,
gewitnesse oooe on mrenan aoe oooe peofa gewita oMe who must either share in the feud or make compensation
gewyrhta beo, ]:>onne sy he aworpen of gehadodra gemanan for it. And ifhe is without family, he shall exonerate himself
with the help of other clergy, or fast to prepare for the or-
deal of consecrated bread, and there endure whatever God
decides. And no monk anywhere who belongs to a monas-
tery is permitted to either claim or pay compensation re-
lated to a feud; he renounces the rights of his kindred when
he accepts the monastic rule.
5.3 If a priest is anywhere guilty of bearing false witness
or committing perjury or being the aide or accomplice
to thieves, then he is to be expelled from holy orders and

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and polige regper, ge geferscipes, ge freondscipes ge reghwyl- deprived of companionship, friendship, and all entitlements
ces weoroscipes, butan he wid God and wid menn pe deopli- unless he repents most deeply to God and the community
cor gebete, swa bisceop him trece, and him borh finde pret
entirely as the bishop instructs, and finds surety that he
he ):>anon foro refre swylces geswice.
thenceforth will cease all wrongdoing.
5.4 And gyf he ladian wylle, geladige ponne be drede mrede:
5.4 And if he wishes to clear himself, he shall do so in the
swa mid ):>ryfealdre swa mid anfealdre lade, be dam ):>e seo manner appropriate for the offense: either the triple mode
dred sy.
of proof or the single, whichever the deed calls for.
6 And we wyllad pret relces hades menn georne gebugan, 6 And we desire that those of every rank shall faithfully
relc to pam rihte ):>e him to gebyrige. And huru):>inga Godes submit to the duty most appropriate for them. And indeed,
peowas-bisceopas and abbodas, munecas and mynecena, God's servants-bishops and abbots, male and female mo-
canonicas and nunnan-to rihte gebugan and regollice lib-
nastics, priests and nuns-are to submit to their duty and
ban, and dreges and nihtes oft and gelome clypian to Criste, live according to their rule, and often and frequently call on
and for eall Cristen folc ):>ingian georne. Christ by day and night, and fervently intercede for all
6.1 And ealle Godes J>eowas we biddad and lrerad, and Christian people.
hurupinga sacerdas, l:>ret hi Gode hyran and clrennesse lufian 6.1 And we require and instruct that all servants of God,
and beorgan heom sylfum wid Godes yrre and wid done especially priests, obey God, embrace celibacy, and protect
weallendan bryne, J:>e weallad on helle. themselves against God's wrath and against the burning fire
6.2 Fullgeorne hig witan pret hig nagon mid rihte J:>urh
that rages in hell.
hremedpingc wifes gemanan. And se de J:>res geswican wille 6.2 They know full well that they may not rightfully engage
and clrennesse healdan hrebbe he Gades miltse, and to in sexual relations with a woman. But he who will renounce
woruldwur<Sscipe si he J:>egenlage wyrck marriage and practice celibacy will have God's favor, and
6.3 And reghwylc Cristen mann eac for his Drihtenes ege also, as a privilege in this world, he shall be deemed worthy
unrihthremed georne forbuge and godcunde lage rihtlice of a thane's rights.
healde. 6.3 And for fear of God, every Christian must diligently
7 And we lrera6 and biddao and on Gades naman beoda<S avoid unlawful intercourse and rightly uphold the divine law.
pret renig Cristen mann binnon VI manna sibfrece on his 7 And we instruct, pray, and decree in God's name that
agenum cynne refre ne gewifie, ne on his mreges lafe, pe swa no Christian man shall ever take a wife within six degrees of
neahsib wrere, ne on pres wifes nedmagon pe he sylf rer kinship in his own family, nor the widow of one so closely
hrefde.
related, nor a close relative of his first wife.
7.1 Ne on his gefrederan, neon gehalgodre nunnan, neon 7.1 Nor may a Christian man ever marry his godmother, a
relretan renig Cristen mann refre ne gewifige. professed nun, or a divorced woman.

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7.2 Ne renige forligru ahwar ne begange. 7.2 Nor may he ever commit adultery anywhere.
7.3 Nena ma wifa ponne an hrebbe, and pret beo his be- 7.3 Nor may he have more than one wife, and she shall be
weddode wif; and beo be prere anre pa hwile pe heo libbe se his lawfully wedded wife; but he who desires to obey the law
<Se wyle Godes lage giman mid rihte and wio hellebryne of God rightly and guard his soul from hellfire must stay
beorhgan his sawle. with one wife as long as she lives.
8 And gelreste mann Godes gerihta reghwylce geare riht- 8 And God's dues are to be paid readily every year.
lice georne. 8.1 That is, plow dues fifteen nights after Easter, and the
8.1 l>ret is, sulhrelmesse xv niht ofer Eastran and geogupe tithe of the young animals by Pentecost, and the tithe on
teoounge be Pentecosten and eorowrestma be Ealra Halgena the fruits of the earth by the Feast ofAll Saints.
mressan. 8.2 And if anyone refuses to pay his tithes in the manner
8.2 And gyf hwa ponne pa teopunge gelrestan nelle swa we that we have decreed-that is, a one-tenth yield of every
gecweden habba<)-p:Et is se teooa recer, ealswa seo sulh hit acre traversed by the plow- then the king's reeve and the
gega - ponne fare pres cingces gerefa to, and pres bisceopes reeves of the bishop and landlord and the priest of the
and pres landrican and pres mynstres mressepreost, and church are to go and forfeit without consent a one-tenth
niman unpances oone teoc5an drel to pam mynstre pe hit to portion for the church to which it belongs, and the next
gebyrige, and trecan him to pam nigoc5an drele, and todrele tenth is to be left for the recreant, and the remaining eight-
mann pa eahta drelas on twa, and fo se landhlaford to heal- tenths are to be divided in two and the landlord shall receive
fum, to healfum se bisceop, si hit ciningces mann se hit half and the bishop the other half, whether he is a king's
pegnes. man or a thane's.
9 And Romfeoh be Petres mressan. 9 And the dues to Rome are to be paid by the Feast of
9.1 And se oe ofer prene dreg hit healde, agyfe pam bisceope Saint Peter.
prene penig and prerto xxx and pam cingce cxx scyllinga. 9.1 And anyone who withholds it beyond that day shall
10 And cyricsceat to Martines mressan. give the money and a further thirty pence to the bishop, and
10.1 And se oe hine ofer prene dreg healde, agyfe hine pam one hundred twenty shillings to the king.
bisceope and forgylde hine x1 sioan and oam cingce cxx 10 And Church dues are to be paid by the Feast of Saint
scyllinga. Martin.
10.1 And anyone who withholds it beyond that day shall
give the money to the bishop, and do so again eleven times
over, and one hundred twenty shillings to the king.

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11 Gyf hwa ponne pegna sig pe on his boclande cyrican 11 Yet if there is a thane who has a church possessing a
hrebbe, pe legerstow on sig, gesylle pone priddan drel his graveyard on land he holds by charter, he is to give one-third
agenre teopunge into his cyrican. of his own tithes to his church.
11.1 And gyf hwa cyricean hrebbe, pe legerstow on ne sig, do 11.1 If anyone has a church without a graveyard, then let

he of oam nigon drelum his preoste pret pret he wylle. him give what he chooses to his priest out of the next one-
u.2 And ga relc cyricsceat into pam ealdan mynstre be tenth share after that paid as tithe.
relcon frigan heoroe. 11.2 And all Church dues from every free household are to

12 And leohtgesceot priwa on geare: rerest on Easterrefen go to the old minster.

healfpenigwuro wexes ret relcere hide and eft on Ealra Hal- 12 And the dues for the lighting of the church are to be
gena mressan eallswa mycel, and eft to prem refene Sanctan paid three times a year: first, a halfpennyworth of wax from
Marian clrensunge ealswa. each hide on the eve of Easter, and just as much afterward
13 And sawlsceat is rihtast pret man symle gelreste a ret on the Feast of All Saints, and an equal amount again at the
openum gnefe. Feast of the Purification of Saint Mary.
13-1 And gyf man renig lie of rihtscriftscire elles hwrer lecge, 13 And it is most appropriate that dues for the souls of the
gelreste man pone sawlsceat swa peah into pam mynstre pe dead always be paid while the grave is yet open.
hit to hyrde. 13.1 And if any person's body is buried other than in its
14 And ealle Godes gerihta fyrorige man georne, ealswa proper parish, the dues should still be paid to the church to
hit pearf is. which he belonged.
14.1 And freolsa and frestena healde mon rihtlice. 14 And all God's dues are to be given willingly; just as is re-

14.2 And healde man :ekes Sunnandreges freolsunge fram quired.

Sreternesdreges none oo Monandreges lihtingce, and relcne 14.1 And feasts and fasts are to be properly observed.

ooerne mressedreg, swa he beboden beo. 14.2 And each Sunday holy day is to be observed from

15 And Sunnandaga cypingce we forbeodao eac eornost- midafternoon on Saturday until dawn on Monday; and every
lice and relc folcgemot, butan hit for micelre neodpearfe sig. other feast day just as is ordained for it.
15.1 And huntaofara and ealra woruldlicra weorca on pam 15 And we also prohibit most strictly the transaction of
halgan drege geswicre man georne. business on Sundays and all public meetings, unless there is
16 And pret man relc beboden fresten healde, si hit a great need for one.
ymbrenfresten, si hit lengctenfresten, si hit elles ooer 15-1 And hunts and worldly business are to be assiduously
avoided on that holy day.
16 And each ordained fast is to be observed with all assid-
uousness, whether it is the Ember Fast, the Lenten fast, or

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frestren, mid ealre geornfulnesse. And to Sancta Marian any other fast. And a fast is to be observed on all of the
mressan relcere and to relces apostoles mressan freste man - feasts of Saint Mary as well as on the feasts of each of the
butan to Philippi and Iacobi mressan we ne beodao nan apostles- but we order no fast for the Feasts of Philip and
fresten for pam Easterlican freolse-and relces Frigedreges James because of Easter- and a fast is to be held every Fri-
fresten, butan hit freols sig. day unless there is a feast.
16.1 And na pearf man na frestan fram Eastran oo Pente- 16.1 And no one need fast between Easter and Pentecost
costen butan hwa gescrifen sig oooe he elles frestan wylle; unless it has been assigned as a penance or he otherwise
eallswa of middanwintra oc5 octabas Epiphanige, pret is wishes to fast; or from Christmas until the eighth day of
seofen niht oferTwelftan mressedrege. Epiphany, that is, seven days after the Twelfth Night.
17 And we forbeodao ordal and aoas freolsdagum and 17 And we forbid ordeals and oaths on feasts and Ember
ymbrendagum and lengctendagum and rihtfrestendagum Days, during Lent, on legally designated fast days, from Ad-
and fram Aduentum Domini oo se eahtapa dreg agan sig ofer vent until the eighth day after Twelfth Night, and from Sep-
Twelfran mressedrege and fram Septuagessima oc5 xv nihton tuagesima until fifteen days after Easter.
ofer Eastron. 17.1 And the council has determined that the Feast of Saint
17.1 And Sancte Eadweardes mressedreg witan habbao Edward shall be celebrated throughout England on the fif-
gecoren, pret man freolsian sceal ofer eall Englaland, pret is teenth day before the kalends of April (the nineteenth of
on pam xv drege (on Martige xvm) kalendas Aprilis and March) and the Feast of Saint Dunstan on the fourteenth
Sancte Dunstanes mressedreg on XII II kalendas Iunii, pret ys day before the kalends ofJune, that is, the thirteenth day of
on pam preotteooan drege pe byo on Mrege. May.
17.2 And beo pam halgum tidum, ealswa hit riht is, eallum 17.2 And at holy times, just as is proper, there is to be peace
Cristenum mannum sib and som gemrene, and relc sacu to- and friendship among all Christians, and each dispute is to
twremed. be resolved.
17.3 And gyfhwa oorurn sceole borh oooe bote ret woruld- 17.3 And if anyone must pay a debt or compensation to an-
licum pingum, gelreste hit him georne rer oooe refter. other because of a worldly matter, he is to do so promptly
18 And we biddao for Godes lufan, pret relc Cristen mann before or after the feast.
understande georne his agene pearfe. Forpam ealle we sceo- 18 And for the love of God, we pray that every Christian
lon renne timan gebidan ponne us wrere leofre ponne eall fully understand what is expected of him. For we all will
pret on middanearde is, pret we aworhtan, pa hwile pe we reach a point when we will wish more than anything in the
mihton, georne Godes willan. Ac ponne we sceolan habban world that we had readily carried out God's will as long as we
could. But then we will receive a reward fitting for that
 ROYAL LEGISLATION I CNUT

anfeald lean ares pe we on life rer geworhtan. Wa pam ponne which we previously accomplished during our lifetime. Woe
pe rer geearnode hellewite! then to that person who has earned the pains of hell!
18.1 Ac uton swioe georne fram synnum gecyrran and ure 18.1 But let us most readily turn from sin, and each of us sin-
rek his misdreda urum scriftum geornlice andettan, and cerely confess our misdeeds to our confessor, and ever after
refre geswican and geornlice betan. cease our wrongdoing and fervently repent.
18.2 And ure relc oorum beode pret we willon ):>ret man us 18.2 And let each of us treat others as we wish to be treated;
beode; pret is rihtlic <lorn and Gode swioe gecweme; and se that is a just rule and most pleasing to God; and the person
byo swioe gesrelig pe pone dom gehylt. who adheres to that rule will be very happy.
18.3 Forpam God relmihtig us ealle geworhte and eft deo- 18.3 For God almighty created us all and afterward paid a
pum ceape gebohte, pret is mid his agenum life, pe he for us high cost for us, namely, his own life which he gave for us all.
eallum sealde. 19 But let each Christian do that which is required of him:
19 Ac gehwyk Cristen man do swa him ):>earf is: gime his attend diligently to his Christian faith and likewise prepare
Cristendomes georne and gearwige hine eac to huselgange himself to receive the sacrament at least three times during
huru priwa on geare gehwa hine sylfne pe his agene pearfe the year if he wishes to understand his responsibilities, just
wylle understandan, swa swa him pearf sig. as he should.
19.1 And word and weorc freonda gehwyk fadige mid rihte, 19.1 And all of our friends must order their words and deeds
and ao and wedd wrerlice healde. properly, and carefully uphold their oath and pledge.
19.2 And reghwyk unriht aweorpe man georne of pysum 19.2 And all injustice is to be banished from this land as
earde, pres ):>e man don mrege much as possible.
19.3 And lufige Gades riht heonon fora georne wordes and 19.3 And God's law is to be willingly embraced henceforth
drede: oonne wuro us eallum Gades milts pe gearuwre. in word and deed; then will God show mercy the more read-
20 Uton don eac georne, swa we gyt lreran wyllao: utan ily to us all.
beon a urum hlaforde holde and getrywe and refre eallum 20 Let us also do just as we further intend to instruct: let
mihtum his wurlSscipe rreran and his willan gewyrcan. us always be faithful and true to our lord and ever with all
20.1 Foroam ea! pret we refre for rihthlafordhelde doo, eall our might uphold his sovereignty and carry out his will.
we hit doc:S us sylfum to mycelre ):>earfe; forpam bya witod- 20.1 For all that we ever do because of the loyalty justly
lice God hold, pe byo his hlaforde rihtlice hold. owed to our lord, we do to our own great benefit; for cer-
20.2 And eac ah hlaforda gehwyk ):>res formycle pearfe pret tainly God will be true to the person who is justly true to his
he his men rihtlice healde. lord.
20.2 And likewise the principal obligation of every lord is to
treat his people justly.

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21 And ealle Cristene men we lrerao swide georne pret hig 21 And we most sincerely instruct all Christians to always
inweardre heortan refre God lufian and rihtne Cristendom love God with their innermost hearts and fervently uphold
geornlice healdan and godcundan lareowan geornlice hyran, the true Christian faith and readily heed their spiritual
and Godes Iara and laga smeagan oft and gelome him sylfum teachers, and often and frequently reflect upon God's pre-
to J:>earfe. cepts and laws for their own benefit.
22 And we lrerao, pret relc Cristen man geleornige, pret he 22 We instruct every Christian to study so that he can, in
huru cunne rihtne geleafan and ariht understandan and Pa- particular, know and properly understand the true faith and
ter noster and Credan geleornian. learn the Paternoster and Creed.
22.1 Fordam mid pam oprum sceal relc Cristen mann hine 22.1 For with the first of these, every Christian shall pray to
to Gode gebiddan and mid pam oorum geswutelian rihtne God, and with the second testify to the true faith.
geleafan. 22.2 Christ himself first recited the Paternoster and taught
22.2 Crist sylf sang Pater noster rerest and pret gebed his that prayer to his disciples.
leorningccnihtum trehte. 22.3 And in that holy prayer are seven entreaties; he who re-
22.3 And on pam godcundan gebede syn VII gebedu; mid cites it in his soul pleads with God himself concerning all
pam se oe hit inweardlice gesingo, he gererndao to Gode syl- things which may be to a person's benefit, both in this life
fum ymbe refre reke neode, pe man bepearf aoor oooe for and in the life to come.
pysum life oooe for oam toweardan. 22.4 But how then can anyone ever pray to God in his soul
22.4 Ac hu mreg J:>onne refre renig mann hine inweardlice to unless he has true love for and faith in God in his soul?
Gode gebiddan butan he hrebbe inweardlice sooe lufe and 22.5 For after his death he cannot lie in the company of
rihtne geleafan to Gode? Christians nor rest in hallowed ground, nor can he be eligi-
22.5 Forpam he nah refter forosioe Cristenra manna ge- ble to receive the holy sacrament here in this life.
manan ne on gehalgedan lictune to restene, ne he nah J:>res 22.6 That person who refuses to learn it is not a good Chris-
halgan husles to onfonne her on life. tian, nor can he legitimately sponsor another at baptism,
22.6 Ne he ne byo wel Cristen pe pret geleornian nele, ne he much less at confirmation, until he learns it so that he knows
nah mid rihte oores mannes to onfonne ret fulluhte, ne ret it well.
bisceopes handa pe ma, rer he hit geleornige pret he hit wel 23 And we instruct that people are to guard themselves
cunne. most zealously against mortal sins and devilish deeds at all
23 And we lrerao pret man wio healice synna and wid times; and those who fall into sin by the temptation of the
deoflice dreda scylde swype georne on reghwylcne timan; devil are to repent most sincerely according to the guidance
and bete swype georne be his scriftes gepeahte, se oe J:>urh of their confessor.
deofles scyfe on synna befealle.

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24 And we lrera6 pret man wi6 fulne galscipe and wi6 un- 24 And we instruct that foul lust, illicit intercourse, and all
rihthremed and wi6 reghwylcne rewbryce warnige symle. forms of adultery are to be zealously avoided.
25 And we lrerac) eac georne manna gehwylcne pret he 25 And we likewise fervently instruct everyone to hold
Godes ege hrebbe symle on his gemynde, and dreges and the fear of God constantly in their mind, and to live in fear
nihtes forhtige for synnum, Domdreg ondrrede and for belle of sin both day and night, and dread the Day ofJudgment,
agrise, and refre him gehende endedreges wene. and tremble at the prospect of hell, and always expect their
26 Bisceopas syndan bydelas and Godes lage lareowas, and last day to be near at hand.
hi sceolon bodian and bysnian georne godcunde pearfe, 26 Bishops are messengers and teachers of God's law, and
gyme se 6e wylle. they are to diligently proclaim and embody our spiritual
26.1 Forpam wace by6 se hyrde funden to heorde pe nele pa duty, heed them who will.
heorde t,e he healdan sceal, mid hrearne bewerian, butan he 26.1 For the shepherd will be found wanting who will not
elles mrege gyfprer hwylc peodsceacSa scea6ian onginne6. cry out in defense of the flock entrusted to his care, ifhe can
26.2 Nis nan swa yfel scea6a swa is deofol sylf; he by6 a ymbe do nothing else when a predator comes to prey upon it.
pret an, hu he on mannum saulum mrest gescea6ian mrege. 26.2 There is no predator so evil as the devil himself; he is
26.3 I>onne moton pa hyrdas beon swyde wacore and geom- always concerned with only one thing, how he can best prey
lice clypigende, pe wicS pone peodsceadan folce sceolon scyl- upon people's souls.
dan: pret syndan bisceopas and mressepreostas, pe godcunde 26.3 Thus, the shepherds who must defend the people
heorda bewarian and bewerian sceolon mid wislican laran, against this predator must be very watchful and zealously
pret se wodfreca werewulf to swy6e ne slite, ne to fela ne cry out: these are the bishops and the priests, who must
abite of godcundre heorde. oversee and provide for their spiritual flock with wise teach-
26.4 And se 6e oferhogie, pret he Godes bodan hlyste, ings, so that the madly voracious werewolf does not wound
hrebbe him gemrene pret wid God sylfne. A sy Gades narna too greatly nor consume too many of their spiritual flock.
ecelice gebletsod, and lof him and wuldor and wurc'.Smynt 26.4 And the person who neglects to heed God's messen-
symble refre to worulde. Amen. gers will have to account for that to God himself. May the
name of God be sanctified forever, and praise and honor and
glory be to him eternally. Amen.

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Pr l>is is seo woruldcunde gerrednes pe ic wylle, mid minan Pr This is the secular decree which, on the advice of my
witenan r::ede, p::et man healde ofer eall Englaland. councilors, I desire to be observed throughout all England.
1 D::et is ponne rerest: pret ic wylle pret man rihte laga 1 This is foremost, then: I desire just laws to be upheld
upp arrere and reghwylc unlaga georne afylle, and pret man and all wrongdoing to be entirely brought low, and all injus-
aweodige and awyrtwalige ::eghwylc unriht, swa man geor- tice to be weeded out from this land and eradicated as zeal-
nost mrege, of pysum earde, and arrere up Godes riht. ously as possible, and the law of God to be exalted.
1.1 And heonon foro lrete manna gehwylcne, ge earmne ge 1.1 And henceforth, all people, both rich and poor, shall be
eadigne, folcrihtes weorone and him man rihte domas deme. granted their legal rights and just rulings shall be issued for
2 And we lrerad pret peah hwa agylte and hine sylfne them.
deope forwyrce, ponne gefadige man oa steore swa hit for 2 And we instruct that even if someone sins and dishon-
Gode sy gebeorhlic and for worulde aberendlic. And ors himself entirely, the penalty shall be assessed in such a
gepence swype georne se oe domes geweald age hwres he sylf way as shall be justifiable before God and acceptable to the
gyrne ponne he pus cweoe: Et dimitte nobis debita nostra, sicut community. And the person who has the power to pass judg-
et nos dimittimus; pret is on Englisc: "and forgyf us, Drihten, ment shall reflect sincerely upon his own motivations when
ure gyltas, swa we forgyfac:5 pam c5e wio us agyltao." he recites thus: Andforgive us our debts as we also forgive our
2.1 And we forbeodad pret man Cristene men for ealles to debtors, that is in English, "Forgive us, Lord, our trespasses as
lytlum huru to deape ne fomede; ac elles gerrede man frio- we forgive those who trespass against us."
lice steora folce to pearfe and ne forspille for lytlum Godes 2.1 And we forbid Christians to be sentenced to death for
handgeweorc and his agenne ceap, pe he deore gebohte. entirely too little; instead, merciful penalties are to be estab-
3 And we forbeodao pret man Cristene men ealles to lished for the good of the people, and so that God's handi-
swi<Se of earde ne sylle ne on hrecSendome huru ne gebringe; work, which he paid for himself at a high cost, not be de-
stroyed because of petty crimes.
3 And we forbid the all-too-common practice of selling
Christians out of this land, and especially bringing them

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ac beorge man georne pret man pa saule ne forfare, pe Crist into heathen lands; but we muse zealously ensure that the
mid his agenum life gebohte. souls not be destroyed which Christ purchased with his own
4 And we beodao pret man eard georne clrensian aginne life.
on reghwylcan ende and manfulra dreda reghwrer geswice. 4 And we command that the people undertake to purify
And gif wiccean oooe wigleras, morowyrhtan oooe hor- the entire land and eradicate everywhere all sinful deeds.
cwenan ahw:er on lande wuroan agitene, fyse hig man georne And if wizards or magicians, murderers or prostitutes be
ut of pysum earde, oMon on earde forfare hig mid ealle, found anywhere in this land, they are to be zealously ex-
butan hig geswican and }>e deoppar gebetan. pelled from the realm or they shall be entirely abolished
4.1 And we beodao pret wioersacan and utlagan Godes and from the earth, unless they cease and most sincerely repent.
manna of eardre gewitan butan hig gebugan and pe geornor 4.1 And we command that apostates and those in defiance
gebetan. of the laws of God and the realm are to leave this land unless
4.2 And peofas and peodsceadan to timan forweordan they submit and most sincerely repent.
butan hig geswican. 4.2 And thieves and criminals will henceforth be destroyed
s And we forbeodad eornostlice relcne hreoenscipe. unless they cease their crimes.
5-1 Hredenscipe byd pret man deofolgyld weoroige, j:>ret is 5 And we earnestly forbid all heathen practices.
pret man weorpige hredene godas and sunnan oMe monan, 5-1 Heathen practices are devil worship, that is, the wor-
fyr oMe flod, wreterwyllas oMe scanas oMe reniges cynnes shipping of heathen gods, of the sun or the moon, of fire or
wudutreowa, oooon wiccecrreft lufige oooon moroweorc ge- water, or of springs or stones or any type of tree; the devo-
fremme on :enige wisan, oooon on blote oMon fyrhte, 06- tion to witchcraft or conspiring to bring about a person's
don swylcra gedwimera renig pingc dreoge. death by any means, either through sacrifice or divination or
6 Manslagan and manswaran, hadbrecan and rewbrecan by engaging in any other similar idiocies.
gebugan and gebetan, oMe of cyMe mid synnan gewitan. 6 Murderers and perjurers, those who violate holy orders
7 Licceteras and leogeras, ryperas and reaferas Godes and those who violate their marriage vows shall submit and
graman habban butan hig geswican and pe deoppar gebetan. do penance or leave their native land with their sins.
7.1 And se de eard wylle rihtlice clrensian and unriht alec- 7 Hypocrites and liars, thieves and looters will suffer
gan and rihtwisnesse lufian, ponne mot he georne pyllices God's wrath unless they cease and most sincerely repent.
styran and pyllic ascunian. 7.1 And anyone who desires to properly purify the realm
and eradicate injustice and embrace righteousness must dili-
gently stamp out and condemn such crimes.

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8 Uton eac ealle ymbe frioes bote and ymbe feos bote 8 Furthermore, let us all also consider very carefully the
smeagan swyoe georne: swa embe frioes bote, swa oam enhancement of public safety and the improvement of the
bondan si selost, and pam peofan si lapast; and swa embe currency; public safety is to be improved so that it is best for
feos bote, pret an mynet gange ofer ealle pas peode butan the citizen and worst for the thief; and the currency is to be
relcan false, and pret nan man ne forsace. improved so that there is one standard coinage throughout
8.1 And se oe ofer pis fals wyrce polige prera handa pe he the realm without any adulteration, and no one will refuse
pret fals mid worhte, and he hi mid nanon pingon ne ge- it.
bicge, ne mid golde ne mid seolfre. 8.1 And henceforth, the person who produces counterfeit
8.2 And gyf man ponne prene gerefan teo, pret he be his money shall forfeit the hands with which he made the false
leafe pret fals worhte, ladige hine mid pryfealdre lade; and coinage, and he may not save it by any means, neither with
gyf seo lad ponne berste, hrebbe pone ylcan dom pe se pe gold nor with silver.
pret fals worhte. 8.2 And if a reeve is charged with permitting the counter-
9 And gemeta and gewihta rihte man georne and relces feit to be made, he shall exonerate himself with the three-
unrihtes heonon foro geswice. fold oath of exculpation; and if the oath fails, he shall suffer
10 And burhbota and bricbota and scipforounga aginne the same penalty as the counterfeiter.
man georne, and fyrdunga eac swa a prenne pearf si, for 9 And weights and measures are to be assiduously made
gema!nelicre neode. right, and all unlawful practices abolished henceforth.
11 And smeage man symle on reghwylce wisan hu man fyr- ro And improvements to fortifications and bridges are to
mest mrege rred aredian peode to pearfe and rihtne Cristen- be undertaken with care, and also the provisioning of the
dom swyoost arreran and reghwylce unlage geornost afyllan. navy and army as the need arises, for the common good.
n.1 Foroam purh pret hit sceal on earde godian to ahte: pret 11 And consideration must always be given in every way to
man unriht alecge and rihtwisnesse lufige for Gode and for how first to establish policy to meet the needs of the people
worulde. Amen. and to best uphold the true Christian faith and to most zeal-
12 Dis syndon pa gerihta pe se cingc ah ofer ealle men on ously eradicate all injustice.
Wessexan: pret is mundbryce and hamsocne, forsteal and II.I For it is in this way that improvement in this land can
be achieved: by rejecting injustice and embracing righteous-
ness before God and the world. Amen.
12 These are the fines to which the king is entitled from
all the people ofWessex: that is, fines for the violation of the

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flymena fyrmc:fo and fyrdwite, butan he hwrene 3e fur6or king's protection and for home invasion, for assault, harbor-
gemre6rian wylle and he him 6res weor6scipes geunne. ing of fugitives, and shirking military service, unless he
13 And se c:)e utlages weorc gewyrce, wealde se cingc pres wishes to specially privilege someone by allocating these
frif:>es. fines to him.
13.1 And gyfhe bocland hrebbe, pret sy forworht pam cingce 13 And the king has the power to grant clemency to those
to handa, si dres mannes man, pe he sig. who engage in outlawry.
13.2 And lochwa pone flyman fede oMe feormie, gylde v 13.1 And ifhe holds land by charter, it shall be forfeited into
pund pam cingce, butan he hine geladige, pret he hine fleame the king's hand, no matter which lord he serves.
nyste. 13.2 And anyone who feeds or shelters a fugitive must pay
14 And on Myrcean he ah eallswa her beforan awriten is five pounds to the king, unless he can exonerate himself by
ofer eall men. proving that he did not know he was a fugitive.
15 And on Drena lage he ah fihtewita and fyrdwita, gry3- 14 And in Mercia the king is entitled to everything listed
bryce and hamsocne, butan he hwrene de furdur gemredrian here from all the people.
wylle. And gyf hwa prene fridleasan man healde oMe flyman 15 And in the Danelaw the king is entitled to the fines for
feormie, bete pret, swa hit rer lagu wres. fighting and shirking military service, breaching the peace
xp And se de unlage r:ere oMe undom gedeme heonon and home invasion, unless he wishes to specially privilege
ford, for lreMe oMe for feohfange, beo se wi3 pone cingc someone. And accordingly, if anyone protects or shelters an
cxx scyllinga scyldig on Engla lage-butan he mid ade cydan outlaw, he shall be penalized according to the law.
durre, pret he hit na rihtor ne cupe-and polige aa his pegn- 1p And anyone henceforth who promotes injustice or
scipes, butan he hine ret }:>am cingce eft gebicge, swa he him hands down unjust judgments, either because of bias or
gepafian wylle. And on Dena lage lahslites scyldig, butan he bribery, shall be liable to the king for one hundred twenty
geladige pret he na bet ne cude. shillings in areas under English law-unless he can declare
15.2 And se de rihte lage and rihtne dom forsace, beo se under oath that he did not know how to deliver a more just
scyldig wid pone )?e hit age: swa wi3 cyningc cxx scyllinga, sentence-and he shall forfeit forever his rights as a thane,
unless he redeems it from the king if he is willing to permit
it. In the Danelaw, he shall be liable for his lahslit, unless he
can exonerate himself by proving that he did not know any
better.
15.2 And in areas under English law, anyone who rejects just
laws and judgments is to be liable to the proper authority:
either one hundred twenty shillings to the king, sixty

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ROYAL LEGISLATION

swa wio eorl LX scyllinga, swa wio hundred XXX scyllinga, swa shillings to the earl, thirty shillings to the hundred, or to all
wio relc prera, gyfhit swageweoroep, on Engla lage. of them if it is relevant.
15.3 And se oe on Dena lage rihte lage wyrde, gylde he 15.3 And in the Danelaw; anyone who rejects just law is to
pay labs/it.
lahslit.
16 And se pe operne mid wo forsecgan wylle, pret he aoer 16 And if anyone who seeks to bring a false charge against
oooe feo oMe freme pe wyrse sig, gyf ponne se ooer pret another so that he is the worse in either property or well-
geunsodian mrege, pret him man on secgan wolde, sy he his being, and if the accused can disprove the charge that has
tungan scyldig butan he hine mid his were forgylde. been brought against him, then the accuser shall lose his
17 And ne gesece nan man oone cingc butan he ne mote tongue unless he can redeem himself through the payment
beon nanes rihtes wyroe innan his hundrede. of his wergild.
17.1 And sece man hundredes gemot be wite, eallswa hit is 17 And no one may petition the king unless he cannot ob-
tain his rights within his hundred.
to secenne.
18 And hrebbe mann priwa on geare burhgemot and tuwa 17.1 And everyone is to attend the hundred court whenever
scirgemot, butan hit oftor sig. summoned or suffer a penalty.
18.1 And prer beo on prere scire bisceop and se ealdorman, 18 And the borough court is to meet three times a year

and prer regper trecan ge Godes riht ge woruldriht. and the shire court twice unless the need arises more fre-
19 And ne nime nan man nane nreme, ne innan scire ne quently.
ut of scire, rer mann hrebbe priwa on hundrede his rihtes 18.1 And the bishop of the diocese and the ealdorman shall
both be in attendance, and there administer the ecclesiasti-
gebeden.
19.1 Gif he ret pam priddan cyrre nan riht nrebbe, ponne cal and secular laws.
fare he feordan sick to scirgemote, and seo scir him sette 19 And no one shall execute a legal repossession of prop-
pone feoroan andagan. erty, either within or outside the shire, until he has brought
19.2 Gyfse ponne berste, nime ponne leafe regper ge heonon his claim to the hundred court three times.
ge panan pret he mote hentan refter his agenan. 19.1 If he does not receive what is rightfully owed him after
the third petition, then he shall appeal on a fourth occasion
to the shire court, and the shire court shall set a day for the
fourth hearing.
19.2 And if this proves futile, he shall get permission either
here or from the previous court to repossess his property.

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20 And we wyllad pret relc freoman beo on hundrede and 20 And we desire that every freeman over the age of
on teodunge gebroht, pe lade wyrde beon wylle ocScSon weres twelve who wishes to be entitled to swear an oath of excul-
wyrcSe gyf hine hwa teon wylle, ofer pret he bycS x11 wintre; pation and to be eligible for wergild compensation if he is
oMon he ne beo syMan reniges freorihtes wyrcSe. Si he slain is to be enrolled in a hundred and in a tithing; other-
heordfrest, si he folgere, pret relc si on hundrede and on wise, he will not be entitled to any of the rights of a freeman.
borge gebroht, and gehealde se borh hine and gelrede to Whether independent or in service, everyone is to be en-
relcan rihte. rolled in a hundred and under a surety, and that surety shall
20.r Manig strec man wyle, gyf he mreg and mot, werian his maintain him and guide him in his legal obligations.
man, swa hwrecSer swa him pingd, pret he hine ead awerian 20.1 Many recalcitrant individuals, if they may and can, seek

mrege, swa for frigne swa for peowne; ac we nellacS gedafian to maintain control over their underlings by whatever means
pret unriht. that they think easiest, either by treating them as if they
21 Ac we wyllacS pret relc man ofer x11 wintre sylle pone ad were free or as if they were slaves; but we will not allow this
pret he nelle peofbeon ne peofes gewita. injustice.
22 And sy relc getrywa man pe tihtbysig nrere and nacSor ne 21 But we desire that each person over the age of twelve
burste ne acS ne ordal, innan hundrede anfealdre lade wyrcSe. give their oath that they will be neither a thief nor a thief's
22.1 And ungetrywan men ceose man anfealdne ad on prim accomplice.
hundredum; and pryfealdne acS, swa wide swa hit to drere 22 And every trustworthy man who had never been under
byrig hyre; oMon ga to pam ordale. And ofga man anfealde suspicion and had not failed an oath or ordeal, shall be eligi-
lade mid anfealdan foracSe and pryfealde lade mid pryfealdan ble to exonerate himself by the simple oath of exculpation.
foracSe. 22.1 And guarantors for the simple oath of the untrust-

22.2 And gyf pegen hrebbe getrywne man to forade for hine, worthy man shall be chosen from the three hundreds; and
pret swa sig; gyfhe nrebbe, ofga sylfhis sprece. for the threefold oath, from throughout the jurisdiction of
22.3 And ne beo refre renig foracS forgyfen. the borough court; otherwise he must undergo the ordeal.
And a case requiring the simple oath of exculpation is to be
initiated with a simple oath of accusation, and a case requir-
ing the threefold oath of exculpation is to be initiated with a
threefold oath of accusation.
22.2 And if a thane has a trustworthy man to make a claim
on his behalf, he may use him; if he does not, then he must
make the claim himself.
22.3 And an oath of accusation can never be waived.

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23 And ne beo renig man reniges teames wyroe butan he 23 And no one shall be entitled to vouch to warranty un-
getrywe witnesse hrebbe, hwanan him come pret him man less he has reliable witnesses to the manner by which he
ret befehJ:>. came by the goods in his possession.
23.1 And gecyoe seo gewitnes, ):>ret on Godes helde and on 23- 1 And the witnesses, if they wish to enjoy the protection
hlafordes, J:>ret heo him on soore gewitnesse sy, swa heo hit of God and their lord, shall swear that, as truthful witnesses
eagum oferseah and earum oferhyrde, ):>ret he hit mid rihte to his legal possession, they are testifying to just what they
begeate. saw with their eyes and heard with their ears.
24 And nan man nan pingc ne bigce ofer feower peniwuro, 24 And no one shall buy anything worth more than four
ne libbende ne licgende, butan man hrebbe getrywe gewit- pence, either livestock or goods, unless he has four men as
nesse feower manna, seo hit binnan byrig, sy hit upp on honest witnesses, whether he is in a town or in the country.
lande. 24.1 Yet if the purchased goods had previously been in
24.1 And gyf hit man J:>onne befo, and he pyllice gewitnesse someone's possession and the purchaser had no such wit-
nrebbe, ne beo J:>aer nan team, ac agyfe man ):>am agenfrigan nesses, then there can be no vouching to warranty, but the
his agen and ):>ret reftergild, and ]:>ret wite pam pe hit age. goods must be returned to their owner along with a penalty
24.2 And gyf he gewitnesse hrebbe, swa we her beforan payment and a fine to the proper authority.
cwredon, ]:>onne tyrne hit man ]:>riwa; ret ]:>am feordan cyrre, 24.2 And if he has witnesses, just as we have set forth here,
agnige hit oooe agyfe ]:>am ]:>e hit age. then he is to vouch to warranty three times; on the fourth
24.3 And us ne ping6 na riht ):>ret aenig man agnian sceole time, he shall prove his ownership or return it to its proper
prer gewitnesse byd, and man gecnawan cann ]:>aet prer owner.
bregde byo; paet nan man hit nah to geahnianne rapost ):>inga 24.3 And it does not seem just to us that anyone should as-
aer syx mondum, refter oam pe hit forstolen wres. sert possession when there are witnesses and fraud can be
25 And se oe tyhtbysig sig and folce ungetrywe and ]:>as proven; such being the case, no one should assert possession
gemot forbuge J:>riwa, ponne sceawie man of pam feordan of anything less than six months at least from when it was
gemote ]:>a oe him to ridan; and finde J:>onne gyt borh, gif he stolen.
mrege. Gifhe ponne ne mage, gewylde man hine swa hwreoer 25 And anyone who is of ill repute and considered un
swa man mrege, swa cucne swa deadne, and niman eall pret trustworthy by the community and fails to attend the court
he ahte. three times, at the fourth meeting men shall be appointed
to ride to him; and he may then still find a surety, if he can. If
he cannot do so, they are to capture him however they can,
either alive or dead, and seize all that he owns.

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25-1 And gilde man pam teonde his ceapgild, and fo se 25-1 And they shall give to the accuser a single payment
hlaford elles to healfum, to healfum pret hundred. equivalent to the market value of his goods, and half of the
25-2 And gif a6or oMe mreg oMe frremde pa rade forsace, remainder is to be taken by the landlord and half by the hun-
gylde pam cingce cxx scyllinga. dred.
26 And gesece se rebrera peof pret pret he gesece, oMe se 25.2 And if anyone, either his relative or a stranger, refuses
<Se on hlafordsearwe gemet sig, pret hig nrefre feorh ne ge- to participate in the ride, he is to pay the king one hundred
secean. twenty shillings.
26.1 And se <Se ofer pis stalige, gesece l>ret he gesece, pret he 26 And anyone convicted of theft or caught conspiring
nrefre pret feorh ne gesece ret openre pyfcSe. against his lord shall not be able to save his life, no matter
27 And se de on gemote mid wi6ertihtlan hine sylfne where he hides.
oMon his mann werige, hrebbe pret eall forspecen, and 26.1 And anyone who commits theft after this shall not be
geandwerde 6am oprum, swa hundrede riht pince. able to save his life no matter where he hides, if his guilt is
28 And pret nan man nrenne man ne underfo na lrengc proven.
ponne preo niht, butan hine se bef:Este, pe he rer folgade. 27 And anyone who seeks to protect himself or his fol-
28.1 And nan man his men fram him ne trece rer he drene sy lower in court by bringing a countercharge shall have spo-
relcere sprrece pe he rer beclypod wres. ken wholly in vain, and he shall respond to his opponent's
29 And gyf hwa peofgemete and hine his pances aweg lrete charge in whatever fashion the hundred court thinks best.
butan hreame, gebete be pres 6eofes were oMe hine mid ful- 28 And no one shall detain a servant for more than three
lan a6e geladige pret he him nan facn mid nyste. nights unless the latter has been entrusted to him by the
29.1 And gyf hwa bream gehyre and hine forsitte, gylde pres person he previously followed.
cingces oferhyrnesse oMe hine be fullan geladige. 28.1 And no one is to release one of his followers from ser-
vice unless he has been shown to be innocent of any accusa-
tion that has been brought against him.
29 And if anyone encounters a thief and of his own accord
permits him to escape without raising an alarm, he is to
make amends by paying an amount equivalent to the thief's
wergild or exonerate himself by swearing a full oath that he
did not know that the fugitive was guilty of any wrongdoing.
29.1 And if anyone hears the alarm and ignores it, he is to
pay the fine for disobedience to the king or exonerate him-
selfwith a full oath.

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30 And gyf hwylc man si swa ungetrywe pam hundrede 30 And if anyone deemed especially untrustworthy by the
and swa tihtbysig, and hine ponne preo men retgredere teon, hundred and especially frequently accused is charged by
oonne ne beo prer nan ooer butan pret he gange to oam pry- three men at once, then he shall have no other recourse ex-
fealdan ordale. cept to undergo the threefold ordeal.
30.1 Gyf se hlaford ponne secge pret him naoor ne ao ne or- 30.1 Yet if his lord declares that he has failed neither oath
dal ne burste syooan pret gemot wres on Winceastre, nime se nor ordeal since the court was held at Winchester, then the
hlaford him twegen getrywe men to innon pam hundrede, lord shall appoint two men from within the hundred to
and swerian pret him nrefre ao ne burste ne ordal, ne he swear that he has never failed an oath or ordeal, nor has he
peofgyld ne guide, butan he pone gerefan hrebbe, pe ores been convicted of theft, unless he has a reeve entitled to do
wyroe sig, pe pret don mrege. this.
30.2 Gyf se ao ponne fodkume, ceose se man J:>e prer betih- 30.2 Then, if the oath taking will proceed, the person who is
tled syg swreoer he wylle: swa anfeald ordal swa pundes accused shall there select whichever he prefers: a simple or-
weorone ao innan pam prim hundredan ofer XXX peninga. deal or an oath valued at one pound supported by witnesses
30.3 And gif heo pone ad syllan ne durren, gange he to pam from within the three hundreds in disputes involving prop-
pryfealdan ordale. And ofga man pret pryfealde ordal pus: erty valued at more than thirty pence.
nime fife and beo he sylf syxta. And gif he ponne ful weorde, 30.3 And if the accused dare not take the oath, he is to un-
ret oam forman cyrre bete dam teonde twygylde and pam dergo the threefold ordeal. And the threefold ordeal is to be
hlaforde his wer, pe his wites wyrde sig, and sette getrywe undertaken thus: the accuser shall choose five witnesses,
borgas pret he relces yfeles eft geswice. and he himself shall be the sixth. And then if the accused is
30.4 And ret pam odrum cyrre, ne si pa::r nan oder bot gifhe proven guilty, the first time he shall pay twice the fine to his
ful wurde butan pret man ceorfe him oa handa oMe pa fet accuser and the value of his wergild to his lord, who is enti-
oooe regper, be pam de seo dred sig. tled to receive his fine, and he shall choose trustworthy
30.5 And gif he ponne gyt mare wurc geworht hrebbe, ponne sureties to guarantee that he will afterward cease from all
do man ut his eagan, and ceorfan of his nosu and his earan wrongdoing.
and pa uferan lippan oMon hine hrettian, swa hwylc pyssa 30.4 And if he is proven guilty a second time, there shall be
no other possible compensation except to have his hands or
feet cut off or both, according to the seriousness of the
crime.
30.5 And if he has committed an even greater crime, then
his eyes shall be put out and his nose, ears, and upper lip cut
off or his scalp taken off, whichever of these is decreed by

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swa man ponne gen~de, oa pe t'fa:rto ra:dan sceolon; swa the person with the authority to pass judgment; thus may a
man ma:g styran and eac pa:re sawle beorgan. person be punished yet his soul be saved.
30.6 Gif he J:>onne ut hleape and pa:t ordal forbuge, gilde se 30 .6 Yet if he escapes and shuns the ordeal, his surety is to
borh oam teonde his ceapgyld and pam cingce his wer oooe give the market value of his goods to the accuser and the
pam J:>e his wites wuroe sig. value of his wergild to the king or to whoever is entitled to
30.7 And gif man ):>one hlaford teo, ):>a:t he be his ra:de ut receive that fine.
hleope and a:r unriht worhte, nime him v getrywe to and 30.7 And if the lord is accused of providing advice to the
beo him sylf syxta and ladige hine pa:s. person who had previously committed a crime so that he es-
30.8 Gyf seo lad forocume, beo he pa:s weres wyroe. capes, he must name five trustworthy witnesses and himself
30.9 And gif heo foro ne cume, fo se cingc to ):>am were and make a sixth, and exonerate himself of this.
beo se peofutlah wio eal folc. 30.8 If the exoneration is successful, he will be entitled to
31 And ha:bbe a:lc hlaford his hiredmen on his agenum the wergild.
borge. And gif hine man a:niges }:>ingces teo, andswarie in- 30.9 And if it does not succeed, the king shall take his wer-
nan ):>am hundrede, }:>a:r he on beclypod beo, swa hit riht- gild and the thief shall be adjudged an outlaw by the entire
lagu sig. realm.
31.1 And gyf he betihtlod weoroe and he ut oohleape, gilde 31 And every lord shall himself serve as surety for his fo}.
se hlaford pa:s mannes were oam cingce. And gyf man ):>one lowers. And if an accusation is brought against any of them,
hlaford teo, pa:t he be his ra:de ut hleope, ladige hine mid V he is to answer it in the appropriate hundred, just as the law
pegnum, and beo him sylf syxta. decrees.
31.2 Gyf him seo lad berste, gylde }:>am cingce his were; and 31.1 And if he comes to be accused and escapes, the lord is
si se man utlah. to pay the fugitive's wergild to the king. And if the lord is ac-
32 And gyf }:>eowman ret pam ordale ful weoroe, mearcie cused of advising him to escape, he must exonerate himself
man hine a:t }:>am forman cyrre. with the support of five thanes, and himself will make the
32.1 And a:t pam ooran cyrre ne si J:>a:r nan ooer bot butan sixth.
):>a:t heafod. 31.2 If the exoneration fails, he is to pay a fine equal to his
wergild to the king, and the fugitive is to be declared an out•
law.
32 And if a slave is proven guilty by ordeal, the first time
he is to be branded.
32.1 And on the next occasion he shall not be able to make
compensation except with his head.

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33 And gifhwylc man si, pe eallum folce ungetrywe si, fare 33 And if there is anyone judged untrustworthy by the
pres cingces gerefa to, and gebringan hine under borge, pret community, the king's reeve shall go and place him under
hine man to rihte lrede pam <Se him on sprrecan. surety so that he may be brought to justice before those who
33.1 Gif he pone borh nrebbe, slea hine man and on fulan have accused him.
lecge. And gif hine hwa forene forstande, beon hi begen anes 33.1 If he has no surety, he is to be executed and buried in
rihtes wyrae. unconsecrated ground. And if anyone intervenes on his be-
33.2 And se <Se pis forsitte and hit geforpian nelle, swa ure half, they shall both suffer the same justice.
ealra cwyde is, sylle pam cingce cxx scillinga. 33.2 And anyone who ignores this and refuses to uphold
34 And stande betux burgum an lagu ret ladunge. what we have all pronounced shall give to the king one hun-
35 And gyf freondleas man o<56e feorrancuman swa dred twenty shillings.
geswenced weorcSe purh freondleaste, pret he borh nrebbe, 34 And within the boroughs there shall be one law estab-
ret frymtyhtlan ponne gebuge he hengenne and prer gebide lishing the means of exoneration.
o6 c)ret he ga to Godes ordale, and gefare <Srer pret he mrege. 35 If a person who is friendless or come from afar is so be-
35-I Witodlice, se <Se freondleasan and feorrancumenan reft of friends as to lack a surety, on the first accusation he is
wyrsan dom demecS ponne his geferan, he derecS him sylfum. to be suspended in chains and there abide until he under-
36 And gyf hwa mrene acS on haligdome swerige, and he goes God's ordeal, and there suffer what he may.
oferstreled weorde, polige prera handa ocScSe healfes weres, 35.1 Truly, whoever hands down a more severe sentence on
and pret sy gemrene hlaforde and bisceope. the friendless or those come from afar than upon his own
36.1 And na beo he panon forcS acSes wyrc5e, butan he for companions does injury to himself.
Gode pe deoppar gebete and him borh finde pret he refre eft 36 And if anyone swears a false oath over the relics and is
swylces geswice. convicted, he shall either lose his hand or half his wergild,
37 And gyf hwa on leasre gewitnesse openlice stande and which is to be shared between king and bishop.
he oferstreled weorc5e, ne stande his gewitnes syMan for 36.1 And thenceforth, he shall not be considered worthy to
naht, ac gylde pam cingce oMe landrican pe his socne ahe be swear an oath, unless he repents most sincerely before God
healsfange. and appoints a surety to guarantee that he will afterward
cease from such perjury.
37 And if anyone publicly bears false witness and is proven
guilty, his testimony thenceforth shall count for nothing,
and he shall pay to the king or to the lord who holds jurisdic-
tion a fine equivalent to his healsfang.

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38 Nis on .enigne timan unriht alyfed; and J:>eah man sceal 38 Wrongdoing shall not be tolerated at any time; yet dur-
freolstidan and f.estentidan and on freolsstowan geornlicost ing holy seasons and at holy places it must be suppressed
beorgan. with the greatest diligence.
38.1 And a swa man byo mihtigra oMe maran hades, swa 38.1 And always, the mightier a person is or the higher his
screl he deoppor for Gode and for worulde unriht gebetan. rank, so must he do penance for his crimes all the more sin-
38.2 And godcunde bote sece mann symle georne be boc- cerely before God and the world.
t.ecinge, and woruldcunde bote sece man be woruldlage. 38.2 And spiritual penance shall always be assessed accord-
39 Gyfhwa weofodJ:>en afylle, sy he utlah wio God and wio ing to canon law, and secular penalties according to the civil
men, butan he purh wrrecsio ):>e deoppor gebete, and eac wio law.
oa mregoe; oooe geladige hine mid werlade. 39 If anyone kills a minister of the altar, he shall be excom-
39.1 And binnon xxx nihton aginne bote .egJ:>er ge wia God municated and outlawed, unless he repents all the more sin-
ge wia menn be eallum ):>am ):>e he age. cerely by making pilgrimage and also by paying compensa-
40 Gyf man gehadodne oMe .elpeodigne purh .enig ):>ingc tion to his victim's family; or he may exonerate himself by an
forrrede ret feo ooae ret feore, ):>onne sceal him cingc beon oath equal to the value of his wergild.
for m.eg and for mundboran butan he elles oaerne hlaford 39.1 And he must start to make amends within thirty days
ha:bbe. to both God and the community or forfeit all that he owns.
40.1 And bete man J:>am cingce, swa hit gebyrige, oooe he oa 40 If anyone conspires against the property or life of a
d.ede wrece swipe deope. cleric or a stranger in any way, then the king shall be his kins-
40.2 Cristenan kyningce gebyrad swyoe rihte ):>ret he Godes man and protector ifhe does not have another guardian.
rebylgde wrece swyde deope, be dam ):>e seo dred si. 40.1 And appropriate compensation shall be paid to the
41 Gyf weofed):>en manslaga weorde oMon elles to swyoe king, or he shall avenge that deed most severely.
manweorc gewyrce, J:>onne polige he .egJ>er ge hades ge 4 0 .2 It is most justly appropriate that a Christian king
edles, and wrrecnige swa wide swa papa him scrife, and d.ed should avenge affronts to God with the greatest resolve,
bete georne. according to the nature of the offense.
41.1 And gyf he ladian wylle, ladige mid J>ryfealdan. 41 If a minister at the altar commits murder or any other
serious crime, then he shall forfeit both his office and his na-
tive land, and he must go on a pilgrimage as far as the pope
prescribes for him, and fervently do penance.
41.1 And if he desires to exonerate himself, he must do so by
the threefold oath.

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41.2 And butan he binnan xxx nihton bote aginne wio God 41.2 And unless he starts to make amends within thirty days
and wio men, ponne si he utlah. to both God and the community, he will become an outlaw.
42 Gyf hwa gehadodne man bende oMon beate oooon 42 If anyone binds or beats or greatly shames someone in
swyoe gebysmrige, bete wic:S hine, swa swa hit riht sy, and holy orders, he shall make amends to him according to the
bisceope weofodbote be hades mreoe and hlaforde oooe law, and pay to the bishop the fine for assaulting an ecclesi-
cyningce be fullan mundbryce; oooe geladige hine mid fulre astic according to the victim's status, and to his lord or the
lade. king the full penalty for the violation of his protection; or he
43 Gyf gehadod man hine forwyrce mid deaoscylde, shall exonerate himself by the full oath of exculpation.
gewylde hine man and healde to bisceopes dome, be pam pe 43 If a person in orders compromises himself with a cap-
seo dred si. ital crime, he is to be arrested and held for the bishop's judg-
44 Gif deaoscyldig man scriftsprece gyme, ne wyrne him ment, according to the nature of the offense.
man refre. 44 If someone sentenced to death desires confession, it
44.1 And gif him hwa wyrne, gebete pret wid pone cing mid shall never be denied to him.
cxx scyl1ingum; oope geladige hine: nime v and beo sylf 44.1 And if anyone denies him confession, he shall atone for
syxta. that with a payment to the king of one hundred and twenty
45 Gyf man wealdan mrege, ne dyde man refre on Sun- shillings; or he may exonerate himself: he may select five
nandreges freolse renigne forwyrhtne man, butan he fleo witnesses and himself be the sixth.
oooe feohte; ac wylde and healde, pret se freolsdreg agan sy. 45 If it can be managed, no one sentenced to death should
45.1 Gyf freoman freolsdrege wyrce, ponne gebete pret mid ever be executed on a Sunday holy day; unless he flees or
his halsfange, and huru wio God bete hit georne, swa swa fights; but he is to be arrested and held until the holy day has
man him trece. ended.
45-2 l>eowman gif wyrce, polige his hyde oMon hydgyldes, 45-1 Ifa freeman works on a feast day, he shall atone for that
be pam seo dred sy. with the payment of his hea/sfang, and he shall most zeal-
45.3 Gyf hlaford his peowan freolsdrege nyde to weorce, ously repent before God in the manner assigned to him.
polige pres peowan, and beo he syooan folcfrig; and gylde 45.2 If a slave works, he shall suffer the lash or pay a fine in
lahslit se hlaford mid Denum, wite mid Englum, be dam pe its stead, according to the nature of the deed.
seo dred sig, oooe hine geladige. 45.3 Ifa lord compels his slave to work on a holy day, he shall
lose the slave, who will be free thenceforth; and he must pay
labs/it within the Danelaw and a penalty among the English
according to the nature of the deed; or he must exonerate
himsel£

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46 Gif frigman rihtfiesten abrece, gilde lahslit mid De• 46 Ifa freeman breaks a legally mandated fast, he must pay
num, wite mid Englum, be pam pe seo dred sy. lahslit within the Danelaw and a penalty among the English,
46.1 Yfel by<'S, J>ret man rihtfrestentide rer mrele ete, and gyt according to the nature of the deed.
wyrse pret man mid flrescmete hine sylfne afyle. 46.1 During a legally mandated fast, it is sinful for anyone to
46.2 Gif hit peowman gedo, polige his hyde oMe hydgyldes, eat before the appropriate time, and still worse for anyone
be pam pe seo dred sy. to befoul himself with flesh.
47 Gifhwa openlice lengctenbryce gewyrce purh feohtlac 46.2 If a slave does so, he shall suffer the lash or pay a fine in
oMe purh wiflac oMe purh reaflac oMe purh renige healice its stead, according to the nature of the deed.
misd:eda, sy p:et twybete, swa on heahfreolse, be <'Sam pe seo 47 If anyone openly violates the Lenten fast by fighting or
d:ed si. engaging in illicit intercourse or by robbery or any serious
47.1 And gif man :etsace, ladige mid pryfealdre lade. crime, he shall pay a double penalty according to the seri-
48 Gif hwa mid wige godcundra gerihta forwyrne, gilde ousness of the offense, as is appropriate during a religious
lahslit mid Denum, fullwite mid Englum; oMe geladige feast.
hine: nime x1 and beo sylf twelfta. 47.1 And if anyone denies the accusation, he must exoner-
48.1 Gif he man gewundige, gebete p:et and gylde fulwite ate himselfwith the threefold oath.
pam hlaforde, and ret bisceope pa handa alyse oMe hig 48 If anyone resists the payment of their ecclesiastical
al:ete. dues with violence, he must pay lahslit within the Danelaw
48.2 Gif he mann afylle, beo he utlah and his hente mid and the full penalty among the English; or he must exoner-
hearme :elc prera pe riht wylle. ate himself: he must select eleven supporters and himself
48.3 Gyf he gewyrce, pret man hine afylle, purh pret pe he make the twelfth.
ongean riht geondbyrde, gif man p:et geso<'Sige, liege ll!gilde. 48.1 If he wounds anyone, he must pay compensation for
that and pay the full penalty to the lord, and ransom his
hands from the bishop or lose them.
48.2 If he kills someone, he shall be outlawed and hunted
without regard for his safety by those who desire to uphold
the law.
48.3 If he acts in such a way as to cause his own death
through opposition to the law, he shall die without compen-
sation, if this can be proved.
 ROYAL LEGISLATION 2 CNUT

49 Gif hwa hadbryce gewyrce, gebete pret be hades mreoe, 49 If anyone injures a member of the clergy; compensation
swa be were swa be wite swa be lahslite swa be ealre are. must be paid according to the victim's rank, either by the
50 Gif hwa rewbryce gewyrce, gebete pret be pam pe seo payment of wergild, a fine, lahslit, or by the confiscation of
dred sy. all of the offender's property.
50.1 Yfel rewbryce byo pret eawfast man mid remtige for- 50 If anyone violates the marriage vows, compensation
licge, and mycele wyrse wio oores rewe oMe wio gehadode. must be paid according to the seriousness of the deed.
51 Gif hwa sibleger gewyrce, gebete pret be sibbe mreoe, 50.1 It is a terrible transgression for a married man to have
swa be were swa be wite swa be ealre rehte. intercourse with an unmarried woman, and much worse
51.1 Ne byo na gelic, pret man wio swustor gehreme and hit with another's wife or with a woman in orders.
wrere feorr sibb. 51 If anyone commits incest, the penalty shall be assessed
52 Gif hwa wudewan nydnreme, gebete pret be were. according to the degree ofkinship, either by the payment of
52.1 Gif hwa mreden nydnreme, gebete pret be were. wergild, a fine, or by the confiscation of all of the offender's
53 Gifbe cwicum ceodewifhi be oorum were forlicge and property.
hit open weoroe, geweoroe heo to woruldsceame sycHSan 51.1 Fornication with one's sister shall not be considered
hyre sylfre, and hrebbe se rihtwer eall pret heo ahte; and heo comparable to fornication with a distant relation.
polige nasa and earena. 52 If anyone rapes a widow, compensation shall be made
53.1 And gif hit tihtle sig and lad forberste, bisceop ponne through the payment of the offender's wergild.
wealde and stiolice deme. 52.1 If anyone rapes a maiden, compensation shall be made
54 Gif wiffrest wer hine forligce be his agenre wylne, through the payment of the offender's wergild.
polige prere and bete for hine sylfne wio God and wio men. 53 If a woman has intercourse with another man while her
54.1 And se oe hrebbe rihtwif and eac cifese, ne do him nan husband is still alive and it comes to be discovered, she shall
preost nan prera gerihta t,e man Cristenum men don sceal, bring worldly shame upon herself, and her legal husband
shall have all that she possesses; and she shall lose her nose
and ears.
53.1 And if there is an accusation and the oath of exculpa-
tion fails, the bishop shall judge and he is to judge harshly.
54 If a married man engages in intercourse with his own
slave, she shall be confiscated and he must do penance for
himself before God and the community.
54.1 And if anyone has a legal wife as well as a mistress, no
priest shall perform for him any of the sacraments to which

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rer pam he geswice and swa deope gebete swa bisceop him a Christian is entitled until he ceases and repents as pro-
t:Ece, and refre swylces geswice. foundly as the bishop instructs, and afterward entirely ab-
55 .tElpeodige men, gif hig heora hremed rihtan nellan, stains from such sins.
driue hi man oflande mid heora rehtum and synnangewitan. 55 If foreigners will not make their marriages conform to
56 Gif open moro weoroe pret man sy amyrored, agyfe the law, they shall be expelled from the realm with their pos-
man pam magum pone banan. sessions and leave with their sins.
56.1 And gif hit tihtle sig and ret lade mistide, deme se 56 If it comes to be shown that someone who has died vio-
bisceop. lently has been murdered, the murderer shall be surren-
57 Gif hwa ymb ciningc oMe hlaford syrwe, si he his dered to the family of the victim.
feores scyldig and ealles pa:s cle he age, butan he ga to ]:>ry- 56.1 And if there is an accusation and the oath of exculpa-
fealdan ordale. tion fails, the bishop shall judge the case.
58 Gif hwa ciningces borh abrece, gebete pa:t mid v pun- 57 If anyone conspires against the king or his own lord, his
dan. life and all that he owns shall be forfeit, unless he undergoes
58.1 Gif hwa arcebisceopes borh oMe repelingces abrece, the threefold ordeal.
gebete pret mid prim pundan. 58 If anyone violates the king's protection, he shall be pe-
58.2 Gif hwa leodbisceopes oMe ealdormannes borh ab- nalized five pounds.
rece, gebete pret mid 11 pundan. 58.1 If anyone violates the protection ofthe archbishop or a
59 Gif hwa on ciningces hirede gefeohte, polige pres lifes nobleman, he shall be penalized three pounds.
butan se cingc him gearian wylle. 58.2 If anyone violates the protection of a diocesan bishop
60 Gif man ret unlagum man bewrepnige, forgilde hine be or an ealdorman, he shall be penalized two pounds.
halsfange; and gif hine man gebinde, forgilde be healfan 59 If anyone fights within the king's household, he shall
were. lose his life unless the king is willing to show mercy to him.
61 Gif hwa on fyrde gryclbryce fulwyrce, oolige lifes oooe 60 If anyone illegally seizes a man's weapons, he is to pay
weregildes. him compensation equivalent to his healsfong; and ifhe binds
6u Gifhe samwyrce, bete, be ]:>am pe seo da:d sy, hine. him, he must compensate him with half his wergild.
62 Gif hwa hamsocne gewyrce, gebete pret mid v pundan 61 If anyone commits a capital crime while serving in the
]:>am cingce on Engla lage; and on Cent ret hamsocne, v pam army, he shall lose either his life or his wergild.
61.1 If anyone commits a lesser crime, he is to compensate
the victim according to the seriousness of the offense.
62 If someone is guilty of home invasion, he is to pay 6.ve
pounds to the king in areas under English law; and in Kent

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cingce and preo pam arcebisceope; and on Dena lage, swa for home invasion, five pounds to the king and three to the
hit rer stod. archbishop; and in the Danelaw, as it was previously de-
62.1 And gif hine mon J>rer afylle, liege regilde. creed.
63 Gif hwa reaflac gewyrce, agyfe and forgylde, and beo 62.1 And if he is killed in the course of his crime, he shall die
his weres scyldig wio J>one cingc oooe wio J>one J>e his socne without compensation.
age. 63 If anyone commits a robbery, he must make restoration
64 Husbryce and brernet and open J>yfo and rebrere moro and compensation, and his wergild is to be forfeit to the
and hlafordswyce refter woruldlage is botleas. king or to the authority that holds jurisdiction.
65 Gif hwa burhbote oooe brycgbote oooe fyrdfare for- 64 According to secular law, no compensation can be paid
sitte, gebete mid cxx scyllingum pam cingce on Engla lage, for housebreaking, arson, a theft which is openly proved, a
and on Dena lage swa hit rer stod, oooe geladige hine: namie murder which has been publicly discovered, or conspiracy
man him x1111, and begyte x1. against one's lord.
65-1 To cyricbote sceal eall folc fylstan mid rihte. 65 If anyone neglects the upkeep of fortifications, the re-
66 Gif hwa Godes flyman hrebbe on unriht, agyfe hine to pair of bridges, or required military service, he is to pay one
rihte and forgilde pam pe hit gebyrige, and gylde pam cingce hundred twenty shillings to the king in areas under English
be his weregylde. law, and under the Danelaw as it was previously decreed, un-
66.1 Gif hwa amansodne man oooe utlahne hrebbe and less he exonerates himself: fourteen potential witnesses
healde, plihte him sylfum and ealre his are. shall be identified for him, ofwhich he must obtain the sup-
67 And gif hwa wylle georne fram unrihte gecirran eft to port of eleven.
rihte, miltsige man for Godes ege, swa man betst mrege, 65-1 As is just, the whole realm shall contribute to the up-
J>am swype georne. keep of churches.
66 If anyone illegally shelters an excommunicated person,
he shall surrender him to the lawful authorities and pay
compensation to whom it belongs, and pay his wergild to
the king.
66.1 If anyone shelters and supports an excommunicated
person or an outlaw, it shall be at the risk of his life and all
his property.
67 And if anyone sincerely desires to turn from lawless-
ness to justice, as much mercy as possible must be shown to
him with very great eagerness, for fear of God.

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68 And utan don, swa us pearf is: helpan aa pam rapost 68 And let us do what is required of us: always aid as soon
pe helpes betst behofad; ponne nime we pres lean, prer us as possible those who most need our help; then we will re-
leofast byo. ceive the reward for that when it will be ofgreatest value to
68.1 Fordam a man sceal pam unstrangan men for Godes us.
lufe and ege lipelicor deman and scrifon ponne pam stran- 68.r For out of love and fear of God, one must always show
gan. Forpam de ne mreg se unmaga pam magan, we witon greater mercy in passing judgment and imposing penance
full georne, gelice byroene ahebban, ne se unhala pam halan upon the weak than upon the strong. For we truly know that
gelice. And py we sceolon medmian and gesceadlice todrelan the weak cannot bear the same burden as the strong, nor the
ylde and geogope, welan and wredle, freot and peowet, hrele sick the same as the well. And thus we must acknowledge
and unhrele. And regper man sceal ge on godcundan scriftan and carefully distinguish between the old and the young, the
ge on woruldcundan doman pas pingc tosceadan. rich and the poor, the free and the unfree, the well and the
68.2 Eac on mrenigre drede, ponne man byo nydwyrhta, sick. And these considerations must be weighed when as-
ponne by6 se gebeorges pe bet wyrde, pe he for neode dyde signing spiritual penance and secular judgment.
pret pret he dyde. 68.2 Moreover, in many cases, when the criminal has acted
68.3 And gyf hwa hwret ungewealdes gede6, ne byd pret eal- out of compulsion, then he is more deserving ofleniency be-
lunga na gelic pe hit gewealdes gede6. cause he did what he did out of necessity.
69 l>is is f>onne seo lihtingc pe ic wylle eallon folce gebeor- 68.3 And if anyone does something unintentionally, then it
gan, pe hig rer pyson mid gedrehte wreran ealles to swy6e. is not to be treated in any way as if the act were carried out
69.r l>ret is f>onne rerest: pret ic bebeode eallum minan gere- with intent.
fan pret hi on minan agenan me rihtlice tilian and me mid 69 Accordingly, this is the mitigation by which I mean to
l>am feormian, and l>ret him nan man ne f>earf to feormful- protect the people in cases where they previously were all
tume na pingc syllan butan he sylfwylle. too greatly oppressed.
69.2 And gif hwa refter 6am wite crafige, beo he his weres 69.1 This is foremost, then: I command all my reeves to
scyldig wio f>one cingc. provide for me in a lawful fashion from my own property
70 And gif hwa cwydeleas of pysum life gewite, si hit purh and thus support me, and that no one be required to give
his gymeleaste, si hit f>urh frerlicne dead, ponne ne teo se them additional provisions unless he so desires.
hlaford na mare on his rehta butan his rihtan heregeata. 69.2 And if any of my reeves solicits a bribe, his wergild shall
be forfeit to the king.
70 If anyone passes away without having made a will, ei-
ther because of negligence or sudden death, the lord shall
take no more from his estate than his legal tribute.

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70.1 Ac beo be his dihte, seo reht gescyft swyoe rihte wife 70 .1 But under his direction, the estate shall be divided
and cildum and nehmagum, relcum be t>rere mreoe, pe him most fairly among his wife, children, and close relatives,
to gebyrige. each receiving the share appropriate for them.
71 And beon pa heregeata swa fundene, swa hit mreolic si. 71 And a person's tribute shall be assessed according to his
Eorles swa orerto gebyrige, pa:t syndon v111 hors, 1111 ge- status. The tribute to be paid by an earl, as is proper, shall be
sadelode and 1111 unsadelode, and 1111 helmas and 1111 h,ir- eight horses, four saddled and four unsaddled, and four hel-
nan and v111 spera and eallswa fela scylda and 1111 swurd and mets, four mail shirts, eight spears, just as many shields, four
twa hund mances goldes. swords, and two hundred mancuses of gold.
71.1 And syMan cingces pegnas f>e him nyhste syndan, 1111 71.1 And moreover, the tribute to be paid by the thanes
hors, 11 gesadelode and II unsadelode, and II swurd and 1111 closest to the king shall be four horses, two saddled and two
spera and swa feala scylda and helm and byrnan and L mances unsaddled, and two swords and four spears, and just as many
goldes. shields, helmets, and mail shirts, and fifty mancuses ofgold.
71.2 And medemra pegna: hors and his gera:da and his 71.2 And by the common thane: in Wessex, a horse and its
wrepn oooe his healsfang on Wessexan; and on Myrcan II trappings, and his weapons or his healsfang; and in Mercia,
pund; and on Eastenglan II pund. two pounds; and in East Anglia, two pounds.
71.3 And cingces pegnes heregeata inne mid Denum, ):>e his 71.3 And the tribute paid in the Danelaw by a king's thane
socne hrebbe: 1111 pund. who possesses jurisdictional rights over his property shall be
71.4 Andgifhe to pam cingce furoorcyMe ha:bbe: 11 hors, 1 four pounds.
gesadelod and ooer unsadelod, and swurd and 11 spera and 11 71.4 And if he has a closer relationship with the king: two
scyldas and L mances goldes. horses, one saddled and the other unsaddled, and a sword,
71.5 And se oe lresse maga si: II pund. two spears, two shields, and fifty mancuses of gold.
72 And prer se bonda sret uncwydd his deig and unbecra- 71.5 And for those lower in rank: two pounds.
fod, sitte pret wif and t>a cild on pam ylcan unbesacen. 72 And if a householder has remained free of claims and
72.1 And gif se bonda, rer he dead wrere, beclypod wrere accusations during his lifetime, his wife and children may af-
ponne andwyrdan pa yrfenuman swa he sylf sceolde, ):>eah he terward hold that same property uncontested.
lifhrefde. 72.1 And if a claim had been made against the householder
73 And sitte relc wuduwe werleas xii monao, ceose syo<'San before he died, then his heirs shall respond to the claim as
):>ret heo sylf wylle. And gif heo binnan geares frece wer he himselfwould have had he lived.
73 And every widow shall remain without a husband for
twelve months, and afterward she shall choose as she herself
desires. Yet if she then chooses a husband within a year, she

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geceose, ponne polige heo prere morgengyfe and ealra prera shall forfeit her morning gift and all the property she inher-
rehta pe heo purh rerran wer hrefde; and fon pa nehstan ited from her previous husband; and his closest relatives
frynd to oam landan and to pan rehtan pe heo rer hrefde. shall take the land and possessions that she had hitherto
73,1 And si he his weres scyldig wio pone cingc oooe wio held.
pone pe he his socne geunnen hrebbe. 73.1 And her new husband shall forfeit his wergild to the
73.2 And peah heo nydnumen weoroe, polige prera rehta bu- king or to the lord entitled to receive it.
tan heo from pam ceorle wylle eft ham ongean and nrefre 73.2 And even if she has been married against her will, she
heo eft his ne weoroe. must forfeit her possessions unless she is willing to leave the
73.3 And na hadige man refre wudewan to hrredlice. man and return home and never again be his.
73.4 And gelreste relc wuduwe pa heregeatu binnan x11 73.3 And a widow is not to be consecrated as a nun too
monoum, butan hyre rer to onhagige, witeleas. quickly.
74 And na nyde man naoer ne wif ne mreden to pam pe 73.4 And each widow is to pay the tributes owed by her de-
hyre sylfre mislicie, ne wio sceatte ne sylle butan he hwret ceased husband within twelve months without incurring a
agenes oances gyfan wylle. penalty, if it has not been possible for her to pay earlier.
75 And ic lrete riht, peah hwa his spere sette to oores 74 And no woman or maiden shall ever be compelled to
mannes huses dura, and he piderinn rerende hrebbe, oooon take a husband whom she dislikes, nor is money ever to be
gif man ooer wrepne gedreohlice lecgce, prer hig stille paid for her unless the suitor wishes to give something of his
mihtan bean, gif hi moston, and hwylc man oonne pret own free will.
wrepn gelrecce and hwylcne hearm prermid gewyrce, ponne 75 And I believe it to be just that if anyone leaves his spear
is pret riht pret se oe pone hearm geworhte, pret se pone at the door of another's house while carrying out his busi-
hearm eac gebete. ness inside, or if anyone carefully sets down any other weap-
75,1 And se oe pret wrepn age, hine geladige, gif he durre, ons where they might remain safely if left to do so, and if
pret hit nrefre nres naoer ne his gewill ne his geweald ne his someone then takes the weapon and does harm with it, then
rred ne his gewitnes; ponne is pret Godes riht pret he beo the law shall be that the person who committed the crime is
clrene. thus to pay the penalty for that crime.
75,2 And wite se ooer, J>e J>ret weorc geworhte, pret he hit 75,1 And the weapon's owner shall, if he dares, swear an
bete swa swa lagan trecean. oath of exculpation that he had neither intention nor au-
thority nor complicity nor awareness concerning the crime;
then by God's law he shall be considered innocent.
75.2 And the other who committed the crime shall be sure
to make amends for it just as the law decrees.

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76 And gyf hwylc man forstolen pingc ham to his cotan 76 And if anyone brings stolen goods back to his home
bringe and he arasod wuroe, riht is pret he hrebbe pret he and is discovered, the law is that the finder shall have that
reftereode. which he has found.
76. 1 And butan hit under pres wifes creglocan gebroht wrere, 76.1 And unless the goods had been placed under the wife's
si heo clrene. Ac prere cregean heo sceal weardian: pret is lock and key; she shall be considered innocent. And these
hyre hordern and hyre cyste and hyre tege; gif hit under are the keys for which she shall be responsible: her store-
pyssa renigum gebroht byo, ponne byo heo scyldig. And ne room, her chest, and her cupboard; if the goods have been
mreg nan wif hyre bondan forbeodan, pret he ne mote into placed in any of these, she shall be considered guilty. Yet no
his co ton gelogian pret paet he wylle. wife can prevent her husband from storing anything he
76.2 Hit waes rer pyson, pret paet cild pe lreg on cradele, peah wishes in his home.
hit nrefre metes ne abite, pret pa gitseras letan efen scyldig 76.2 It so happened before this that avaricious persons
and hit gewittigwrere. would treat a child in the cradle, even though it had never
76.3 Ac ic hit forbeode heonon foro eornostlice, and swylce eaten solid food, as if it were guilty and complicit.
manege pe Gode syndon swyoe lape. 76.3 But I firmly prohibit such practices henceforth, and
77 And se man pe retfleo fram his hlaforde oMe fram his also many things that are most hateful to God.
geferan for his yrhpe, si hit on scipfyrde, si hit on landfyrde, 77 And the man who abandons his lord or his comrades on
polige ealles pres pe he age and his agenes feores; and fo se a campaign out of cowardice, whether on sea or land, shall
hlaford to pam rehtan and to his lande pe he him rer sealde. forfeit all that he possesses and his own life, and his lord
77,1 And gyf he bocland hrebbe, ga pret pam cingce to shall confiscate all the property and land that he had previ-
handa. ously given to him.
78 And se man, pe on pam fyrdunge retforan his hlaforde 77.1 And if he holds land by charter, it shall pass into the
fealle, si hit innan lande, si hit of lande, beon oa heregeata hands of the king.
forgyfene; and fon pa erfenuman to lande and to rehtan and 78 And the tributes of a man who falls before his lord
scyftan hit swyoe rihte. during a campaign, whether at home or abroad, shall be re-
79 And se oe land gewerod hrebbe on scire gewitnesse and turned; and his heirs shall receive his land and possessions
se nolde oooe ne mihte, pe hit aer ahte, hrebbe unbesacen on and share them most fairly.
drege and refter drege to syllenne and to gyfenne pam pe him 79 And the person who, with the knowledge of the shire,
leofost si. has overseen an estate, and the previous owner would not or
could not, shall hold it uncontested during his lifetime and
afterward be entitled to give or grant it to whomever he
prefers.

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80 And ic wylle pret rek man si his huntnooes wyroe on 80 And it is my desire that each person be entitled to hunt
wuda and on felda on his agenan. in his own woods and fields.
80.1 And forga relc man minne huntnoo, locehwrer ic hit 80.1 And let each person abstain from my hunting grounds,
gefriood wylle habban, be fullan wite. which I wish to be preserved, or incur the full penalty.
81 And drincelean and hlafordes rihtgifu stande refre 81 And let the negotiated contract and the lord's legal gift
unawend. always remain unaltered.
82 And ic wylle pret relc man si grioes wyroe to gemote and 82 And it is my will that everyone shall be entitled to pro-
fram gemote, butan he si rebrere peo£ tection on the way to and from assemblies unless he is a
83 And se oe pas laga wyrde, oe se cingc hrefd nu oa eallon knownthie£
mannon forgyfen, si he Denise oMe Englisc, beo he his 83 And anyone, Danish or English, who violates the law
weres scyldig wio pone cingc. which the king has granted to all of his people shall forfeit
83.1 And gif he hit eft wyrde, gylde tuwa his were. his wergild to the king.
83-2 And gyf he ponne swa dyrstig sig, J:>ret he hit ):>riddan 83-1 And if he violates it again, he shall pay twice his wer-
syoe wyrde, polige ealles J:>res pe he age. gild.
84 Nu bidde ic georne and on Godes naman beode manna 83.2 And ifhe is brazen enough to violate it a third time, he
gehwylcne, pret he inweardre heortan gebuge to his drihtne shall forfeit all that he possesses.
and oft and gelome smeage swyoe georne hwret him sig to 84 Now in God's name, I sincerely charge and command
donne and hwret to forganne. all the people to submit to their Lord in their innermost
84.1 Eallum us is mycel pearf pret we God lufian and Godes hearts and often and frequently reflect carefully upon what
)age fylgean and godcundan lareowan geornlice hyran. they should do and what they should forgo.
Foroam hi sceolon us lredan ford ret pam dome ponne God 84.1 There is a great need for all of us to praise God and fol-
demo manna gehwylcum be rerran gewyrhtan. low God's law and zealously heed our spiritual teachers. For
84.2 And gesrelig byo se hyrde pe ponne oa heorde into they must lead us forth to that judgment when God will
Godes rice and to heofonlicre myrhpe blioe mot lredan for judge each person by the deeds he has done.
rerran gewyrhtan. And wel prere heorde, oe gefolgao }>am 84.2 And blessed is the shepherd who may then happily lead
hyrde pe hig deoflum retweneo and Gode hig gestryneo. his flock into the kingdom of God and into heavenly bliss
for the deeds they have done. And it shall go well for the
flock which follows the shepherd who delivers them from
devils and redeems them for God.

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84.3 Utan ponne ealle anmodre heortan georne urum 84.3 Therefore, let us all, with a humble heart, zealously
Drihtne cweman mid rihte and heononforc) symle scyldan strive to please our Lord rightly, and henceforth always vir-
us georne wi<S pone hatan bryne, pe wealled on belle. tuously guard ourselves assiduously from the blazing fire
84.4 And don nu eac lareowas and godcunde bydelas, swa that rages in hell.
swa hit riht is and ealra manna pearf is: bodian gelome god- 84.4 And likewise, let teachers and spiritual ministers do
cunde pearfe. And a:k pe gescead wite Wyste him georne what is right and necessary for all people: frequently preach
and godcunde lare gehwa on gepance healde swy<Se freste, their spiritual obligations. And everyone capable of reason
him sylfum to pearfe. And a manna gehwylc to weordunge shall sincerely listen to them and hold their spiritual teach-
his Drihtne do to gode pa:t he mrege wordes and drede ings firmly in mind for their own good. And to honor the
glredlice refre; ponne byd us eallum Godes milts pe gearwur. Lord, each person must always gladly do all that he can to
84.5 A sy Godes nama ecelice gebletsod, and lof him and promote righteousness byword and by deed; then will God's
wuldor and wyrdmynt symle refre to worulde. mercy be the more certain for us all.
84.6 God relmihtig us eallum gemiltsige, swa his milda willa 84.5 May God's name be eternally blessed, and may there al-
sig and gehealde us refre on ecnesse. Si hit swa. Amen. ways be praise and glory and honor to him forever through-
out the world.
84.6 May God almighty have mercy upon us all, just as his
merciful will may be, and preserve us forever in eternity.
May it be so. Amen

299
 The Northumbrian Priests' Law The Northumbrian Priests' Law

Norohymbra preosta lagu The Northumbnan Priests' Law

1 Gyf hwa renigum preoste renig woh beode, beon ealle If anyone inflicts harm on any priest, all ofhis fellows-
geferan-mid biscopes filste - georne ymbe pa bote and with the bishop's help-are to be persistent about the com-
beon to relcan rihte, swa swa hit awriten is, quasi cor unum et pensation, and in every legal matter they are to be, just as it
animauna. is written, as one heart and one soul.
2 And Godes forbade, we forbeodao pret renig preost 2 And because of God's prohibition, we forbid that any
oores cirican naoer ne gebicgre ne gepicgre, buton hine hwa priest either buy or accept another's church, unless the
mid heafodgilte forwyrce pret he weofodl:>enunge panon other ruins himself with a capital crime so that afterward he
foro wyroe ne sy. is unworthy to serve at the altar.
2.1 Yet if any priest does so for any other reason, he is to
2.1 And gif hit renig preost elles gedo, l:>olige his wurc!-
scipes and geferena freondscipes, and he nahwar ne mressige forfeit his status and the fellowship of his colleagues, and he
rer hig hrebbe se l:>e hi mid rihte age. is not to hold Mass anywhere until he who properly pos-
2.2 And gilde se l:>e woh dide xx or pam biscope, XII or pam
sesses that church recovers it.
2.2 And he who committed that offense is to pay twenty
preoste J:>e he of his circan asette, XII or eallum geferan, and
polige pres feos eac gif he on unriht a:nig for oores preostes oras to the bishop, twelve oras to the priest whom he dis-
placed from his church, and twelve oras to all of his col-
circan sealde.
2.3 And relc preost finde him XII festermen, pret he preost-
leagues, and he is also to forfeit the payment if he paid anr
lage wille healdan mid rihte. thing wrongfully for another priest's church.
2.3 And every priest is to find for himself twelve bonds-
3 And gif hwilc preost agilte and he ofer biscopes gebod
mressige, gilde for oam gebode xx or, and partoeacan pone men, to ensure that he will properly abide by the priests' law.
gilt gebete de hit rer geworhte. 3 And if any priest sins and he holds Mass in spite of the
bishop's command, he is to pay twenty oras for neglecting
that command, and also do penance for the wrong which he
committed previously.

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 APPENDIX I THE NORTHUMBRIAN PRIESTS' LAW

4 Gif preost biscopes agen geban forbuge, gilde xx or. 4 If a priest disregards a bishop's own decree, he is to pay
5 Gif preost dam to lrewedum sceote, t>e he to gehade- twenty oras.
dum scolde, gilde xx or. 5 If a priest turns judgment in a dispute over to a layman,
6 Gif preost arcediacones geban forbuge, gilde XII or. when he should refer it to an ecclesiastic, he is to pay twenty
7 Gif preost scildig sy and he ofer arcediacones gebod oras.
mressige, gilde XII or. 6 If a priest disregards an archdeacon's decree, he is to
8 Gif preost fulluhtes oMe scriftes forwyrne, gebete t>a::t pay twelve oras.
mid xu or and huru wio God l>ingige georne. 7 If a priest is guilty of wrongdoing and he holds Mass in
9 Gif preost to rihtes timan crisman ne fecce, gilde XII or. spite of the archdeacon's command, he is to pay twelve oras.
10 .,£ghwilc cild sy, we la::rao, gefullod binnon nigon 8 If a priest refuses to perform baptism or confession, he
nihton, be wite VI or. is to compensate for that with twelve oras and most espe-
10.I And gif hret>en cild binnon IX nihton t>urh gimeliste cially plead fervently with God.
forfaren sy, betan for Gode buton worldwite; and gifhit ofer 9 If a priest does not fetch the chrism at the right time,
nigan niht gewuroe, betan for Gode and gilde XII or for clare he is to pay twelve oras.
heorde, t>e he wres hret>en swa lange. IO We instruct that every child is to be baptized within
n Gif preost folce miswissige ret freolse ocloe frestene, nine nights, or there will be a fine of six oras.
bete wio God and gilde x11 or. 10.1 And if a child dies a heathen within nine nights out of
12 Gif preost on unriht ut of scire had begite, gilde x11 or, neglect, penance is to be done before God without a secular
and diacon v1 or; and t>olie his hades, buton scirebiscop him penalty; and if it occurs after nine nights, penance is to be
hades geunne. done before God and twelve oras are to be paid for that ne-
13 Gif preost on unhalgodon huse ma::ssige, gilde x11 or. glect, because the child remained a heathen for so long.
14 Gif preost buton gehalgedon weofode mressige, gilde n If a priest misleads the people concerning a holy day or
XII or. a fast, he is to do penance before God and pay twelve oras.
12 If a priest wrongfully receives ordination outside of his
diocese, he is to pay twelve oras and a deacon six oras; and
he is to forfeit his ordination unless the bishop of the dio-
cese permits him to retain it.
13 If a priest holds Mass in an unconsecrated building, he
is to pay twelve oras.
14 If a priest holds Mass without a consecrated altar, he is
to pay twelve oras.

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15 Gifpreost on treowenan calice husl gehalgige, XII or. 15 If a priest consecrates the host in a wooden chalice,
16 Gif preost buton wine ma:ssige, gilde XII or. twelve oras.
17 Gif preost husl forgime, gilde XII or. 16 Ifa priest holds Mass without wine, he is to pay twelve
18 Gifpreost anes da:ges ma:ssige oftor ponne oriwa, gilde oras.
XII or. 17 Ifa priest neglects the host, he is to pay twelve oras.
19 Gif man ciricgrio abrece, bete be circan ma:oe and be 18 If a priest holds Mass more often than three times in
pam pe hire mund sy. one day, he is to pay twelve oras.
20 Gif man mid cirican mangie, bete be lahslite. 19 If anyone violates Church sanctuary, compensation is
21 Gif man cirican nydpeowige, gebete pa:t be lahslihte. to be paid according to the status of the church and accord-
22 Gif man preost of circan on unriht utige, bete pret be ing to its degree of protection.
lahslite. 20 If anyone uses a church as currency, he is to compen-

23 Gif man preost gewundige, gebete man pa wyndlan, sate for that with labs/it.
and biscope to weofodbote for his hade sille XII or; ret dia- 21 If anyone compels service from a church, he is to com-
cone v1 or to weofodbote. pensate for that with labs/it.
24 Gif man preost ofslea, forgilde man hine be fullan were, 22 Ifanyone wrongfully expels a priest from his church, he
and biscope feower and xx or to weofodbote; a:t diacone XII is to compensate for that with labs/it.
or to weofodbote. 23 If anyone injures a priest, compensation is to be made
25 Gif preost circan miswur6ige, pe eal his wuroscipe of for the injuries and, because of his order, twelve oras are to
sceal arisan, gebete pa:t. be given to the bishop as compensation tO the Church; for a
26 Gif preost on circan ungedafenlice pingc gelogige, ge- deacon, six oras as compensation to the Church.
bete pa:t. 24 If anyone kills a priest, he is to compensate for him

27 Gif preost ciricpingc utige, gebete pa:t. with his full wergild and twenty-four oras to the bishop as
compensation to the Church; for a deacon, twelve oras as
compensation to the Church.
25 If a priest dishonors the Church, from which all his
honor must come, he is to atone for that.
26 If a priest puts inappropriate things in a church, he is to
atone for that.
27 If a priest removes the possessions of the church, he is
to atone for that.

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28 Gif preost silfwilles l>a circan forlrete de he to gehadod 28 If a priest of his own volition abandons the church to
wres, gebete l>ret. which he was consecrated, he is to atone for that.
29 Gif preost oderne forseo oMe gebismrige mid worde 29 If a priest disrespects or shames another with words or
oMe mid weorce, gebete l>ret. deeds, he is to atone for that.
30 Gif preost wio oderne gefeohte, bete him and biscope. 30 If a priest fights with another, he is to make amends to
31 Gif preost oorum on unriht on fultume beo, gebete him and to the bishop.
l>ret. 31 If a priest abets another in wrongdoing, he is to atone
32 Gif preost odrum rihtes fultumes forwyme, gebete for that.
t>ret. 32 If a priest denies rightful assistance to another, he is to
33 Gif preost ooerne unwarnode lrete 1>.es, l>e he wite p.et atone for that.
him hearmian wille, gebete pret. 33 If a priest allows another to be unaware of what he
34 Gif preost sceare misgime beardes oooe feaxes, gebete knows will do him harm, he is to atone for that.
pret. 34 Ifa priest neglects to cut his beard or hair, he is to atone
35 Gif preost cwenan forlrete and oore nime, anathema sit! for that.
36 Gif preost on gesetne timan tida ne ringe oooe tida ne 35 If a priest abandons one woman and takes another, let
singe, gebete l>ret. him be accursed!
37 Gif preost mid wrepnum innan circan cume, gebete 36 If a priest does not ring or sing the canonical hours at
l>ret. the set time, he is to atone for that.
38 Gif preost rnisendebirde ciriclice gearl>enunga, <lieges 37 If a priest enters the church with weapons, he is to
oooe nihtes, gebete pret. atone for that.
39 Gif preost ordol misfadige, gebete pret. 38 If a priest performs the annual services of the church in
40 Gif preost searwao bewinde, gebete pret. the wrong sequence, by day or night, he is to atone for that.
41 Gif preost oferdruncen lufige oooe gliman oooe 39 If a priest errs while carrying out an ordeal, he is to
ealascop wuroe, gebete pret. atone for that.
42 Gif preost forhele hwret on his scriftscire betweox 40 If a priest conceals fraud while conducting an ordeal,
mannum to unrihte rixige, gebete l>ret. he is to atone for that.
41 If a priest embraces drunkenness, or becomes an enter-
tainer or a singer among drinkers, he is to atone for that.
42 If a priest conceals what injustice reigns among the
people of his parish, he is to atone for that.

308 309
 THE N0RTHUMBRIAN PRIESTS' LAW
APPENDIX I

43 Gif preost geargerihta unmynegode lrete, gebete pret. 43 If a priest permits the yearly dues to go uncollected, he
44 Gif preost sino6 forbuge, gebete pret. is to atone for that.
45 Gif preost to rihte gebugan nelle, ac ongean biscopes 44 If a priest fails to attend a synod, he is to atone for that.
gerrednesse wi6erige, gebete pret oMe beo he asyndred of 45 If a priest refuses to submit to what is right, but rebels
gehadodra gemanan and polige regoer ge geferscipes ge against the bishop's decree, he must atone for it, or he is to
reghwilces wuroscipes, buton he gebuge and oe deoppor be cut off from those in orders and lose both companion-
gebete. ship and every dignity unless he submits and atones for it
46 Gif hwa Godes lage oo6e folclage wirde, gebete hit very deeply.
georne. 46 If anyone violates the law of God or the law of the peo-
47 Ealle we sculon renne God wuroian and lufian and renne ple, he is to atone sincerely for that.
Cristendom georne healdan and relcne hrependom mid ealle 47 We must all revere and love one God and fervently ad-
awurpan. here to one Christian faith and wholly reject every heathen
48 Gif J:>onne reni man agiten wuroe pret renigne hreoen- practice.
scipe heonan foro dreoge oMe on blot oMe on firhte oMe 48 Accordingly, if anyone comes to be discovered who
on renig wiccecrreft lufige oMe idola wuroinge, gif he sy henceforth practices any heathen rituals, either through
cynges pegn, gilde x healfmarc: healf Criste, healf pam sacrifice or through divination or through any form of
cynge. witchcraft or the worship of idols, if he is the king's thane,
49 Gif hit sy elles landagende man, gilde VI healfmarc, he is to pay ten half-marks: half to Christ, half to the king.
healf Criste and healflandrican. 49 If he is a landholder of another kind, he is to pay six
50 Gifhit si frerbena, gilde XII or. half-marks: half to Christ, half to the local lord.
51 Gif cyninges pegn retsace, ponne nemne man him XII , 50 Ifhe is a commoner, he is to pay twelve oras.
and nime his maga x11 and XII wallerwente; and gif his a6 51 If a king's thane denies the charge, then twelve are to
berste, ponne gilde he lahsliht: x healfmarc. be chosen for him, and he is to select twelve kinsmen and
52 Giflandagende man retsace, J:>onne nemne man him his twelve neutral witnesses; and if his oath fails then he is to
gelican ealswa micel wente swa cyninges pegne; gif him J:>ret pay labs/it: ten half-marks.
berste, gilde lahsliht: VI healfmarc. 52 If a landholder denies the charge, then just as many
53 Gif cyrlisc man retsrece, J:>onne nemne man him his ge- witnesses of his same status are to be chosen for him as for a
licena ealswa mice! wente swa 6am oorum; gif him ):>a!t king's thane; if that fails, he is to pay labs/it: six half-marks.
berste, ponne gilde he lahsliht: x11 or. 53 If a commoner denies the charge, then just as many
witnesses of his same status are to be chosen for him as for
the others; if that fails, then he is to pay labs/it: twelve oras.

310
311
 APPENDIX I THE NORTH U MBRIAN PRIESTS' LAW

54 Gif friogeard sy on hwres lande abuton Stan oooe treow 54 If there is a hallowed space on anyone's property near a
oooe wille oMe swilces renigge fleard, J>onne gilde se oe hit stone or a tree or a well or any silliness of this sort, then the
worhte lahsliht: healf Criste healflandrican. one who made it is to pay lahslit: half to Christ, half to the
54.1 And gif se landrica nelle to steore filstan, ponne habbe local lord.
Crist and cyningc J>a bote. 54.1 And if the local lord will not aid in the enforcement,
55 Sunnandreges cypingc we forbeoda6 reghwar and relc then Christ and the king are to receive the compensation.
folcgemot and relc weorc and :dee lade, regder ge on wrene, 55 We everywhere forbid trade on a Sunday and every
ge on horse, ge on byrdene. public meeting and every type of labor and every type of
56 Se pe renig J>issa do, gilde wite: friman x11 or, oeowman transport, either by wagon or by horse or by carried load.
oa hyde; buton wegferende, }>a moton for neode mete fe- 56 One who does any of these is to pay a penalty: a free-
rian; and for unfrioe man mot freolsrefenan nide fulfaran man twelve oras, a slave with a beating; except for travelers,
betweonan Eferwic and six mila gemete. who may carry food out of necessity. And in times of con-
57 Sepe freols oMe rihtfresten brece, gilde wite x11 or. flict one may, out of necessity, journey a distance of up to six
57.1 And we willao, pret relc Rompreni beo gelrest be Petres miles from York on the eve of a holy day.
mressan to 6am bisceopstole. 57 One who violates a holy day or a legally mandated fast
57.2 And we willao, }>ret man namige on relcon wrepengetace is to pay a penalty of twelve oras.
1 I triwe J>egnas and renne mressepreost, }>ret hi hit gegade- 57.1 And we ordain that all dues to Rome are to be paid to
rian and eft agifan, swa hi durran to swerian. the episcopal see by Saint Peter's Day.
58 Gif cyninges J>egn oooe renig landrica hit forhrebbe, 57.2 And we ordain that two trustworthy thanes and one
gilde x healfmarc: healf Criste, healf cynge. priest in each wapentake be chosen to collect it and deliver
59 Gif hwilc tunes man renigne prenig forhele oMe for- it again, as they dare to swear to it.
hrebbe, gilde se landrica }>one prenig and nime renne oxan ret 58 If a king's thane or any local lord holds it back, he is to
cfam men; and gif landrica J>ret forgime, J>onne fo Crist and pay ten half-marks: half to Christ, half to the king.
cyningc to fulre bote: XII or. 59 If any townsman hides or holds back any penny, the lo-
60 Gif hwa teooinge forhealde and he sy cyninges pegn, cal lord is to pay the penny and seize one ox from that man;
gilde x healfmarc, landagende VI healfmarc, ceorl x11 or. and if the landlord fails in this, then Christ and the king are
61 And we forbeodao on Godes forbode, pret nan man na to confiscate the full penalty: twelve oras.
60 If anyone holds back his tithes and he is a king's thane,
he is to pay ten half-marks, a landholder six half-marks, a
peasant twelve oras.
61 And on account of God's prohibition, we forbid any

311. 313
~
APPENDIX I THE NORTHUMBRIAN PRIESTS' LAW

ma wifa nrebbe buton x; and seo beo mid rihte beweddod man to have more than one wife, and she is to be properly
and forgifen. promised and wedded.
61.1 And }>ret nan man ne wifige on neahsibban men J>onne 61.1 And that no man shall marry anyone more closely re-
wicSutan }>am IIII cneowe; ne nan man on his godsibbe ne lated than the fourth degree; nor is any man to marry one
wifige. spiritually related to him.
61.2 And gif hit hwa gedo, nabbe he Godes mildse, buton he 61.2 And if anyone does so, let him not have God's mercy;
geswice and bete swa biscop getrece. unless he desists and repents as the bishop instructs.
62 Gif he ponne on <Sam unrihte geendige, polige he 62 Yet if he dies in that sin, he is to be deprived of Chris-
clrenes legeres and Godes mildse. tian burial and God's mercy.
63 Gifhwa wicS nunnan forlicge, sy regcSer his weres scildig, 63 If anyone fornicates with a nun, they both-he and
gehege heo. she-are liable for their wergild.
63-1 And gif hi on <Sam geendigan buton geswicennesse, po- 63.1 And if they die without putting an end to that, let them
lian clrenes legeres and Godes mildse. be deprived of Christian burial and God's mercy.
64 Gif hwa his riht.Ewe lifigende forlrete and on oc'Sran 64 If anyone deserts his living lawful wife and wrongfully
wife on unriht gewifige, nrebbe he Godes myldse buton he weds another woman, let him not receive God's mercy un-
hitgebete. less he does penance for it.
65 Ac healde gehwa mid rihte his rewe pa hwile pe heo 65 But everyone is to keep his lawful wife as is right while
libbe; buton pret gewuroe, pret hi buta geceosan be biscopes she lives, unless it so happens with the bishop's guidance
gepeahte, p.et hi getwreman and }>anon forcS willan clren- that they both decide to separate and remain celibate hence-
nesse healdan. forth.
66 Gif renig man heonan for6 rihte laga wyrde, gebete hit 66 Henceforth, if anyone violates just laws, he is to atone
georne. for it sincerely.
67 Ealle we sculon renne God lufian and wurc'Sian and renne 67 We must all love and revere one God and fervently ad-
Cristendom georne healdan and .Elene hrecSendom mid ealle here to one Christian faith and wholly reject every heathen
awurpan. practice.
67.1 And we willacS }>.Et landceap and lahceap and witword 67.1 And we ordain that land transactions, legal fines, sworn
and getrywe gewitnes and riht dom and fulloc and frumtalu statements, honest testimony; just judgments, final settle-
freste stande, and dryncelean and hlafordes rihtgifu, and ments, and initial claims are to remain binding, likewise ne
huru an Cristendom and an cynedom refre on cSeode. gotiated settlements, the lord's lawful gift, and most of all
one Christian faith and one kingdom in the realm forever.
Sit nomen Dommi henedictum ex hoe nunc et usque in seculum.
Blessed be the name ofthe Lord,from henceforth now andforever:

314 315
The Obligations of Individuals and On Reeves The Obligations of Individuals and On Reeves

Rectitudines singularum personarum The Obligations of Individuals

Degenes lagu The Duty ofthe Thane

I Degenlagu is pret he sy his bocrihtes wyrOe, and p::et he I The thane's duty is to fulfill the obligations of his char-
Oreo Oinc of his lande do: fyrdfrereld and burhb~te and bryc- ter, and do three things with his estate: raise a militia, over-
geweorc. see the upkeep of the buildings and walls, and repair the
I.I Eac of manegum landum mare landriht arist to cyniges bridges.
gebanne, swilce is deorhege to cyniges hame and scarp to I.I Furthermore, on many estates additional property ob-

friOscipe and sreweard and heafodweard and fyrdweard, ligations arise out of the king's command, such as maintain-
relmesfeoh and cyricsceat and mrenige oOere mistlice Oingc. ing the animal hedge for the royal estate, provisioning a ship
for defense, service in the coastguard, the royal guard, and
the military watch, and the rendering of alms, Church dues,
and many other various things.

Geneates riht The Duty ofthe Tenant

2 Geneatriht is mistlic be Oam Oe on lande strent. On 2 The tenant's duty varies according to what is practiced
summon, he sceal landgafol syllan and grersswyn on geare on the estate. On some, he must pay rent on the land, and
and ridan and averian and lade lredan, wyrcan and hlaford give a pig for the use of the pasture each year, and ride and
feormian, ripan and mawan, deorhege heawan and srete hal- act as his lord's messenger, and carry loads, work, and supply
dan, bytlian and burh hegegian, nigefaran to tune feccan, food for his lord, reap and mow, trim the animal hedge, as-
cyricsceat syllan and relmesfeoh, heafodwearde healdan and sist in ensnaring game, build and erect a fence around
the homestead, guide newcomers to the community, pay
Church dues and alms, serve as a guard to the lord and to the

316 317
 APPENDIX I THE OBLIGATIONS OF INDIVIDUALS AND ON REEVES

horswearde, rerendian fyr swa nyr, swa hwyder swa him mon horses, carry out errands both far and near or to wherever
to t:eco. he is instructed to go.

Kotsetlan riht The Duty ofthe Cottager

3 Kotesetlan riht be dam oe on lande stent. On sumon, 3 The cottager's duty follows that which is practiced on
he sceal relce Mondrege ofer geares fyrst his laforde wyrcan, the estate. On some, he must work for his lord each Monday
ooo 111 dagas relcre wucan on hrerfest. throughout the year, or for three days per week during the
3.1 Apud quosdam operatur per totum Augustum omni die et harvest.
unam acram avene metit pro diurnali opere (et de ulla annona 3.1 On some, he works every day during all ofAugust and har-
dimidiam acram); et habeat garbam suam, quam praepositus vel vests one acre ofoats and a halfacre ofother grains as his daily ta-
minister domini dabit ei. bor; and he is to have his sheaf. which the reeve or servant of the
3.2 Ne oearfhe landgafol syllan. lord willgive to him.
3.3 Him gebyriao v receres to habbanne, mare gyf hit on 3.2 He does not need to pay rent on the land.
lande deaw sy; and to lytel hit bio beo hit a lresse, foroan his 3.3 It is appropriate for him to have five acres, more if it is
weorc sceal beon oftr:ede. the practice on the estate; yet it is too little if it be less, for
3.4 Sylle his heoroprenig on Halgan Dunresdreg, ealswa rel- his work must be frequent.
can frigean men gebyred, and werige his hlafordes inland, gif 3.4 He shall give his hearth penny on Holy Thursday, just as
him man beode, ret srewearde and ret cyniges deorhege and is proper for each free man, and defend his lord's land if
ret swilcan oingan swilc his mreo sy, and sylle his cyricsceat commanded and keep watch over the sea, and over the
to Martinus mressan. king's animal hedge, and over such things as befit his status,
and he is to render his Church dues the Feast of Saint Mar-
tin.

Gebures gerihte The Duty ofthe Tenant Farmer

4 Geburgerihta syn mislice: gehwar hy syn hefige; gehwar 4 The tenant farmer's duties vary: in some places they are
eac medeme. On sumen lande is pret he sceal wyrcan to wic- heavy; likewise, in others they are moderate. On some es-
weorce 11 dagas swilc weorc swilc him man tredS, ofer geares tates, he is to labor two days each week doing such work as
fyrst relcre wucan, and on hrerfest I II dagas to wicweorce he is directed, and over the harvest he is to work three days
and of Candelmresse oo Eastran III; gif he aferao, ne oearf a week, and three days a week from Candlemas to Easter; if
he wyrcan oa hwile oe his hors ute bid. he is acting as a messenger, he does not need to work while
his horse is out in the fields.

318 319
 APPENDIX I THE OBLIGATIONS OF INDIVID U ALS AND ON REEVES

4.1 He sceal syllan on Michaeles mressedreig x gafolpreniga, 4.1 On Feast of Saint Michael, he must pay rent of ten pen-
and on Martinus mressedreg xx111 systra beres and II nies, and twenty-three sesters of barley and two hens on the
henfugelas, on Eastran an geong sceap oooe II preniga. And Feast of Saint Martin, and a young sheep or two pennies at
he sceal Hegan of Martinus mressan oo Eastran ret hlafordes Easter. And from the Feast of Saint Martin to Easter, he
falde, swa oft swa him to begrec5. And of oam timan oe man must watch over his lord's sheepfold as often as his turn
rerest ereo oo Martinus mressan, he sceal relcre wucan erian I comes to him. And from the first plowing until the Feast of
recer and rrecan sylf pret sred on hlafordes berne. Toeacan Saint Martin, he must plow one acre each week and get the
c5am 111 receras to bene and II to grersyroe; gyf he maran seed himself from his lord's barn. In addition to that, he
grerses beoyrfe, oonne earnige ores, swa him man oafige. must plow three acres as mandatory tabor and two for pas-
4.2 His gauolyroe III receras erige and sawe of his aganum turage. If he requires more pasture, then let him earn it in an
berne. And sylle his heorc5prenig. Twegen and twegen fedan appropriate manner.
renne headorhund. And relc gebur sylle VI hlafas c5am 4.2 As plow dues, he is to plow three acres and sow it from
inswane, oonne he his heorde to mrestene drife. his own barn. And he should pay his hearth penny. And he
4.3 On c5arn sylfum lande c5e oeos rreden on strent, gebure should share with another the cost of feeding one hunting
gebyreo pret him man to landsetene sylle 11 oxan and I cu hound. And each tenant farmer is to give six loaves to the
and VI sceap and VII receras gesawene on his gyrde landes. lord's swineherd when he drives his herd to pasture.
Foroige ofer pret gear ealle gerihtu, oe him to gebyrigean. 4.3 On the same estate on which this custom is observed,
And sylle him man tol to his weorce and andlaman to his it is appropriate that the tenant farmer be given for the cul-
huse. Donne him forosio gebyrige, gyme his hlaford ores he tivation of the land two oxen, one cow, six sheep, and seven
lrefe. acres already sown on his allotment of land. Let him per-
4.4 Deos landlagu strent on suman lande. Gehwar hit is, form all the duties assigned to him over the course of the
swa ic rer cwreo, hefigre, gehwar eac leohtre, foroarn ealle year. And let him be given the tools for his labor and the
landsida ne syn gelice. utensils for his house. When he dies, his lord should oversee
4.5 On sumen landa gebur sceal syllan huniggafol, on whatever he leaves behind.
suman metegafol, on suman ealugafol. 4.4 This rule for estate management applies on certain
properties. In some places, as I said before, it is heavier, in
others even lighter, for all local customs are not alike.
4.5 On some estates, the tenant farmer must pay honey
dues, on some meat dues, on some ale dues.
 THE OBLIGATIONS OF INDIVIDUALS AND ON REEVES
APPENDIX I

4.6 Hede se oe scire healde pret he wite a hwret ealdland 4.6 The person who would oversee a shire should always
rreden sy and hwlEt oeode oeaw. take care to know what the previous estate agreements were
and what the local customs are.

Be aam oe beon bewitao Regarding Those Who Keep Bees

5 Beoceorle gebyreo, gif he gafolheorde healt, pret he 5 It is appropriate that the beekeeper, if he possesses a
swarm subject to taxation, pay whatever is assessed on that
sylle pret on lande gerred beo.
5-1 Mid us is gerred pret he sylle v sustras huniges to gafole; estate.
on suman landum gebyreo mare gafolrreden. 5-1 Among us it is agreed that he is to pay five sesters of
5-2 Eac he sceal hwiltidum geara beon on manegum weor- honey as dues; on some estates, it is the practice to assess a
cum to hlafordes willan, toeacan benyroe and bedripe and greater amount.
5.2 Additionally, he must sometimes be prepared to take
mredmrewette.
5.3 And gyfhe wel gelend bio, he sceal beon gehorsad pret on many tasks at his lord's desire, as well as required plow-
he mrege to hlafordes seame pret syllan oooe sylf lredan, ing, mandatory reaping, and mowing the meadows.
swreoer him man trece. 5.3 And if he is well provided with land, he shall be sup-
5.4 And fela oinga swa gerad man sceal don; eal ic nu atel- plied with a horse that he may lend out or lead himself for
lan ne mreig. the purpose of carrying his lord's loads, whichever is com-
5-5 Donne him forosi6 gebyrige, hede se hlaford ores he manded him.
lrefe, bute hwet friges sy. 5.4 A person thus bonded must do many things, all of
which I cannot now list.
5.5 When he dies, it his appropriate that his lord should
oversee whatever he leaves behind, except that which might
be free of his lord's control.

Gafalswane Tenant Swineherd

6 Gafolswane gebyreo )?ret he sylle his slyht, be oam de 6 It is appropriate that the tenant swineherd give his ani-
on lande stent. mals for slaughter, according to the practices observed on
the estate.
 APPENDIX I THE OBLIGATIONS OF INDIVIDUALS AND ON REEVES

6.1 On manegum landum stent J:>ret he sylle relce geare xv 6.1 On many estates, it is the practice that every year he
swyn to sticunge, x ealde and v gynge, hrebbe sylfpret he ofer gives fifteen swine for slaughter, ten mature and five young,
pret arrere. On manegum landum gebyreo deopre swanriht. and that he keep for himself whatever he should raise over
6.2 Gyme eac swan, pret he refter sticunge his slyhtswyn that. On many estates, greater obligations are expected
wel behweorfe and srencge: oonne bio he ful wel gewyrces from the swineherd.
wyroe. 6.2 Furthermore, the swineherd should take care that each
6.3 Eac he sceal beon swa ic rer be beocere cwreo, oftrrede swine after it is slaughtered be well prepared and smoked;
to gehwilcon weorce and gehorsad to hlafordes neode. then will he be fully worthy of his privileges.
6.4 Deow swan and oeow beocere refter forosioe be anre 6.3 Also, as I said before concerning the beekeeper, he
lagewyroe. must always be ready to take on any task, and equipped with
a horse for his lord's needs.
6.4 After their death, the peasant swineherd and the peas-
ant beekeeper are subject to the same law.

Be tehteswane Enslaved Swineherd

7 .tEhteswane oe inheorde healt gebyreo stifearh and his 7 To the enslaved swineherd who oversees the estate's
gewirce, oonne he spic behworfen hrefo, and elles oa gerihtu herd is due a young pig, and his privileges when he has pre-
oe oeowan men to gebyriao. pared the bacon, as well as all the other rights which pertain
to an enslaved person.
Be manna metsunge Regarding the Feeding ofthe Men
8 Anan esne gebyreo to metsunge x11 pund godes comes 8 For his food, each laborer is due twelve pounds ofgood
and 11 scipreteras and I god metecu, wudurreden be landside. grain, two sheep carcasses, one cow for meat, and an ar-
rangement for gathering wood according to the local cus-
tom.
Be wifmonna metsunge Regarding the Feeding ofthe Women
9 Deowan wifmen: VIII pund comes to mete, 1 sceap 9 Female servants are due eight pounds of grain as food,
oooe Ill preniga to wintersufle, I syster beana to lrengten- one sheep or three pennies as supplies for winter, one sester
sufle, hw:Eig on sumera oooe I p:Enig. of beans as supplies for spring, and whey in the summer or
one penny.
 THE OBLIGATIONS OF INDIVIDUALS AND ON REEVES
APPENDIX I

9.1 All enslaved people are due meals for Christmas and
9.1 Eallum rehtemannum gebyreo Midwintres feorm and
Eastorfeorm, sulhrecer and hrerfesthandful toeacan heora Easter, an allotment of land for farming, a portion of the
harvest, as well as their necessities.
nydrihte.

Befolgeran Regarding the Plowman

IO For the plowman, it is appropriate that he earn two
IO Folgere gebyreo, pret he on twelf monoum II receras
geearnige, ooerne gesawene and ooerne unsawene-sredige acres per year, one sown and the other unsown - he must
sow it himself-and his food and his shoes and gloves are
sylf orene-and his mete and scoung and glofung him ge-
byreo. due to him.
IO.I If he can earn more for himself, it will be for his own
10.1 Gyfhe mare geearnian mreig, him bio sylfum fremu.
benefit.

Bes12dere Regarding the Sower

11 Sredere gebyreo pret he hrebbe rekes sredcynnes renne n For the sower, it is appropriate that he have one full
bucket of each variety of seed after he has sown all his seed
leap fulne oonne he relc sred wel gesawen hrebbe ofer geares
satisfactorily over the course of the year.
fyrst.

Be oxanhyrde Regarding the Oxherd

12 The oxherd may graze two oxen or more with the lord's
12 Oxanhyrde mot lreswian II mean oooe ma mid hlafordes
heorde on gemrenre lrese be his ealdormannes gewitnesse; herd in the common pasture with his overseer's knowledge;
he may earn shoes and gloves for himselfwith them.
earnian mid oam scos and glofa him sylfum.
12.1 And the cow he intends for food may go with the lord's
12.1 And his metecu mot gan mid hlafordes mean.
oxen.

Bekuhyrde Regarding the Cowherd

13 Cuhyrde gebyreo, pret he hrebbe ealdre cu meolc v11 13 For the cowherd, it is appropriate that he have the milk
of a mature cow for seven nights after she bears a new calf
niht syMan heo nige cealfod hrefo and frymetlinge bystinge
and the colostrum of a young cow for fourteen nights.
XIIII niht.
13.1 And the cow he intends for food may go with the lord's
13,1 And ga his metecu mid hlafordes cu.
cows.
 APPENDIX I THE OBLIGATIONS OF INDIVIDUALS AND ON REEVES

Be sceaphyrdan Regarding the Shepherd

14 Sceaphyrdes riht is pret he ha:bbe twelf nihta dingan to 14 It is the right of the shepherd to have twelve nights'
middanwintra, and I lamb of geares geogeck, and I belflys, worth of dung at midwinter, and one lamb from the year's
and his heorde meolc VI I niht refter emnihtes drege, and young, and the fleece of one bellwether, and the flock's milk
blede fulle hweges oMe syringe ealne sumor. for seven nights after the autumn equinox, and a bowlful of
whey or buttermilk for the entire summer.

Begathyrde Regarding the Goatherd

15 Gathyrde gebyred his heorde meolc ofer Martinus 15 To the goatherd is due the milk of his herd after the
ma:ssedreig, and rer dam his drel hwreges, and I ticcen of Feast of Saint Martin, and before that his share ofwhey, and
geares geogode, gifhe his heorde wel begymed. one kid from the year's young if he looks after his herd well.

Be cyswyrhte Regarding the Cheesemaker

16 Cyswyrhtan gebyrd) hundred cyse, and pret heo of 16 To the cheesemaker is due one hundred cheeses, and
wringhwrege buteran macige to hlafordes beode; and hrebbe she is to make butter from the strained whey for the lord's
hire da syringe, ealle butan dres hyrdes da:le. table; and she should keep the buttermilk for herself, all save
the shepherd's share.

Be berebrytte Regarding the Barley Keeper

17 Berebryttan gebyred corngebrot on hrerfeste a:t heroes 17 To the barley keeper is due the grain dropped at the
dure, gif him his ealdorman ann and he hit mid getrywdan barn door at harvest, if his overseer grants it to him and he
geearnod. has earned it by his diligence.

Bebydele Regarding the Beadle

18 Bydele gebyrad pret he for his wycan sy weorces frigra 18 Because of his duties, it is appropriate that the beadle
oonne ooer man, fordan he sceal beon oftrrede. be freer ofwork than other men, for he must always be avail-
18.1 Eac him gebyred sum landsticce for his geswince. able.
18.1 In addition, a plot ofland is due to him for his labor.
 APPENDIX I THE OBLIGATIONS OF INDIVID U ALS AND ON REEVES

Be wudewarde Regarding the Forester

19 Wuduwearde gebyred relc windfylled treow. 19 To the forester is due every tree felled by the wind.
20 Hreigwerde gebyreo pret man his geswinces lean 20 For the person appointed to oversee the hedges and
gecnawe on oam endum de to etenlrese Hegan, foroam he fields, it is appropriate that the reward for his efforts be un-
mreig wenan, gyf he pret rer forgymo, pret him man dampnum derstood to lie at the ends of the field alongside the com-
segetis imputahitur: mon pasture, because ifhe first neglects that, he can expect
20.1 Hwilces landsticces geann, pret sceal beon mid folc- to he heldresponsiblefor any damage to the land.
rihte nyhst etenlrese foroam gyf he for slrewoe his hlafordes 20.1 Whichever plot ofland is allotted to him should be, ac-
forgymo, ne bio his agnum wel geborgen gif hit bio ous cording to the common law, closest to the common pasture,
funden. for if he neglects his lord's land out of laziness, his own will
20.2 Gyf he oonne eal wel gefrioao he healdan sceal, oonne not be well protected if thus located.
bio he godes leanes ful wel wyroe. 20.2 Yet if he guards well all that he must protect, then he
21 Landlaga syn mistlice, swa ic rer beforan srede. will be entirely worthy of a good reward.
21.1 Ne Sette we na oas gerihtu ofer ealle oeoda, oe we .er 21 The rules for estate management are diverse, as I said
beforan ymbe sprrecon; ac we cyoao, hwret oeaw is orer orer before.
us cuo is. 21.1 Nor do we impose the obligations that we have previ-
21.2 Gyf we selre geleorniao, pret we willao georne lufian ously discussed on the entire realm, but we are describing
and healdon be a.ere oeode oeawe oe we oamne onwuniao. what the practice is here, where it is known to us.
21.3 Foroam laga sceal on leode luflice leornian, lof se oe on 21.2 If we learn of better ones, we will readily praise and ob-
lande sylf nele leosan. serve them according to the practices of the community in
21.4 Feola syndon folcgerihtu: on sumre oeode gebyreo which we then dwell.
winterfeorm, Easterfeorrn, bendform for ripe, gytfeorm for 21.3 For the law must be willingly learned from the people if
yroe, mreomed, hreacrnete, ret wudulade wrentreow, ret one does not wish to lose esteem in the community.
cornlade hreaccopp and fela oinga, oe ic getellan ne mreig. 21.4 The people's rights are many: in some communities
21.5 Dis is oeah myngung manna biwiste and eal J>ret ic rer they are due a meal at Christmas, a meal at Easter, a feast at
beforan ymberehte. harvest, a feast for the plowing, a hayrick feast for the cut-
ting of the grass, a log in return for the carting of wood, the
topmost grain on the cart for the transportation of the crop,
and many other things that I cannot list.
21.5 Yet this is an admonition concerning the provisioning
of the people, and all that I have previously described.

33° 33 1
 Gerefa On Reeves

Be gesceadwisan gerefan Concerning the Prudent Reeve

1 Se scadwis gerefa sceal .ego.er witan ge hlafordes 1 The prudent reeve must know both his lord's property
landriht ge folces gerihtu be oam oe hit of ealddagum witan rights and the rights of the people as determined by the
gerreddan, and relcre tiloan timan oe to tune belimpo. councilors in days of old, as well as the proper time for each
1. 1 Foroam on manegum landum til6 bi6 redre oonne on task on the estate.
oorum: ge yroe tima hrredra, ge mreda rredran, ge winterdun 1. r Certain tasks for the land must come before others:
eac swa, ge gehwilc ooer tilo. earlier plowing times, earlier mowing and winter pasturage
2 Hede se oe scire healde pret he frioige and for6ige relce also, as well as each other chore.
be oam oe hit selest sy, and be 6am he eac mot 6e hine weder 2 The person who wishes to oversee a shire must take
wisao. care to observe and carry out each of these as is most
2.1 He sceal snotorlice smeagean and georne 6urhsmugan needed, and also to be guided by the weather.
ealle oa oing oe hlaforde magan to rrede. 2.1 He is to wisely consider and assiduously refiect upon all
3 Gyf he wel aginnan wile, ne mreig he sleac beon ne to those things that might be of help to his lord.
oferhydig, ac he mot regoer witan ge lresse ge mare, ge betere 3 If he desires to do well, he must be neither slack nor
ge mretre ores de to tune belimpo, ge on tune ge on dune, ge overcautious, but he must know both the lesser things and
on wuda ge on wretere, ge on felda ge on falde, ge inne ge the greater, the better things and the worse, of all that be-
Ute. longs to the estate, both on the homestead and in the hills,
3-1 Foroam to sooe ic secge: oferhogie he oooe forgyme oa both in the woods and in the waters, both in the fields and in
oing to beganne and to bewitanne, oe to scipene oooe to the folds, both indoors and out.
odene belimpao, sona hit wyro on berne pret to oam belim- 3.1 For it is true what I say: if he is disdainful or he over-
pao. looks those duties which must be carried out and overseen,
4 Ac ic lrere pret he do swa ic rer cw.ea: gyme regoer ge then that which belongs in the cow stalls or on the threshing
ores selran ge pres sremran pret naaor ne misfare gyf he Boor will soon turn up in the barn.
4 But I instruct him to do as I said earlier: care for both
the better and the worse so that nothing will go astray if he
 APPENDIX I THE OBLIGATIONS OF INDIVIDUALS AND ON REEVES

wealdan mrege, ne corn ne sceaf, ne Aresc ne Aotsmeru, ne can prevent it, neither grain nor sheaf, neither meat nor
cyse ne cyslyb, ne nan oera oinga oe refra to note m.ege. scrap of fat, neither cheese nor rennet, nor any of those
5 Swa sceal god scyrman his hlafordes healdan, do ymbe things which might ever be of use.
his agen, swa swa he wylle. 5 A good shire reeve must oversee his lord's property
p A swa he gecneordra swa bio he weorora, gyf he wio thus, no matter what he does about his own.
witan hafoo his wisan gemrene. 5.1 If he is ever the more diligent, so shall he be the more
6 Symle he sceal his hyrmen scyrpan mid manunge to hla- deserving, if he takes his guidance from a wise man.
fordes neode, and him eac leanian be oam oe hy earnian. 6 He must constantly encourage his subordinates with
7 Ne lrete he nrefre his hyrmen hyne oferwealdan, ac advice for his lord's benefit, and reward each of them as they
wille he .elcne mid hlafordes creafte and mid folcrihte: selre deserve.
him is refre of folgooe oonne on, gyf hine magan wyldan oa 7 Nor must he ever permit his subordinates to manipu-
oe he scolde wealdan. Ne bio hit hlaforde rred, pret he pret late him, but he should govern each of them according to his
oafige. lord's rule and the laws of the people; it would always be bet-
8 .tEfre he mreig findan, on oam he mreig nyt beon, and cfa ter for him to be out of service than in if he would be gov-
nytte don oe him fylstan scylan. Huru is mrest neod pret he erned by those whom he should govern. The lord is not wise
asece hu he yrde mrege fyrme geforoian oonne ores tima sy. who tolerates this.
9 He mreig in Maio and Iunio and lulio on sumera feal- 8 He must always seek out that in which he might be
gian, myxendincgan ut dragan, lochyrdla tilian, sceap scyran, helpful, and take advantage of anything he shall find useful.
bytlian, boteatan, tynan, tymbrian, wudian, weodian, fal- In particular, it is most necessary that he learn how to culti-
dian, fiscwer and mylne macian. vate the earth when it is time.
10 On hrerfeste ripan, in Agusto and Septembri and Octo- 9 In May.June, andJuly over the summer, one must plow
bri mawan, wad spittan, fela tiloa ham grederian, oacian, the fields, spread the manure from the dung pile, prepare
oecgan and fald weoxian, scipena behweorfan and hlosan fences for the sheepfolds, shear the sheep, build, repair, en-
eac swa, rer to tune to stid winter cume, and eac yroe georne close, construct, chop wood, weed, erect the sheepfolds,
foroian. and make fish weirs and mills.
10 During the harvest season, reap in August, September,
and October, mow, plant woad, collect many crops for the
home, thatch the roof, clean the fold, attend to the cowshed
and also the pigsty before excessive winter harshness comes
to the estate, and prepare the ground diligently.
 APPENDIX I THE OBLIGATIONS OF INDIVIDUALS AND ON REEVES

n On wintra erian and in miclum gefyrstum timber cleo- u During the winter, one is to plow, fell trees during the
fan, orceard rreran and mrenige inweorc wyrcean, oerhsan, great frost, tend to the orchard, carry out indoor tasks,
wudu cleofan, hrycSeran styllan, swyn stician, on odene cylne thresh, chop wood, put cattle in stalls, put pigs in their sty,
macian, ofn and aste and feta oinga sceal to tune, ge eac construct a kiln on the threshing floor and an oven and an
henna hrost. oast, and do many other things on the estate such as build-
12 On lrengtene eregian and impian, beana sawan, win- ing chicken roosts.
geard settan, dician, deorhege heawan and raoe refter oam, 12 During the spring, one is to plow and graft, sow beans,
gif hit mot gewiderian, mederan settan, linsed sawan, wad- prepare the vineyard, construct dykes, trim the animal
sred eac swa, wyrtun plantian and fela 6inga; ic eal geteallan hedge, and soon thereafter, if the weather happens to be
ne mreig, pret god scirman bigan sceal. fair, to plant madder, sow linseed and woad, and also plant
13 A he mreig findan hwret he m:eig on byrig betan, ne the garden and many other things; I cannot list all that a
oearf he na unnyt beon oonne he orer binnan bio: oMe hus good shire reeve must carry out.
godian, rihtan and weoxian and grep hegian, dicsceard 13 He must always seek out anything he can improve out
betan, hegas godian, weod wyrtwalian, betweox husan bric- in the community, nor need he be without occupation when
gian, beoddian, bencian, horsan styllan, flor feormian, oMe he is inside: he may repair the house, put things right and
swilces cynnes sum ding oe to nyte mrege. clean, clear the drainage ditches, fix breaks in the dikes, fix
14 He sceal fela tola to tune tilian and fela andlomena to the hedges, pull weeds, lay pavement between buildings, do
husan habban: joiner's work, build benches, put the horses in their stalls,
15 :Ecse, adsan, bil, byrse, scafan, sage, cimbiren, tigehoc, wash the floors, or do anything else that might need to be
nrefebor, mattuc, ippingiren, scear, culter and eac gadiren, done.
sioe, sicol, weodhoc, spade, scofie, wadspitel, brerwan, 14 He must obtain many tools for the estate and have
besman, bytel, race, geafle, hl:Edre, horscamb and sceara, many utensils for the house:
fyrtange, wreipundern. 15 ax, adze, billhook, chisel, plane, saw, clamp, pull hook,
15-1 And fela towtola: flexlinan, spinle, reol, gearnwindan, auger, mattock, crowbar, plowshare, coulter, and likewise a
stodlan, lorgas, presse, pihten, timplean, wifte, wefle, goad, scythe, sickle, hoe, spade, shovel, woad dibble, barrow,
broom, mallet, rake, fork, ladder, horse comb and shears,
fire tongs, scale.
15.1 Also many spinning tools: a line for hanging flax, spin-
dle, reel, yarn winders, loom uprights, heddle rods, a cloth
press, comb beater, temples, weft thread, warp thread, wool

336 337
 APPENDIX I THE OBLIGATIONS OF INDIVIDUALS AND ON REEVES

wulcamb, cip, amb, crancsta:f, sceaoele, seamsticcan, scearra, comb, yoke beam, beater, crank, sheath, seam picks, fabric
na:dle, slic. shears, needle, wooden mallet.
16 And gif he smeawyrhtan ha:f6, 6am he sceal to tolan 16 And if he has skilled workmen, then he must provide
fylstan-mylewerde, sutere, leodgotan and o6ran wyrhtan. them with tools- miller, shoemaker, plumber, and other la-
l'Elc weorc sylf wisa6, hwa:t him to gebyre6; nis a:nig man, borers. Each type of work demonstrates the tools most ap-
pa:t atellan ma:ge oa tol ealle, 6e man habban sceal. propriate for it; there is no one who can list all the tools that
17 Man sceal habban wa:ngewa:du, sulhgesidu, ege6- a worker must have.
getigu, and fela oinga <Je ic nu gena:mnian ne can ge eac 17 One must have a wagon cover, the equipment for a
mete: awe! and to odene Rigel and andlamena fela; hwer, plow, the equipment for a harrow, and many things which I
lead, cytel, hla:del, pannan, crocca, brandiren, dixas, stel- cannot name now; also a measuring stick, awl, flail for the
melas, cyfa, cyflas, cyrne, cysfa:t, ceodan, wilian, windlas, threshing floor, many loom weights, pot, cauldron, kettle,
systras, syfa, sa:dleap, hriddel, hersyfe, ta:mespilan, fanna, ladle, pans, crockery, firedog, dishes, pots with handles,
trogas, a::scena, hyfa hunigbinna, beorbydene, ba:Mret, beo- tubs, buckets, churn, cheese vat, bags, rolled baskets, bas-
das, butas, bleda, melas, cuppan, seohhan, candelstafas, kets, pitchers, sieves, seed bucket, coarse sieve, hair sieve,
sealtfret, sticfodder, piperhorn, cyste, mydercan, bearm- sieve frame, winnowing fans, troughs, ash-wood buckets,
teage, hlydan, sceamelas, stolas, la:flas, leohtfret, blacern, bucket to collect honey from the hive, beer barrel, bathtub,
cyllan, sapbox, camb, yrsebinne, fodderhec, fyrgebeorh, dishes, vessels, goblets, bowls, cups, sieve, candlesticks, salt-
meluhudern, relhyde, ofnrace, mexscofle. cellar, spoon case, pepper horn, chest, money chest, yeast
18 Hit is earfo6e eall to gesecganne pa:t se be6encan sceal box, seats, benches, stools, basins, lantern, lamp, leather
oe scire healt. bottle, soapbox, comb, manger, fodder rack, fire screen,
18.1 Ne sceolde he nan 6ing forgyman 6e a:fre to note meal storehouse, eel-skin bag, oven rake, dung shovel.
mehte: ne for6a musfellan ne, pa:t git la:sse is, to ha:psan 18 It is difficult to recount all that that must be remem-
pinn. bered by the person who oversees a shire.
18.2 Feta sceal to holdan hames gerefan and to gemetfrestan 18.1 He must not neglect anything that might ever be of im-
manna hyrde. portance: not even a mousetrap, nor even something as in-
19 le gecende be 6am <Se ic cuoe; se oe bet cunne, gecy6e significant as a fastening pin.
his mare. 18.2 Many things are required of the trusty reeve of a home-
stead and of a responsible manager of people.
19 I have revealed what I know; let anyone who knows
better make known more.
APPENDIX 2
Revisions and Reworkings
 1..tEthelstan 1 ..tEthelstan

.IE.oelstaneIgmednes .IE.thelstan's Decree

Pr le .IEoelstan cyng, mid gepehte Wulfhelmes arce- Pr I, King .IEthelstan, with the advice ofArchbishop Wulf-
biscopes and eac minra operra biscopa, cyoe pam gerefan to helm and also my other bishops, proclaim to the reeves in
gehwylcere byrig and eow bidde on Godes naman and on every community and command you in the name of God
ealra his haligra, and eac be minum freondscipe beode, pret and all of his saints, and charge you likewise by my friend-
ge rerest of minum agenum gode agyfan pa teopunga, regper ship, that you first pay the tithes from my own holdings,
ge on cwicum ceape ge on l:>res geares eorowrestmum, swa both from the livestock and from the year's produce, seeing
man rihtast mrege ocloe gemetan oMe getellan oMe awe- that they are measured, counted, and weighed to the best of
gan. And pa biscopas ponne l:>ret ylce don on heora agenum your ability. And let the bishops do likewise with their hold-
gode, and mine ealdormen and mine gerefan pret sylfe. ings, and my ealdormen and my reeves with theirs.
1 And ic wille pret biscopas and pa gerefan hit beodan 1 And I direct the bishops and reeves to convey this
eallum pam pe him hyran scylan, and pret hit to pam rihtan command to those who must obey them, and that the tithes
andagan gelrest sy. are to be rendered on the lawfully appointed day.
2 titan gel:>encan, hu Iacob cwreo se heahfreder: decimas et 2 Let us recall how the patriarchJacob said, tithes and sac-
hostias pacificas offeram tibi; and hu Moyses cwreo on Godes rifices I offer to you; and how Moses proclaimed in God's law,
lage: decimas etprimitias non tardabis offerre Domino. do not hesitate to offer tithes andfirst fruits unto the Lord.
3 Us is to geoencanne hu ondryslic hit on bocum ge- 3 It is incumbent upon us to bear in mind how dreadful is
cweden is: "Gif we pa teopunga Gode gelrestan nellao, pret the judgment which is preserved in books: "If we refuse to
he us benimeo para nigon drela, ponne we lrest wenacl, and pay our tithes to God, he will take from us the other nine
eac we habbacS pa synne toeacan." portions when we least expect it, and moreover we will have
4 And ic wille eac pret mine gerefan gedon pret man agyfe sinned."
l:>a cyricsceattas and pa sawlsceattas to oam stowum pe hit 4 And I likewise command my reeves to act so that
mid rihte to gebyrige and sulh:dmessan on geare, on oa Church dues and dues for the souls of the dead are paid at
the legally designated places, and plow dues each year, on
 APPENDIX 2 I .-£THELSTAN

gerad pzt pa his brucan zt 6am haligan stowan, pe heora the understanding that they will be used at the holy places
cyrcan began willacS and to Gode and to me geearnian willa6. by those by those willing to care for their church and who
Se cSe ponne nelle, polige prere are oMe eft to rihte gecyrre. wish to be deserving before God and me. Whoever refuses
5 Nu ge gehyracS, cwrecS se cyng, hwres ic Gode ann and to do this shall either forfeit his office or resume his proper
hwzt ge gelrestan sceolan be minre oferhyrnysse. And ge- duties.
dod eac, pret ge me unnon mines agenes, pe ge me mid rihte 5 Now you shall hear, the king said, what I grant to God
gestrynan magan. Nelle ic, pret ge me mid unrihte ahwar oht and what you must do, lest you show disobedience to me.
gestrynan, ac ic wille eowres agenes geunnan eow rihtlice, And you shall likewise act so that you give to me that which
on pa gerad pe ge me unnan mines. And beorgad regcSer ge is my own, and which you can rightfully obtain for me. I do
eow ge pam pe ge myngian scylan wicS Godes yrre and wicS not desire that you should obtain anything anywhere unlaw-
mine oferhirnesse. fully, but I will grant you justly that which is yours, just as
long as you grant me what is mine. And you are to guard
yourselves and those whom you must admonish against the
wrath of God and disobedience to me.
 1Edmund 1 Edmund

Her onginneo Eadmundes ger12dnes: Here hegins Edmund's decree:

Pr Eadmund cyngc gesamnode micelne sino5 to Lunden- Pr King Edmund convened a great assembly of both the
birig on 5a halgan Easterlican tid regc:5er ge godcundra hada spiritual and secular orders at London during the holy Eas-
ge worldcundra. Dar wres Oda arcebiscop and Wulfstan ter season. Archbishop Oda and Archbishop Wulfstan and
arcebiscop and manega ocSre biscopas smeagende ymbon many other bishops were there to consider what would be of
heora sawla ned and para pe him underpeodde wreron. benefit to their souls and those of the people subject to
1 Dret is rerest pret hi budon: pret pa halgan hadas pe them.
Godes folc heron sculon lifes bisne, 5ret hi heora clrennesse This was the first of their decrees: that those in holy
healdan be heora hade, swa werhades swa wifhades, swa orders who must teach God's people using their own life as
hwac:5er swa hit sy. And gif hi swa ne don, ponne syn hi pres an example are to embrace celibacy in the manner appropri-
wyr5e peon dam canone cwe5, and pret hi polian world.:ehta ate to their order, whether it is for men or women. And if
and gehalgodre legerstowe buton hi gebetan. they do not do so, let them suffer that which is decreed in
2 Teo5unge we bebeoda5 relcum Cristene men be his the canon, and let them forfeit all their worldly property
Cristendome and ciricsceat and Romfeoh and sulh.:elmes- and burial in consecrated ground unless they repent.
san. And gif hit hwa don nelle, si he amansumod. 2 We direct every Christian to pay tithes and Church
3 Gif hwa Cristenes mannes blod ageote, ne cume he na dues and dues to Rome and plow dues in accordance with
on 5.:es cyninges neawiste rer he on d.:edbote ga, swa him Christian doctrine. And if anyone refuses to do so, let him
biscop t.:ece and his scrift him wisige. be excommunicated.
3 And if anyone sheds Christian blood, he may not come
into the proximity of the king until he undertakes penance
as the bishop instructs him and his confessor directs him.
 APPENDIX 2 I EDMUND

4 Se pe wicS nunnan hreme, gehalgodre legerstowe ne sy 4 Anyone who has intercourse with a nun cannot-with-
he wyrcSe-buton he gebete-pe ma pe manslaga. l>ret ilce out repentance-be buried in consecrated ground any more
we cwredon be .ewbrice. than can a murderer. We have decreed the same concerning
5 Eac we gecwredon pret relc biscop bete Godes hus on adultery.
his agenum, and eac pone cyningc minegige p.et ealle Godes 5 Furthermore, we command each bishop to restore the
circan syn wel behworfene, swa us micel pearf is. houses of God in his own see, and also to admonish the king
6 Da Oe mansweriacS and liblac wyrcacS beon hi a fram that all God's churches are to be attended to properly; as is
relcum Godes drele aworpene buton hi to rihtre dredbote greatly required of us.
gecirran J>e geornor. 6 Those who commit perjury and work magic are to be
expelled forever from the communion of God unless they
embark upon the proper penance all the more zealously.
 2 Edgar and 3 Edgar 2 Edgar and 3 Edgar

2 Edgar 2 Edgar

Pr Dis is seo gerrednys pe Eadgar cyng mid his witena Pr This is the decree which King Edgar has issued with
gedeahte gerredde, Gode to lofe and him sylfum to cyne- the advice of his councilors for the glory of God and his own
scipe and eallum his leodscipe to pearfe. sovereignty and for the benefit of all his people.
I>ret syndon ponne :erest: pret Gades cyrican syn rihtes 1 Accordingly, this is foremost: that the churches of God
wyrde. be guaranteed of their rights.
1.1 And man agife relce teoc:Sunge to pam ealdan mynstre 1.1 And each tithe is to be rendered to the old minster to
pe seo hernes tohyrd; and pret sy ponne swa gelrest, regder ge which obedience is due; and that the render must come
of pegnes inlande ge of geneatlande, swa swa hit seo sulh both from the thane's personal land and the land let out for
rent, whatever is under the plow.
gega.
2 Gyf hwa ponne degna sy <Se on his boclande cyrican 2 Yet if there is a thane who has a church possessing a
habbe, pe legerstow on sy, gesylle he pane priddan drel his graveyard on land he holds by charter, he is to give one-third
agenre teodunge into his cyrican. of his own tithes to his church.
2.1 Gyf hwa cyrican habbe pe legerstow on ne sie, donne 2.1 If anyone has a church without a graveyard, then let

do he of pam nigan drelum his preoste pret pret he wille. him give what he chooses to his priest out of the remaining
2.2 And ga relc cyricsceat into pam ealdan mynstre be rel- nine shares after that paid as tithe.
2.2 And all Church dues from every free household are to
cum frigan eorc:5e.
2.3 And gelreste man sulhrelmessan, ponne xv niht beon go to the old minster.
onufan Eastran. 2.3 Plow dues are to be paid on the fifteenth night after
3 And sie relcre geogude teoc:5ung gelrest be Pentecosten Easter.
and para eorc:5wrestma be emnihte, and relc cyricsceat sy 3 And the tithe of all the young animals is to be paid by
Pentecost, and that of the fruits of the earth by the equinox,

350 351
~

APPENDIX 2 2 EDGAR AND 3 EDGAR

gefa:st be Martinus mressan, be pam fullon wite, l>e seo dom- and all Church dues are to be paid by the Feast of Saint Mar-
boc trec6. tin, or suffer the full penalty decreed by the written law.
3.1 And gyf hwa l>onne 6a teo6unge gelrestan nelle, swa 3.1 And if someone refuses to pay the tithes, just as we
we gecwedan habbac:S, fare l>res cynges gerefa to and pa:s have commanded, then the king's reeve, the bishop's reeve,
biscopes and l>res mynstres mressepreost, and niman un- and the priest of the church are to go to him and, without
pances l>rene teodan drel to l>am mynstre, t,e hit togebyrige, his consent, seize the tenth part for the church to which it is
and trecan him to 6am nigecfan drele. And todrele man pa owed, and the ninth share shall be reserved for him. Let the
eahta drelas on twa, and fo se landhlaford to healfan, to heal- other eight parts be divided in two, and his lord take half
fan se biscop, sy hit cynges man, sy hit t,egnes. and the bishop half, whether he be a king's man or a thane's.
4 And sy relc heor6prening agyfen be Petres mressedreg. 4 And every hearth penny is to be paid by the Feast of
4.1 And se 6e t,onne to 6am andagan gelrest na:bbe, la:de Saint Peter.
hine to Rome and prertoeacan xxx prenega, and bringe 4.1 And anyone who has not paid his dues at the proper
ponne panon swytolinga pa:t he pa:r swa micel betreht time is to take the payment to Rome along with thirty pence
ha:bbe; and J>onne he ham cume, gylde pam cynge hund- added thereto, and then bring back evidence that he paid
twelftig scillinga. there the full amount; and when he has returned, he is to
4.2 And gyf he hine eft syllan nylle, lrede hine eft to Rome pay one hundred twenty shillings to the king.
and o6re swylce bote; and t,onne he ham cume, gylde l>am 4.2 And if he refuses to pay a second time, he is to take the
cynge twahund scillinga. payment again to Rome along with the same amount as a
4.3 h:t pam priddan cyrre gyf he J>onne git nelle, t,olie penalty; and when he has returned, he is to pay two hundred
ealles pres 6e he age. shillings to the king.
5 And healde man relces Sunnandreges freols fram non- 4.3 And if he still refuses to pay for a third time, he is to
tide pa:s Sa:ternesda:ges od 6a:s Monandreges lihtinge, be suffer the forfeiture of all that he owns.
pa.m wite, pe domboc trecd, and a:lcne oderne mressedreg, 5 And each Sunday holy day is to be observed as the writ-
swa he bebodan beo. ten law instructs from midafternoon on Saturday until dawn
p And man beboden fa:sten healde mid relcre geornful- on Monday, lest a penalty be incurred, and every other feast
nesse, and a:lces Frigedreges fresten, buton hit freols sy. day just as is ordained for it.
5-1 And ordained fasts are to be observed with utter zeal-
ousness, and each Friday fast unless it is a feast.

35? 353
 APPENDIX 2
2 EDGAR AND 3 EDGAR

5.2 And lreste man saulsceat ret relcan Cristenan men to 5.2 And dues for the souls of the dead are to be paid on be-
pam mynstre J>e hit togebyrige. half of every Christian to the church to which they are
5.3 And stande relc cyricgrio swa swa hit betst stod. owed.
5.3 And the right of holy sanctuary is to be upheld just as it
was when it was most respected.

3 Edgar 3 Edgar
1 Dis is ponne seo woruldcunde gerrednes pe ic wille pret 1 This is the secular decree that I command my subjects
manhealde. to obey.
1.1 l>ret is ponne rerest: pret ic wille oret relc man sy folc- 1.1 This is foremost: I command that every person, rich or
rihtes wyrcle, ge earm ge eadig, and him man rihte domas poor, be granted their rights under civil law and granted just
deme. judgments.
1.2 And sy on prere bate swylc forgifnes, swylce hit for
1.2 And that penalties are to be assessed with such leni-
Gode gebeorglic sy and for worulde aberendlic. ency as would be fitting before God and acceptable in the
2 And ne gesece nan man pone cyng for nanre sprrece bu- eyes of the world.
tan he ret ham rihtes wyrde beon ne mote oMe riht abiddan 2 And no one may petition the king concerning a lawsuit
ne mrege. unless he cannot obtain his rights at home and cannot ap-
2.1 Gyf pret riht to hefig sy, sece sippan oa lihtinge to pam
peal to another court.
cynge. 2.1 If the law is too harsh, let him petition the king for mit-
2.2 And ret nanum botwyroumgylte ne forwyrce man mare
igation.
pane his wer. 2.2 And no one is to be fined more than his wergild for any
3 And se dema, se oe oorum on woh gedeme, gesylle pam offense for which compensation can be paid.
cynge hundtwelfti scillinga to bote-butan he mid aoe ge- 3 And a judge who rules unjustly against another must
cyoan durre pret he hit na rihtor ne cuoe-and polige a his give one hundred twenty shillings to the king as compensa-
pegnscipes, butan he hine eft ret pam cynge gebigge, swa he tion - unless he is confident enough to declare on oath that
he did not know how to rule more justly-and forfeit for-
ever his status as thane, unless he redeems it from the king
in such a manner as the latter will permit him; and the

354 355
 APPENDIX 2 2 EDGAR AND 3 EDGAR

him gedafian wille; and amanige prere scyre biscop pa bote bishop of the diocese shall exact the fine on the king's be-
to dres cynges handa. half.
4 And se pe oderne mid woge forseggan wille pret he apor 4 And if anyone who seeks to bring a false charge against
oMe feo oMe feore pe wyrsa sy, gyf ponne se oc5er geun- another so that he is the worse in either property or well-
soc5ian mrege, pret him man onsecgan wolde, si he his tungan being, and if the accused can disprove the charge that has
scyldig butan he hine mid his were forgylde. been brought against him, then the accuser shall lose his
5 And sece man hundredgemot, swa hit rer geset wres. tongue unless he can redeem himself through the payment
5-1 And habbe man priwa on geare burhgemot and tuwa of his wergild.
scirgemot. 5 And the hundred court is to be attended, just as has
5.2 And prer beo on c5rere scire biscop and se ealdorman, been previously established.
5,1 And the borough court is to meet three times a year
and prer regder trecan ge Godes riht ge woruldriht.
6 And finde him relc man, pret he borh hrebbe, and se and the shire court twice.
borh hine ponne to relcum rihte gelrede and gehealde. 5,2 And the bishop and the ealdorman shall both be in at-

6.1 And gyf hwa ponne woh wyrce and ut oc5berste, abere tendance, and there administer the ecclesiastical and secu-
se borh pret he aberan scolde. lar laws.
6.2 Gyfhit peofbeo, andgyfhe hine binnan twelf mondum 6 And each person is to find a surety for himself, and this
gelangian mrege, agyfe hine to rihte, and him man agyfe pret surety shall lead and hold him to each of his legal obliga-
he rer sealde. tions.
7 And se de tyhtbysig sy and folce ungetriwe and pas 6.r And if anyone commits a crime and escapes, his surety
gemot forbuge priwa, ponne sceawie man of 6am gemote shall suffer what he would have suffered.
J>a pe him to ridan. And finde him ponne gyt borh, gyf he 6.2 If the fugitive is a thief, and if the surety can capture
mrege. him within twelve months, let him be surrendered to the
law and let the fine which the surety had previously paid be
returned to him.
7 And if anyone who is disreputable or deemed untrust-
worthy by the community fails to attend public meetings
three times, then let three men of that meeting be chosen to
ride to him. And he may still find a surety, if he can.

356 3S7
 APPENDIX 2 2 EDGAR AND 3 EDGAR

7.1 Gyf he ponne ne mrege, gewylde man hine swaoor man 7.1 If he cannot do so, they are to capture him however
mrege, swa cwicne swa deadne, and nime man eal p.:et he age they can, either alive or dead, and seize all that he owns, and
and gylde man pam teonde his ceapgyld angeldes, and fo se give to the accuser a single payment equivalent to the mar-
Iandhlaford to healfan, to healfan p.:et hundred. ket value of his goods, and half of the remainder is to be
7.2 And gyf aoor oooe mreg oppe fremde pa rade forsace, taken by the landlord and half by the hundred.
gylde pam cynge hundtwelftig scillinga. 7.2 And if anyone, either his relative or a stranger, refuses
7.3 And gesece se rebrera deof o.:et p.:et he gesece, oppe se to participate in the ride, he is to pay the king one hundred
de on hlafordsearwe gemet sie, (:>ret hi nrefre feorh ne ge- twenty shillings.
secen. 7.3 And anyone convicted of theft or caught conspiring
8 And ga an mynet ofer ealne pres cynges anweald, and against his lord shall not be able to save his life, no matter
pane nan man ne forsace. where he hides.
8.1 And gange an gemet and an gewihte swylce man on 8 And there is to be one coinage throughout the king's
Lundenbyrig and on Wintanceastre healde. whole realm and no one may refuse it.
8.2 And ga seo wreg wulle to healfan punde, and hie nan 8.r And there is to be one standard of weights and one
manna undeoror ne sylle. standard of measures, just as is used in London and Win-
8.3 And gyf hwa hi ponne undeoror sylle, oooe eawunga chester.
oMe dearnunga, gylde reg(:>er l>am cynge LX scyllinga ge se f>e 8.2 And a wey of wool is to be valued at half a pound, and
hy sylle ge se (:>e hy bicge. no one may sell it for a lower price.
8.3 And if anyone does sell it at a lower price, either pub-
licly or in secret, both the seller and the buyer are to pay the
king sixty shillings.
 Note on the Texts

The texts in this volume are revised, in some cases signifi-

cantly, and corrected versions of those found in the most
widely used scholarly editions. With the exception of the
three damaged texts (N&rthumbrian Church Sanctuary, 9 ./Ethel-
red, and w ./Ethelred), they have also been checked against
the base manuscripts used for each edition in this volume.
These manuscripts have been identified in italics in the tex-
tual notes. The printed sources used for each edition are:
Liebermann, Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen, for The Laws of
Edward and Guthrum, The Compilation on Status, On
Sanctuary, Northumbrian Church Sanctuary, On Episcopal
Duties, 5-w ./Ethelred, Cnuts Proclamation of w20, 1-2
Cnut, The Northumbrian Priests' Law, The Obligations of
Individuals and On Reeves, r ./Ethelstan, 1 Edmund, and
2-3Edgar.
Jost, Die "Institutes ofPolity, Civil and Ecclesiastical," for 1-2
Polity, Instructions for Bishops, An Admonition to Bishops.
Fowler, The Canons ofEdgar; for The Canons ofEdgar.
Clayton, "The Old English Promissio regis," for The Oath of
the King.
Kennedy, "Cnut's Law Code of 1018," for Cnuts Oxford
Legislation of1018.
Fehr, Die Hirtenbriefe ./Elfrics, for On the Remedy ofSouls.

361
 NOTE ON THE TEXTS

All manuscript abbreviations have been silently expanded,

and the capitalization and punctuation have been regular-
ized. The complex transmission of many of Wulfstan's texts
has occasionally made it necessary to supply passages from
other manuscripts. These have been identified in the textual Notes to the Texts
notes, as have all emendations. Because many of Wulfstan's
works survive in widely differing versions, I have listed major
variants in the textual notes, though I have not attempted
The list of collated manuscripts can be found above the set of
to make the notes comprehensive. In particular, I have omit-
notes for each text. The base manuscript for each edition is listed
ted minor differences of spelling and syntax. In some in- in italics.
stances, manuscripts were not available for consultation
(such as manuscripts Hk and M of7 /F.the/red). In such cases, THE LAws OF EDWARD AND GuTHRUM

I have relied on Liebermann's Gesetze for the collation. B = Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 383, fols. 13r- 14v; H = Stroorl,
Manuscript rubrics and scriptural passages are indicated Medway Archive and Local Studies Centre MS DRc/R1 (Textus Roffemis),fols.
in italics in the text. Both the numbering of clauses and 41r-v.
the paragraph divisions are editorial. The former follows the l>is ...gecuron: Eft his and GU1'1rumes and Eadwardes B
traditional numbering scheme set forth by Schmid and Lie- Pr.r D.et is: Dis H
bermann. Although there is good reason to reconsider both Pr.2 hy sceolden, hy sceolde H; he sceolde B
the numbering and the division of clauses in many of these gesetton: settan B
texts, this edition was not thought to be a good venue for 2 dred: drede H

such a dramatic departure from previous editorial practice.

3 pam pe seo: pam seo B
3.r healfmarc: healmare H
Some of the translations here are revised and corrected 4 dred: drede H
versions of those found in my book The Political Writings of 4.1 Gif:AndB
Archbishop Wulfstan o/York (Manchester, 2015). Readers are oMe:odoonB
encouraged to consult that volume for its more detailed in- genydmagas: genyhe magas H
troduction, annotations, and manuscript appendices. The 4.2 Gif: AndB
5 ne wyrne: omitted B
remaining translations are original to this volume. In gen-
5-r gerihto for6ige: gerihte fyrdrie B
eral, the notes have been kept to a minimum, with an em- Gif: AndB
6
phasis on clarifying confusing passages, explaining relevant 6.7 he onge an: hine man gean H
points of law, and elaborating on the historical context. A 7.1 wite oMe lahslite: wite lahslite BH
more complete discussion and identification of Wulfstan's 7-2 se hlaford: omitted H
sources can be found in Political Writings.
362 363
 NOTES TO THE TEXTS THE COMPILATION ON STATUS

8 hyde: omitted B inne ... folcriht: omitted D

9 Denum, wite: Denum and wite B weres: wergildes D
10 limlzwed: limlreweo H; limlzpeo B pam magum: pam omitted D
IZ dred: dzde H 2 .i£pelinges: Arcebiscopes and zpelinges D
7 ccxx:cxxD
THE COMP! LAT ION ON STATUS 7-I wergild: wer D
II prymsa: omitted D
0 = Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 190, pp. 418-20; D = Cam-
bridge, Corpus Christi College MS 201, pp. w1-3; H = Stro<Jd, Medway Ar-
chive and Local Studies Centre MS DRc/R1 (Textus Roffensis), Jots. 7r---'1J, 39v, On the Law ofthe Mercians
9Jr---'1J, 93'V-94f.
Be Mircna laga: omitted H, text suppliedfrom D
2 wergyld: wer OD
On the Ranks ofPeople and Law folces ... laga: omittedH, text suppliedfrom D

Be ... ]age: Be wergildum and be ge6in6um D

Hit ... lagum: Hwilum wzs D On the Mercian Oath
leodwitan: peodwitan D On the order of clauses and the division between On the Mercian Oath and
eorl ... peoden: ge eorl ge ceorl, ge pegen ge peoden D On Priests' Oaths, see the notes to the translation.
cirican and kycenan: omitted D
bellhus: bellan D Be Miriscan a6e: omitted H, text suppliedfrom D
3 gif: seD
utware: omitted D
On Priests'Oaths
zt mistlicon neodan: r,mitted D
sceolde: porfte D Be gehadodra manna ade: omittedH, text suppliedfrom D
5 And ... weorc'le: omitted D mzssepreost: preost OD
6 And ... weorde: omitted D he ... wyrpe: omitted OD
7 gepeh: wzre, pe D gastes: omitted 0
dzrto: 6onne pam hade D sceolon God herian: sculon hergan D
buton ... moste: mid rihte, gif he hine heolde, swa swa he I.I gripian: nerion/nerian OD
scoldeD 1.2 ooile mid weorce: oc'lc'le weorce D
8 hit ... pzt: omitted D and be ... sy: omitted D
2 ane: omittedOD
OnWergild 5 pund to: to ... scrifte: omittedH, text suppliedfrom D
6 toeacan pam rihtwere: omitted D
Be wergylde: Nor6leoda laga D 9 sambryce: se brice 0
Cynges: Norc'lleoda cynges D 9.r And ... gefzrscipe: this clause occurs as 10.1 in H

364 365
 THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (1)
NOTES TO THE TEXTS

swide rihte: on Cristenre J>eode G

J>ridde J>arn gefrerscipe: J>ridde geferscipe OD
on freder ... J>eode: ealswa hit riht is G
IO medemung: myltsung 0
and on ... geteald is: folces frofer and rihtwis hyrde ofer Cris-
I[ And ... gridedon: omitted H, text suppliedfrom D
tene heorde G
eac: omitted G
ON SANCTUARY
his afole: mregene G
G = London, British Library, Cotton MS Nero A.i,fol 92v--95v. lufige: rrere G
and hredendom ascunige: omitted G
3 bedorfton: final three letters concealed by binding. This reading fol-
weordige and werige: fyrdrie and fridrie G
lows Liebermann.
geornost mrege: G adds and J>urh relc J>ing rihtwisnesse Julie for
31.1 Cristes: Cristenes G
Gode and for weorolde
geJ>eon Gode: ge J>eon and his J>eodscype eac swa G
NORTHUMBRIAN CHURCH SANCTUARY
and unriht ascunige: for Gode and for worolde G
G "' London, British Library, Cotton MS Nero A.i,fol 96v. 2 And: ForJ>arn G
Due to an ill-advised attempt by Liebermann to restore a difficult passage sceal: G adds sylf firmest
in the manuscript using a solution of sulfuric acid, much of the page on And him ... geearnian wylle: The remainder ofthis chapter is omit-
which this text appears is now unreadable. Accordingly, editions must now tedfrom D. Text suppliedfrom G.
rely heavily on Liebermann's initial transcription and subsequent recon- 3 veritas: Latin glosses addedabove the line in the same hand D
struction of illegible words. modJ>wrernes: modignes D
bonos: bonas D
cyricfrid: reconstructed by Liebermann pascere: pasce D
lohannes: reconstructed by Liebermann be:beoD
hundred: reconstructed by Liebermann similem: simile D
botleas: reconstructed by Liebermann iusto: isto D
2 mrerJ>e: reconstructed by Liebermann wrepnum: prepnum D
4
3 And preoste: reconstructed by Liebermann mid rihte: G adds on Cristenre J>eode above the line in Wulfstans
forbodene wifum: Liebermann supplies mid after forbodene handwritillg
4 dyre reghwar: Liebermann supplies man after dyre J>earf: J>eaf D
5 De episcopis: Item de episcopis G
THE OATH OF THE KING and on weorcum: and weorcum G
C =London, British Library, Cotton MS Cleopatra B.xi#,fols. 56r-57v. swidlrete: erasure ofo,u letter; possibly an e, between the 6 andthe ID;
swydc lrete G
2 ge eac: ge ac C ac swa: ac swa swa G
Fordarn: omitted G
THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (1) higeleas: iuncglic G
heom:heoD
D = Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 201,pp. 86-93; G "' London, Brit-
6 wulf: approximately four letters erasedbefore wulf D; werewolf G
ish Library, Cotton NeroA.i, fols. 7or- 76v, 97V- 98v.

366 367
 NOTES TO THE TEXTS THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (2)

7 Alibi ... benedixeritis: omitted G, but addedin the mm-gin in a later Bodleian Library, MS Junius 121, fo/s. 9-13v, 15r-'V, I71"- 19v, 2ov--23v, 32v--34,;
hand, preceded by Et item, Quorum remiseritis peccata, remit-
57"V-59r.
tuntur eis et cetera
terribiliter-. a later handaddedde malignis above the line in G Be heofonlicum cyninge: this chapter occurs in X and G
Qui:QuidD Be: preceded by the roman numeral 1 in X
ab eo: G adds Swilc is to beprencenne and wi6 Godes yrre to war- In ... domini: omitted G
nianne symle. Nu la:re we eac georne manna gehwyl[c)ne, J:,ret ece cyning: ece God G
he Godes !arum and his lagum fylg{i)e, J:,onne geearna{IS) he Heis: SeisG
him ece myrhc'Se. Amen Amen: omitted G
8 bedreled: belreded G 2 Be corc'Slicum cyninge: this chapteroccurs in X and G
10 Nis nanum ... forboden: Riht is J:,ret preost him lufie clrenlic Be: precededby the roman numeral 11 in X
wimman to gebeddan G gebyrec'S . . . rihtre lage: in Wulfstans handwriting G
10 wyrca6: wyrcc'S D on Cristenre peode: swyoe rihte, J:,ret he Cristen folc rihtlice
n ne prita: omitted G healedG
12 a to ... clypian: Godes loflufian and georne God heregan G and ISurh .. . for worulde: struck through in G
15 J:,am lrewedum: lrewede G steore: end ofchapter in G
hwile: hwile J:,e G styrnlice: styrlice X
getirnige: gebyrige G Be cyncdome: this chapter occurs in X
5
16 J:,res J:,e: J:,ret J:,e D Be: precededby the roman numeral 111 in X
17 cirican: cirice D Persuasibilitas: Persuabilitas X
cirican: cirice D gedafenia6: gedafenao X
18 and side: omitted D 6 Be cynestole: this chapter occurs in X
relcera: relcere D Be: precededby the roman numeral 1 v in X
wel gehwar: gewel hwrer with two ermedletters between the words G Be 6eodwitan: this chapter occurs in X ,md G
7
qui: queG Be: precededby the roman numeral v in X
healdan: three letters erasedbefore the h G sculan riht: riht omittedXG
awurpan: G adds And utan renne cynehlaford holdlice healdan, Gif J:,u J:,am: J:,am omitted G
and freonda gehwylc o6erne helade mid rihtan getrywlSan 8 He ... forhogao: this sentence omitted by the scribe and added in
19 J:,ec'Sa:pac'SaD Wulfstans handwriting; some letters lost by trimming ofthe margin G
forhogac'S: forhicge6 G
THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (2) 9 beseo: a letter has been erasedbetween the be and the seo X
para ... J:,eode: in Wulfstan's handwriting G
D = Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 201, pp. 40-43, 57-61; G = 10 Item de episcopis: this chapter occurs in X
London, British Library, Cotton MS Nero A.i, fols. 10zr- 9v; 12or; N = Item: precededby the roman numeral v I in X
=
London, British Library, Cotton MS Tiberius A.iii, fols. 93r-v; Uc Cam- ll Qui noluit: ui noluit with spacefor the initial X
bridge, University Library Additional MS 3206 (fragment); X = Oxford, Swylc: wylc with spacefor the initialX

368 369
 NOTES TO THE TEXTS THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (2)

12 Item: this chapter occurs in X hi hi j>onne: N adds lzt we nu, j>zt hi healdon sceoldan
13 Item: this chapter occurs in X hi gehealdon: N adds j>a godcunde heorde
cunnen: cunne X La: omitted N
14 Be eorlum: this chapter occurs in X lzdan: N adds oMe
Be: precededby the roman numeral ix in X dema: j>ema G; mann N
15 Be gerefan: this chapter occurs in X and G witodlice: omitted N
Be: preceded by the roman numeral x in X wyrs: wyrst git N
swyde: wide G and nele: N adds a chapter break here with the heading To mzsse-
swa ... wolde: added in Wulfitans handwriting G preostum
ryperas: added in Wuifstans handwriting G 17 Eala, eala: Eala N
16 Be sacerdum: To mzsseproscum N; Be sacerdan in Wulfitans swa hit d ... gylpe and: mzssepreosthades N
handwriting G; this chapter occurs in X, G, and N, andportions ofit cwzo: spree G; sprrec N
also occur in D and Uc witega: N adds swij>e egeslice
Be: precededby the roman numeral xv,, in X et reliqua: j>ret is on Englisc N
Sacerdas ... scriftscirum: Sacerd sceal on his scriftscire GN and forswelga<'!: omitted N
./£goer: And zg<'ler G de nella<'I ... folc: j>z na cunnan folce N
And gyf ... !are: omitted GN ac gyrnad ... cyricgerihtum: and nimaj> heora sceattas to teopin-
folce gescyldan: folce omittedX gan and eac on manegum oj>rum j>ingum N
ne mzg wandian: na mzig na wandian N bysnungum: bodengum N
sylfum gebeorgan sceall: riht dej> N lredao: lrera<'! N
ne for lufe ne for ege: ne for heanum ne for ricum N bodungum: bisnuncgum N
rihtteste: rihtlicost N lrerad: trecaj> N
Ne mzg ... for ricum: omitted N fore ne pingia<'!: forgepingiaj> N
ne dej>: na pet N j>ingia<'!: j>ingia X
eargie . . . spreconne: forsceamehe j>zt riht to secgenne, and for- Ac lreccad ... heora j>ing syllad: omitted N
sugie he hit, biterlice scel hit him wyrj>an forgolden on j>am hernumenra: hernumera X
toweardan life. N Godes: godest G
Earme ... for<! mid: omitted N l>onne is mycel ... georne gebete: N replaces this sentence with Ah
And hwzt: And omitted GN hit is swij>e mice! j>earf [j>ret] se, pe rer j>ysum misdyde, j>ret
hwzt: wzt with spacefor the initial X he hit heonanforj> hit georne gebete and rihtlrece hine sylfne
cunnon gehealdon: gehealdon omitted GN be j>am, pe he wille beon wip God geborgen, oj>j>e he sceal-
heorde: heorde healdan N mid ealle forwyrj>an on pam toweardan life. Bitere scel hit him
j>e Crist . .. hi cu<'lan: j>e hig heoldan sceoldan Criste to handa N wyrj>an forgolden, pret he for deadum mann[um] nimj>, butan
Ac naj>or: Ac hy naj>or G he hit mid mressan and mid sealmsange and mid relmessan in-
Ac napor ... rihtlice: Ah hi na cunnan naj>or j>urh larleaste ne lice forgilde. Hali Drihten gemiltsige us eallan! Amen. End ofN
lzdan, ne lzran, ne leacnian. N georne gebete: endofthis chapter in G
 NOTES TO THE TEXTS THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (2)

18 rnycel is ... mid sceade: this section (with the heading Be sacerdaiv edlean: Dadds on Heofona rice
ocmrs as the opening to a homily in D Amen: Sit nornen Domini benedicturn ex hoe nunc et usque in
to J>earfe: Dadds unde rstande, se oe cunne saeculum et reliqua D
deofla afyrsa6: deofla afirhteo D 23 Be abbodum: this chapter occurs in X and G
Gades rnihta: start ofchapter infragmented version in Uc Be: precededby the roman numeral x1 in X
19 us is: is omitted Uc 24 Be munecum: this chapter occurs in X and G
egeslic, j:>e: egeslic, J>ret Uc Be: precededby the roman numeralxr I in X
sceal habban J>res: sceal J>res Uc libban: omitted G
20 Be gehadedum mannurn: this chapter occurs in X and D 25 l>ret is: added in Wulfitan's handwriting G
Be: precededby the roman numeral xx11 in X ealdras hit: hit addedin Wulfitan's handwriting G
sylfurn geornost: geornost omitted D 26 Be mynecenan: this chapter occurs in X
abrrecan: la/Slice abrrecan D Be: precededby the roman numeral x 111 in X
beode: beoda6 D 27 Be preostan and be nunnan: this chapter occurs in X
a!lc wif: Dadds J>urh Godes )age Be: precededby the roman numeral xiv in X
unriht and: Dadds gehadodan 28 Be lrewedum mannum: this chapter occurs in X and D; To gehade-
rnor/Ses: unrihtes D dum and lrewedurn D
heononforo georne: georne omitted D Be: precededby the roman numeral x x 1 in X
and nah ... mid rihte: omittedX, text suppliedfrom D Riht is ... healdan: Gehadedum rnannum gebiraiS eac, J>ret hi
21 Constantinus: Hit gewearo J>ret Constantinus D lrewede men wisian, hu hig heora rihtrewe healdan sculon. D
sinoo: Dadds swa we rer sredon gebyrige: getimige D
Nicea: J>e is Nicea genarnod D wydewa: wydewe X
Hy cwa:don: And hi cwa!don D canones: canonbec D
oMe diacon: omitted D geset: gescrifen D
refre: oananforo refre D pret he: j:>ret hi X
Se forma wres: Dadds swa we sredon oftor: Dadds And j:>ret bill rnicel syn, pret gehwa his rihtrewe lifi-
CC biscopa: omitted D gende alrete and him on unriht oore geceose.
retgredere: Dadds swille wide gesarnnode timan: Dadds Sit nomen Domini benedictum et reliqua
wiflac: wifunge D 29 Be wudewan: this chapter occurs in X
22 habban sculon: Dadds buton hi geswican Be: precetkd by the roman numeral xv in X
fy16e: unriht D JO Be cyrican: this chapter occurs in X; an alternate version occurs in D
Weofodpenas: Ac weofodpegnas D and has been editedseparately
relcere fyllle: relcere unclrennesse D Be: preceded by the roman numeral xxxv in X
betst magon: D adds and healdan heora clrennesse and J>a we sculon: J>a omitted X
Nis: Dadds fu1 galnes gelomlice and geornlice: and omitted X
on feonda hand ... mid ealle: wyrs J>onne he be beJ>orfte D JI butan he hi mid: hi omittedX
And eac se: And witod se D mrec!e: inreoe X

37:2. 373
~ INSTRUCTIONS FOR BISHOPS
NOTES TO THE TEXTS

32 Be eallum Criscenum mannum: this chapter occurs in X and D; ru• 4 inportune: added above the line in Wulfttan's handwriting
bric omitted D sed habeant: sed habean G
Be: preceded by the roman numeral xxxv1 in X causas: casas G
J>e cla wisian: J>a cla scrifcas D resistendum: resistendam G
oclpon J>a J>e: oMe J>e l>e D Et quoniam: E quoniam G
ealles: ealle with the s erased X; emendationfollows D saecularis: saeculares G
And socl is, J>aet ic secge: omitted D scriptum: sciptum G
beweardiacl: beweriacl D psalmista: spalmista G
de maligno: added above the line
ON EPISCOPAL DUTIES Qui noluit: Qu noluit G
5 suimet: sumet G
X = Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Junius 121,fols. 13v--15r. exibeant: eibeant G
Item: precededby v1 r. in manuscript lege:legG
6 gewiht: gewihte X predicantes: precantes G
J>ret be: J>ret he X
10 furclum: forl!an X INSTRUCTIONS FOR BISHOPS
12 beon: omitted X
G = London, British Library, Cotton MS Nero A.i, fols. 99r-1oor; X =
15 J)y: y with a preceding spacefor a rubricated initial X Oxford, Bodleian Library, MSJunius 121.fols.15v-17r.

ON THE REMEDY OF SOULS intende: omitted G

ter: ter et tune G
G = undon, British Library, Cotton MS NeroA.i,fols. 164v-65v. eleison: omitted G
pre:perG inducas: omitted G
de cura eclesiarum et: addedabove the line in Wulfttan's handwriting Benedicamus Domino: Bened et reliqua with omission ofthe rest
penitentibus: correctedfrom peniten in Wulfttan's handwriting ofclause 1 and all ofclawe 2 G
leges: legis G Benedictio: BenedX
penitencibus: petentibus G 2 Quod: uod with spacefor capital X
inscruant: instuant G 3 haeJ>endom: reJ>endom with h addedlater in space leftfor capital X
2 eclesiasticis: eclesiastices G 5 Bisceopum: isceopum with h addedlater in space leftfor capitalX
sapiens: sapien G gebyrecl: gebyracl X
extendebat: extedebat G 6 pret hi: and hi G
quam: G uses the abbreviation for quoniam iO gebyrecl: gebyracl X
sacerdocis: sacedotis G heom: omitted G
regnum: rgnum G na hy sylfe: na added above the line in Wulfttan's handwriting G
3 sublime: sublme G II gebyrecl: gebyracl X
eclesiasticis causis: eclesiasticis Casis G ne betan: gebetan G
dispensent: dispesent G 1.2 gebyrep: gebyracl X

374 375
 NOTES TO THE TEXTS THE CANONS OF EDGAR

t,onne renig: hwilc !>onne G 7 some: glossed congregatione X

13 gebyre6: gebyra6 X sceoton: the scribe has adtkd three dots above the line to indicate a
14 gebyrel!: gebyra6 X gloss, but the gloss is omittedX
8 renig: endofUc after the a!·
AN ADMONITION TO BISHOPS forlrete: glossed deferat X
rihta!we: glossed uxore X; glossator adds pa hwile pe his lif sig in
G = London, British Library, Cotton MS Nero A.i,fols. 102v--r: marginX
Biscpas ... adumbial!: in Wulfstan's handwriting 12 samlreredan: glossed semidoc tum X
unnyt and sopes: unnyt sopes G 13 anra gebyrda: glossed Natalie unius X
pa:t we geornost: pret hy geornost G 14 mangeara: man geara X
drencan: correctedfrom drecan in a different hand massere: glossed Mercator X
2 ola:ca6 georne: olreca6 geone G 15 tyllige: glossed concedat X
3 pe we !rest: l>ret !rest G beode: glossed iubeat X
4 to wencle ... gebreran: in Wulfstan's handwriting VII: XXXVII D
16 Irere: ara:re D
THE CANONS OF EDGAR wyllweor6unga: glossed fontis uenerationem X
hwata: glossed omen X
D = Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 201, pp. 97-I01; Uc = Cam-
and treowwuriSunga ... tihl!: and manweorllunga D
bridge, University Library Additional MS 3206 (mutilated.fragment missing
on geares niht: omitted D
parts ofindividwl words and all clauses after 8); X = Oxford, Bodleian Library,
ellenum: incoTTectly glossed eluene X; D adds and eac on o6rum
MSJunius 121,fols. 251J-3w. mistlicum treowum and on stanum
Item Sinodalia decreta: omitted Uc; preceded by roman numeral xx gedwimerum: glossed fantasiis X
in X; Her gebiral! nu to Eadgares gera:dnes be gehadodra manna dreogall: glossed polieiS X
liffadunge D 18 freolsdagum: ret cyrcan adtkd above the line X
Riht is: here andfollowing. Dreads We lrerall gamena: incorrectly glossed custodian and crossed out X
Riht ... beon: in capitals X 19 cypincge: Dadds and folcgemota
preostas: Godes !>eowas D 20 wreda: rreda D
2 hyran: glossed obedient X efesunge: glossator adds ol!cle unefesunge X
getrece: glossed docet X 21 clause omittedfrom X, text suppliedfrom D
3-4 clauses omittedfrom X, text suppliedfrom D 23 mannum: Dadds ealles to swil!e
5 swa se bisceop: swa biscop D 26 gedryh: pa added above, perhaps by glossat<tr X
6 wite: glossed sciat X cyrictune: gloned cimiterio X
Gode: glossed deo X ne hors: omitted D
oferhyre: glossed inobedientes The scribe has written andreas in the margin X.
heafodleahtrum: the scribe has added three dots above -leahtrum to 27 logie: glossed ponat X
indicate a gloss, but the gloss is omitted X; heafordleahtrum, with ungedafenlic: glossed indecens X
thefirst three letters missing Uc 28 sy: glossator adds beo above the line X
 NOTES TO THE TEXTS THE CANONS OF EDGAR

29 Gode: glossed deo X Ac ... gebringe: omitted D

lrete: glossed iudicet X 46 mressapreosta: Dadds ol!l!e mysterpreosta
30 butan ... oferseocnesse: crossed out with a single line X butan: glossed sine X
3( preost: Dadds huru 48 anrrede: glossed constantes X
32 butan: glossed sine X 49 est: glossed deuotione X
pre ... misse: pu lest he misse added in margin X 50 an: glossed unum X
Ires j>e: lreste X ofer geases: on geases D
gode: glossed bonos X free: glossed spacium X
34
nrebbe: hrebbe X 51 geogooe: glossed iuuenes X
35
36 abyrige: glossed gustet X 53 renig: nanD

37 A small cross has been added before thiJ section X. pycge: glossed gustet X
priwa: altered to twiga by glossator X 54 Gode: glossed deo X
mrestra: mrest pasa D And riht ... gegaderod: omitted D
38 warnige: glossed caueat X oc'lre: glossed iterum X
brucan: glossed frui X sulhrelmessan: sulh- glossed as suluh- by glossator X
under: unde D and leohtgesceotu ... a::fen: omitted D
forgyme: altered to forgeme by glossator X 56 clause omitted D
39 preost refre ne: nrefre preost D 58 beorgen:g/ossecaueanturX
gepristlrece glossed presumat X belean: glossed forbeoden hy glossator X
pret is clrene: pzt his clrene X 59 gliwige: glossed ludat X
Wa: glossedve X 60 wi6: glossed contra X
ful: glossed fetidum X 62 gewita: glossed testis X
forl!arn he de<'!: omitted D 65 plege:glossedludat X
fon'lam: pe added afterwardabove the line X se canon ... vu: omitted D
eced: glossed eisil hy glossator X 66-67 clauses omittedfrom D
40 A small cross has been added before this section X. 66 rredlice: glossed scienter X
4( beo: glossator adds in the margin Gylden oMe seolfren tinen 68a occurs as clause 61 in D
znig: glossator adds above the line Gif he nylle beon amansumad, rihtrewe: glossedlegem coniugem by glossator X
intendedas an addition to clause 40 X 68b-i omittedD
ne nrenne ... zne: omitted D; may have been intended to follow 68b fadige: glossed lede hy glossator X
clause 40 instead of41 X misfadige: glossed let X
42 fules: omitted D woruldwige: glossed prelio X
byrnende: alteredto bernende X hyran: glossed pavere X
forgyme: altered to forgeme X 68e tihtlan: glossed ortationibus suggestionibus X
43
ne gehalgode ... oflete: omitted D belecge: glossed mentitur X
oflete: oft X; incorrectly glossed fruit X pe glossed qui X

378 379
 NOTES TO THE TEXTS 6 ...£THELREO

68i maf!}Jm:glossed meies n glossator 18 and fram: and ab D

69 a gearu: eac geara D occabas Epiphanie: xm1 niht ofer middewintres tid D xv:
x1111D
5 i£THELRED 25 rewbncan: G2 adds and on freolsbrycan, on frestenbrycan
26.1 burhbota: bricbota G2; Dadds and ymbe bricboce reghwar on
D .. Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 20 1, pp. 48- 51; G1 = London,
earde
British Library, Cotton MS NeroA .i.fols. 891>-92r; G2 = London, British Li
27 mrege: G2 adds gif man pret gerrede in Wulfttan's handwriting
brary, Cotton MS Nero A.i, fols. n6v-19r.
28 and ealre his are: oMe wergylde G2D
ln ... MV] lI: Be Angolwitena gerednesse G2; In nomine domini D 28.1 omittedD
Pr cyng ... gehadode: cynmgc regcler gehadode D elles: G2 adds ham
Dret is: 1>1s D 29 plihte he him: plihte he to him D
we ealle: G2 adds fram synnan georne gecyrran and ure misdrede and eallan: oMe to D
geornlice betan and 30 cyninges: cynine D
and pret we ... willacl: omitted G2 and gif. .. !age: buton he hine ladige be pam deopestan, pe witan
I.I ures .. . his: omitted G2 gerredanD
1.2 pret: omitted D cynges: cynge G2
innan ... worolde: omitted D 31.1 pret hine man: and hine man J:>onne J:>urh pret D
2 ures ... his: omitted G2 32 alicgan: alecgan D
leode: peode D rer .. . wide: ure hlaford oft and gelome silf het alecgan D
3 ures ... his: omitted G2 32.1-5 These c/awes arefound only in D.
fordeme: fordemde D 33 omittedD
3.1 steora: stepra G2 33· 1 pe man: pret man D
4 ures .. . his: omitted G2 worolde: G2 adds Amen
4.1 pingian georne: geornlice J:>ingian D 34 weorclian: G2 and Dadd and renne cristendom georne healdan
5 ures ... his: omitted G2 35 biddan: G2 adds sit nomen domini benedictum et reliqua; Dadds
pe he Gode: pret he Gode G2 sit nomen domini benedictum
6 cume co scirebiscope: cume scirebiscope G1; cume him to sci-
rebiscope D 6 ./ETHELRED

pret he huru: and he huru G1

K = London, Cotton MS C/audiw A .iii, fols. 35v-37,:
10.2 cyricmangunge: cyricmagunge G1G2
II georne: omitted G2 7 clrensige: clresig K
II.I sulhrelmessan: G2 adds huru 15 peowige: powige K
12 gelreste ret: gelreste a rec G2 25 heahfreolsdagum: heah- addedin Wulftt'1n's handwriting K
12.2 gerihta fyrclrige: gerihta friclige D 25-1 riht: addedin Wulfttan's handwriting K
14 weordie: wurclian D 35 sylfon: added in Wulfttan's handwriting K
14.1 man and: man georne and G2 41 eac: addedin Wulfstan's handwriting K

380 381
 NOTES TO THE TEXTS 9 ,ETHELRED

42 gyt: added in Wulfstan's handwriting K

7A .!ETHELRED
georne: addedin Wulfstan's handwriting K
D = Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 201, p. 30.
7 .!ETHELRED
8 .!ETHELRED
Br = Johannis Brompton Chronicon (Cambridge, Corpus Christi College
MS 96, and London, British Library; Cotton MS Tiberius C.xiii); Hk = =
D Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 201, pp. 93-96; G =London, Brit-
Holkharn 228 (privately held), fols. 82r-8JV; M = Macro (privately held); T ish Library; Cotton MS Nero A.i, fol. 9_5v.
= LottMn, British Library, Cotton MS TitusA.xxvii,fol. 145r. Anno ... Christi: Be cyricgri6e. In nomine Domini G
2.1 gespelia: gespelia geteald G
Pr rex: omitted Br
Badarn: habarn BrHkM 3 be pres cyninges: be cyninges G
and regper ... gebete: omitted D; text suppliedfrom G
1.1 et abstinentia ... iniustitia: et malefactis et iniustitia absti-
4 elles: omitted G
nere Br
betan: bete G
1.2 Hoe est ut: et ut Br; hoe ut Hk
si hit ... unrihthremed: omitted G
1.3 Qui si: Quod si Br
4.1 refre: omittedG
:2 herbis crudis: bis crudis Br M; erudis Hk; Br adds ante festum
5-1 prer ... sy: omitted D; text suppliedfrom G
sancti Michaelis
5.2 mrepe: end ofG
2.5 haec elemosina: hae elemosinae Br
2:2 aofultum: adfultum D
proueniat: perueniat HkBr
ilium: omitted BrHkM 2 7.1 swa mid anfealdre: omitted D; text suppliedfrom I Cnut 5-4
3.1
35 mannan: mannum D
3.2 monacus: Bradds dicat
36 gerehtan, gerihtan D
4 nostrorum stetit: nostrorum fecit Br
37 wurdan : wurdan D
melius stetit: melius fecit Br
43 pearf. peaf D
per: omittedBrHkM
4.1 matrem: Br adds nostram
4.2 eum: Deum BrHkM 9 .!ET HELRED
ei: omitted Br MS = London, British Library; Cotton MS Otho A.x.
5 aliquis: quis BrHkM Since the manuscript was almost completely destroyed in the Ashburnam
extra uendatur: extra patriam Br House fire of 1731, this edition relies on the text of Liebermann, Gesetu,
6.2 stetit: fecit Br vol. 1, p. 269.
7 hinc:hicBr
retro: rectus T Ex And:AnMS
7.1 et gratiam omitted Br healdan: healed MS
futuro: futuram T holdliche: Liebermann recommends emending to holdlice, though
Amen: omitted Br holdliche is a legitimate lateform ofthe word

382 383
 NOTES TO THE TEXTS I CNUT

I CNUT
10 JETHELRED

MS = Vatican, Codex Reginensis Latina MS 946, fol. 75"- A = London, British Library, Harley MS 55, fols. 5r-7V; B = Cambridge,
The text, found on one of a small collection of leaves bound into a Corpus Christi College MS 383, pp. 43-47; G = London, Bn"tish Library, Cot-
fourteenth-century French miscellany, has been damaged by damp and ton MS Nero.A..i,fols. 3r- 16r:
tearing on the folio's margins. This edition relics on the text of Lieber-
Pr Dis: A pnmks this with Dis is seo gerednes, pe Cnut cyning,
mann, Gesetze, vol. 1, pp. 269-70.
ealles Englalandes cyningc and Dena cyningc and Norprigena
Pr.1 t,zttc: t,eMS cyningc, gcrzdde, and his witan, Gode to lofc and rum sylfum
to cynescipe and to pearfe, rade swa hwzOer swa man willc.
CNuT's OXFORD LEGISLATION OF 1018 ealles ... cining: omittedA
oo:re: l!amA
D = Cambridge, Corpus Christi Colltgt MS 201,pp. 126-30. 2 uton: omitted G; witan A
saulum ... and: omittedA
-, gcbetan: gebetcn D
u rum: omitted G; suppliedfrom A
11.1 pzt hi: and hi D
2.3 sig: is A
1i. lafe: lcafe D
2.5 pa mynsterclznsunge begyte: pas mynstres clansunge A
15.1 tidan: omitted D
mynsterclznsunge: mystcrclznsunge G
19 man geornc: man gcorc D
3.1 wurl'Jscipes: omitted.A.
26.3 hundred: unrzd D
halgunge: halsunge G
27 on: omitted D
3.2 and on ... arcebiscope: omittdA
28 pzt gehwa: and pzt gehwa D
4.1 se /le: A addr wylle oM
pzt he: he pzt D
4.2 pc deoffa: pc he deoffaA
swa man: swa he man A
CNt!T'S PROCLAMATION OF 10 20 halige: omittedA
abutan: omitted.A.
Y = York, YorkMinstn;AdditionaJ MS 1,Jols. 16or--v
5 ladigc he: A. omits he
2 hzbbc ic mid: hzbbc mid Y 5-1 tihtlige: thtlige A
hycgan: omittedY; suppliedfollowing Liebermann mid: omittedA
him: hcomY p sig:isA
3
4 pzt he ongean: pzt ongean r ladige mid: ladige rune mid A
pe man: se man r 5-4 he ladian: he hinc ladian A
5
deop is: is omitUdY swa mid anfealdre: omittedA
6
gesece: gcszce Y 7 pzs: hisA
on pam halgan: on omittedT 7.3 Ne ... wif; and:AcA
fzsten: fzstan r libbe: G adds, prol,,zbly in em,r; pus scyldon zfre gc

384 385
 NOTES TO THE TEXTS 2 CNUT

8.2 gega: gegaaA 21 smeagan: Band A add and spyrran, which has been added here in 11
XXX: arittig penegaA
sixteenth-century hand
9.1
cxx scyllinga: twa hundred and twentig scillinga A 22 geleafan and ariht: geleafan ariht A
10.1 cxx scyllinga: twa hundred and twentig scillinga A 22.1 sceal ... odrum: omittedB, where II later hand has added we sculan
And: omittedA us gebiddan and mid pam credan
II.I
12 eft on: eft to A 22.4 butan ... Gode: buton he on God hrebbe inwardlice rihtne ge·
and eft to prem refene sanctan Marian clrensunge ealswa: omitted leafanAB
G (likely b-y scribal error), but addedin II sixteenth-century hand 22.5 Cristenra manna: Cristene B
fyrOrige: friOige A gemanan ... life: gemanan on gehalgodon restan oMe her on life
14
rihtlice: omittedA busies beon wyrde AB
14.1
And healde man: omittedA 23 B adds ruhric Godlar
14.2
mressedreg: start ofB 24 warnige symle: warnian geome B
B adds ruhric Be frestene 26 lage lareowas: larc'leowas B
16
And: omitted B 26.1 elles: helles B
16.1 eallswa: and AB 26.2 mannum: manna G
pret ... mressedrege: omittedAB 26.4 A ... Amen: added in margin in II later hand in G; omittedA

17 And: omitted B
and rihtfrestendagum: omitted B 2 CNUT

Twelftan mressedrege: Twelftadreg AB A = London, British Library, Harley MS 55, fols. 7V-13v; B = Cambridge,
17.1 pret is ... Aprilis: omittedAB Corpus Christi College MS 383, pp. 4 7-72; G = London, British Ubrary, Cot-
XVIIII: XVIII G ton MS NeroA.i,fa/s. 16r-41r.
pret ys ... Mzge: omittedAB
18 biddac'I: willac'I B Pr is seo: is Oonne seo AB
ponne us: pret us B 2 aa: omitted G
pret we: prer we GB pret is ... agyltad: omittedAB
awohtonaworhtan: a worhton G 2.1 forbeodac'I: beodadAG
18.1 B adds rubric Be scrifte forspille: forspille man B
18.2 pretis: pisA deore: deope A
life: blode B 3 forbeodac'I: beodaa AG
18.3
scalde: ageat B huru ... georne: omittedA
Ac: omitted B 4 B adds rubric Wiccean
19
pe:depeB forfare: forfaran G
georne: omittedA B adds ruhric Be hredenscipe
20
20.1 bye!: clam byO AB And: omittedB
witodlice: omittedA we: omitted G
rihtlice: omittedA 5.1 Hreaenscipe ... weorpige: l>ret bill pret man idol weordige B

386 387
 NOTES TO THE TEXTS 2 CNUT

deofolgyld: idolaA l>ret he byo: omittedAB

blote: hlotre A 20.J eao: omittedA
8 B adds rubric Feos bote 21 B adds rubric Be oeofan
and ymbe feos: and feos G Ac: omitted B; And A
georne: geore G 22 innan: innan his A
9 heonon foro: omitted B 22.1 to !>am ordale: co ordale B
IO bricbota: B adds heonan foro mid ... lade: omittedA
II symle: georne B 22.3 refre: omitted B
II.I Amen: omittedA 23 gerrywe: omitted B
12 and flymena fyrmc'le: omittedAB 23.1 gewitnes: B adds hwanon him come
and he ... geunne: omittedAB on hlafordes: on his hlafordes B
13 B adds rubric Utlaga 24.2 we: omittedA
15 oe: omittedAB her beforan: rer B
fiyman: omittedAB cwredon: cwredon is A
pret: omitted B 24.3 refter 6am: omittedB
rer: omitted B 25 sceawie: scepie B
15.1 eft: omittedAB ahte: ahB; age A
he geladige: he hine geladige AB 25-2 frremde j:,a: frremde man j:,a B
15.2 xxx: xxB cxx: hundrwelfci B
16 freme: feorme A; freoma B 26 l>ret pret: pret B
hine:himB gesecean: omittedA
17 And ... clone: written in a sixteenth-century handO'IJer an erasure in G 26.1 And ... ne: omittedA
17.1 And ... hundredes: Sece man his hundred B 28 ne: omittedB
hit is: hit riht isAB butan: butan he A
18 on geare: omittedB 30 B adds rubric Swyoe getreowe
ruwa:twaAB hine ponne: hine B
scirgemot: B adds be wite ealswa hit riht is 30.1 ne he: added in a sixteenth-century handover an erasure in G
oftor: B adds neod in a sixteeenth-century hand 30.3 B adds rubric Be ordale
19 B adds rubric Be name beo he: beo him B; beo A
nane: omittedA his wites: j:,res A
priwa ... his: omitted B eft: omitted B
19.1 he feoroan: he ret j:,am feoroam A 30.4 gifhe: buton gifhe B
20 B adds rubric l>ret relc man beo on teoounge 30.5 gif he: gif hit B
And: omitted B swa hwylc: hwylc B
teon: afylle B man !>onne: man wyle oooe pone B
wylle: fylle A mreg: sceal B

388 389
 NOTES TO THE TEXTS 2 CNUT

30.6 wites: weres B 39.1 bote: pa bote B

30.7 getrywe to: getreowe men to B 40 gehadodne: gehadodne man B
30 .8 forocume ... wyrde: omittedB zlpcodigne: zlpeodigne man B
30.9 And gifheo: omitted B him cingc: him se kingc B
31 B adds rubric Be hiredmannum hlaford: omitted B
rihtlagu: lagu B 40 .1 bete man: beton B
31.1 oOhleape: ztleape B; !cape A 41 B adds rubric Be gehadedum mannum
man:hiB swa papa: swa se papa B
31.:1. Gyf . . . and: omitted B 41.1 ladige mid: ladie hine mid B
si: beoB 42 B adds rubric Dret man gehadodne man [ne] bende ne beate
utlah: B adds wi6 6one cyng swa swa hit: swa hi B
32 peowman: ISeofmanAB be hades: be Ozs hades B
man: omitted B and hlaforde: and Oam laforde B
hine: hine ponne B oMe cyningce: o66e 6am kyningce B
32.1 oc'ler: omitted B hine mid: hine syifne mid B
33 B adds rubric Be ungetreowum mannum 43 healde to: B adds dres
ungetrywe si: si omitted in G 44 him man zfre: him nan man nrefre B
33·1 forene: omitted B; fora A 44.1 hwa:manB
33-2 ealra: omitted B pone: omittedA
35 B adds rubric Be freondleasan hine: omitted G
ponne: pone G V and: V men and B
And: omittedB sylf: him sylfB
gyf: omitted G 45 refre: nzfre B
36 B adds rubric Be mznan ade wylde: B adds man hine
And: omittedB 45,1 B adds rubric Be haligdziges freolse
37 B adds rubric Be leasre gewitnesse gebete: gebete he B
naht: ahtG 4P g1f wyrce: gyf he wyrce B
pe .. . ahe: omittedAB 46 Be adds rubric Be festene
38 and fzstentidan: omittedAB 46.1 Yfel by6: Yfel bi6 hit B
beorgan: bebyrgan B rihtfrestentide: riht• omittedAB
38.2 syrnle georne: georne and syrnble B gyt: gyc hit biO B
boctrecinge: boctale AB 46.2 oMe hydgyldes: omittedA
and woruldcunde: and for woruldcunde A ; and woruldbote B 47 oMe purh reaflac: in a sixteenth-century hand over an erasure in G
bote: omittedB swa on: swa eac on B
39 B adds rubric Gifhwa preost ofslea 47.1 ladige mid: ladige hine mid B
geladige hine: ladige B 48 B adds rubric Gif hwa forwyrne godcunde gerihte
 NOTES TO THE TEXTS 2 CNUT

hine:-N-G 60 B adds rubric Be 6am prec man ooerne bewepna<S

XI and:XI menandB forgilde: forgildon hine
48.1 ret: ret oam B 61 B adds rubric Gri<Sbryce
alrete: forlete B Gif: ifwith spacefor the initial in G
48.3 gesollige: gesooian mrege 61.1 hine:-N-G
liege: liege he B 62 B adds rubric Hamsocne
49 be hades: be l!res hades B and on ... accebisceope: omittedAB
50 B adds rubric Be rewbryce and on Dena: and Dene G
50.1 Y fel: fel with spacefor tbe initial in G 62..1 afylle: alecge A
man:menB 63 B adds rubric Reaflac
51 B adds rubric Be siblegere oMe ... age: omittedAB
51.1 and hit: and pes pe hit B 64 B adds rubric Husbryce
52 B adds rubric Be wydewan 65 B adds rubric Burhbote
be were: be his were B cxx: hundtwefrigum A
52.1 B adds rubric Mreden namie: and namige B
be were: be his were B 66 B adds rubric Be Godes flyrnan
53 B adds rubric Dret nan wif heo ne forlicgge hine to: hine mid B
ahte:ageB his: omittedAB
and heo ... earena: and heo oonne llolie regder ge nosu ge t'la 67 efr co rihte: omitted B
earanB man for: man him for B
53.1 bisceop: se bisceop B betst: best G
God and: God B mrege: B adds, then crosses out, oam men
54
54.1 bisceop him: him se bisceop B 68 aa: refre B
55 driue hi man of: omitted GA, added in B in a sixteenth-century band betst: omitted B
and synnan: and on synnan B ponne ... by<!: omitted B
56 B adds rubric Open more! 68.1 B adds rubric Be unstrangan
amyrdred: amyrred G and ege: and for his ege B
pone banan: omitted GA, addedin Bin a sixteentb-century hand Forpamt'le ... georne, gelice: Foroamoe we magon witan ful-
B adds rubric Lafordes syrwunge georne, pa:t se unmaga and se mage ne mreg gelice B; Forpampe
57
oooe hlaford syrwe: syrwe oMe yrnbe his hlaford B ne maeg, we witan fulgeorne, se unmaga pam magan gelice A
ordale: B adds and prer clrene wyrd in a sixteenth-century hand gelice byrllene: gelice mycele byroene B
58 B adds rubric Be borhbryce byrt'lene ... gelice: omittedA
58.1 Gif: ifwith spacefor the initial in G ahebban: aberan B
58.2. borh: burg A freot: frige B
pa:t: omitted B peowet: l>eowe B
59 B adds rubric Be dam pe on cynincges hirde feohteo 68.z m.J:nigre: gemeanre B

392 393
 NOTES TO THE TEXTS 2 CNUT

J>onne byc'l ... wyrc'le: c'lonne bid se man c'le bet wyrc'le B 7P lagan trecean: later revised to laga trecean G; lagu trece AB
68.3 hwret: omittedA 76 B adds rubric Be forstolene rehta
na: omitted B hwylc:hwaB
gedec'l: gewurJ>e G; dec'l B arasod: arefned B
69.1 me rihtlice: rihtlice B 76.1 hordern: heddernes crege B
69.2 dam: omittedA cyste: cyste crege B
70 B adds rubric Be hergeate J>onne: pone B
And ... gewite: Gyf of c'lysum life man gewice B gelogian: gelac'lyan A
71 swa fundene: omittedA 76.2 on cradele: on clam cradele B
B adds rubric Eorles letan efen scyldig: lretan ealswa scyldigne B
eallswa: swa B 76.3 swylce: eac swyc'le B
71.1 B adds rubric Kyncges 6eines manege: manega c'lincg B
J>egnas: B adds heregeata 77 B adds rubric Be dam J>e flihcl fram his laforde
swa: ealswa B ealles: he ealles B
71.2 B adds rubric Oc'lres c'leines 77-1 omittedB
7I,5 maga:mageG 78 B adds rubric Be dam de toforan his laforde feallec'l
72 his deig: omitted GA, added in Bin a sixteenth-century hand J>am: omitted B
on J>am yican: omittedB hit of: hit ut of B
72.1 beclypod wrere: beclypod G 79 hrebbe on: B adds scypfyrde and on landfyrde be
73 B adds rubric Be wydewan J>ret heo sitte XII monc'las ceorlres and se ... ahte: omittedAB
monad: monad and B 80 B adds rubric Be huntnac'le
ceose: ceose heo B 80.1 wylle habban: B adds on minon agenan in a sixteenth-century hand
binnan: donne binnan <Ires B 83 cla: omittedA
73• 1 his socne: hit AB 83-2 hit: hi B; omittedA
73-3 refre: nrefre B wyrde: abrece B
74 nyde:nimeA 84 swycle georne: omitted B
man: man nrefre B 84.1 geornlice: and georlice B
B adds rubric Be clam J>ret man his spere to oc'lres mannes dure hyran: A adds and Godes lage fylgean
75
sette 84.2 for rerran: for his rerran B
ic lrete riht: wille A; ic nelle with lrete riht added ah()'Ue the line B 84.3 heononforcl: B adds mid rihte
J>eah: J>e B 84.4 a:omittedB
his spere: his agen spere B J>ret: J>res J>e A
and hwylcne: and he hwylcne B wordes: B adds and weorces
hearm: hearm eac AB drede: B adds and
eac: omitted G Godes milts: God B

394 395
 NOTES TO THE TEXTS I EDMUND

84.5 symle: omitted B 6.2 and: omitted B

worulde: B adds Amen 7 inheorde: inherode B
84.6 and ... swa: omittedAB 9.1 hrerfesthandful: hrerfesthandsul B
14 dingan: llingan B
THE NORTHUMBRIAN PRIESTS' LAW 17 getrywlfan: getrywdan B
20 dampnum. . .impucabitur: text omitted from B, supplied from
D = Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 201,pp. 43-46. Quadriparcitus
21.2 /Seode: llede B
2 forbode: forboda D
ollres: ollre D
gebicgre ne gepicgre: gebicgren ne gepicgren with the final n in On Reeves
each gebicgren markedout D
hic:heD B = Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 383,fals. 63v-69r.
3
12 polie: polian D
1. 1 mreda: emendedto mrede B
him:heomD
3.1 omitted B; text suppliedfrom ~adripartitw
23 biscope: pret D
4 flotsmeru: slotsmeru B
30 and biscope: addedlater D
7 is: his B
41 oMe ealascop: vel ealascop D
9 He:MeB11
48 oMe idola: vel idola D
stician: stygian B
49 v1:v1"Y
12 bigan: bycgan B
51 all: omitted D
13 swilces cynnes: synnes B
56 mete: meteneade D

I .£THELSTAN
THE OBLIGATIONS OF INDIVIDUALS AND ON REEVES
D =Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 201, p. 53; G =London, British
The Obligatiom ofIndividuals
Library, Cotton MS NeroA.i,fals. 86v--87v.
B = Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS383,fals. 63v-66v.
)Ec'lelstanes gerrednes: JEllelstanes cinyncges gerrednes D
3 ofer: ofehB Pr beode: omitted D
3.3 lleaw: lleall B and pret: pret D
4.1 rrecan: rrepan B 5 agenes: omitted D
4.2 inswane: inswa B oferhirnesse: oferynesse G
4.3 forllsill: forllsit B
4.4 eac: eaB I EDMUND
4.6 hwret ... sy: repeated B
5 pret on: ponne B B "' Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 383, fols. 54v- 55r; D = Cam-
5.2 mredmrewette: mredmrewecte B bridge, Corpus Christi College MS 201, pp. 96-<)7; G == London, British Li-
 NOTES TO THE TEXTS 2 EDGAR AND 3 EDGAR

brary, Cotton MS Nero A.i, fol. 8;iv; H = Strood, Medway Archive and Lo- healfan: here and suhsequently in Gr, ealfan bas been co"ected tQ
cal Studies Centre MS DRc/R1 (Textus Roffensis), fols. 44r-45r. healfan in a later (p<)ssibly WulfstanW hand
4.1 ponne to: hine to AD
Her . . . gerrednes: Eadmundes cyninges asetnysse H; Ead- cyrre: sylle A; s,lle D
4-3
mundes gerrednes G; omitted B freols: freolsungaAD
5
Pr yrnbon: georne yrnbe G Sreternesdreges: omittedA
rred: endofG domboc: seo domboc AD
and pret: llret is <'!ret HB beo: syD
2 Romfeoh: almesfeoh HB and rekes ... sy: omitted D
p
and sulhrelmessan: omitted HB and relces ... betst stod: omittedG1;texttakenfromA
5-1-3
And gif: Gif HB
3 neawiste: ansyne H; B adds gyf he cyninges man sy
6 beon:synHB 3Edgar
gecirran pe geornor: omittedHB Dadds rubric Eadgares cynincges gerrednes
healde: ealde Gr
2 EDGAR AND 3 EDGAR I.I rerest: omitted G1
swylce: swilce swike A
A = London, British Library, Harley MS 55, fols. 3v-4v; D = Cambridge, 1.2

se <'le oOrum on woh gedeme: /le ollrum wo deme AD

Corpus Christi College MS 201, pp. 46-48; G1 = London, British Library,
Cotton MS NeroA.i,fo/s. 42r-44v; G2 = London, British Library, Cotton -twelfti: start ofG2
MS Nero A.i, fols. 88r-89r (J Eagar only). eft: omittedAD
swa he: swa swa he A
scyre: scyr Gr
4 forseggan: forseccan D
2Edgar
feore: freme DG2; A adds uel freme
Pr Dadds rubric Her is Eadgares cynincges gerrednes se oiler: AD adds pret
his leodscipe: omitted D 5 hundredgemot: hundredes gemot DG2
rihtes: relces rihtesAD 6 gehealde: geealde G1, co"ectedin a sixteenth-century hand
1.1 swa swa hit seo: swa his G1 6.2 hit: hit ponne D
gega: gegange AD peof:pyf<'!Gr
2 gesylle: gesylle <'!one AD sealde: geald ADG2
2.1 ne: omitted D 7 priwa: omitted Gr
nigan drelum: nigollan drele D sceawie: selfte D
2.3 omitted Gr, text suppliedfrom A 7.1 swallor: swa hwa/ler swa D
And: omitted D landhlaford: hlaford ells ADG2
3 sy gelrest be: to AD 7.3 gesecen: Dadds bucon se cyninge him feorhgeneres unne
3.1 fare: ponne fare D 8 ga: gange ADG2

398 399
 NOTES TO THE TEXTS

8.1 G1 reads And gemet, swylce man on Wintancestre healde.

8.2 healfan: ealfan G1
punde: omitted D
undeoror: deoror G1
8.3 omitted G1; textfrom A
Notes to the Translations

THE LAWS OF EDWARD AND GuTHRUM

Pr And this also: The prologue's opening phrase appears to connect

this text with the one immediately preceding it in the manu-
script, the so-called Treaty ofAlfred and Guthrum, composed
sometime after King Alfred ofWessex (849-899) defeated the
Viking king Gu thrum (d. 890) at the battle of Ethandun (identi-
fied as Edington in Wiltshire) in May 878. It seems likely that
Wulfstan composed The Laws of Edward and Guthrum as a
companion piece to the Treaty-possibly as a way of extending
the provisions of the earlier treaty to encompass northern
England as well as southern-and intended the two to circu
late together.
sanctuary: The right of a church to protect an individual within
its walls or other forms of boundary marker from secular pros-
ecution. Sometimes also referred to by Wulfstan as "church
sanctuary."
2 labs/it: Having no adequate modern English equivalent, labs/it is
a term of Old Norse derivation used by Wulfstan to denote the
Danish analogue to English "wergild" (literally, "man-price": an
amount of money determined by rank paid by the responsible
party as compensation for the injury or death of another). A
partial sense of the values attached to labs/it can be gleaned
from the prescriptions in The Northumhrian Priests' Law 51- 54.
J.l proper day: That is, on Maundy Thursday (the Thursday before
Easter).
twelve oras: The ora was a unit of coinage equal to sixteen pence
or one-fifteenth of a pound.
 NOTES TO THE TRANSLATIONS THE COMPILATION ON STATUS

4 king shall h=e ... luwer: The phrasing here is ambiguous: it may thane: A landowner lower in status than a lord, with military ob-
mean that the male offender was punished by the king and the ligations to his superior.
female by the bishop, though were this the case, one would ex- 2 five hides: One hide is equivalent to the amount of land a single
pect a feminine article before "the lower" (pa nyj,mm rather plowman could till in one day. During the Old English period,
than Jone nyj,eran). A second possibility may be that the divi- depending on region, one hide could equate to an area rang-
sion between upper and lower refers to social class, and the dis- ing from 60 to 180 acres, though it was standardized following
tinction between the two represents a division of jurisdiction the Conquest to roughly 120 acres. The five-hide unit seems to
between king and bishop (with thanks to Robert Fulk for this have been a common standard of measurement in Old English
suggestion). law and may have indicated the threshold above which a land-
6.1 dues to &me: "Peter's Pence," a penny tax paid each Feast of owner owed military obligations to the king.
Saint Peter to support the Holy See in Rome.
6.2 dues for the lighting ofa cbur,h: A tax paid between one and three OnWergild
times a year to fund the lighting of the local church or minster.
6.3 plow dues: A tax levied based on the number of plows owned by a title On Wergild: The earlier version of the Compilation titles this text
householder; typically one penny per plow. The Law of the Northm, People. A major component of Wulf-
9 Orrkals and oaths: Two methods used by early English to ascer- stan's revision was to diminish the regional specificity of the
tain guilt or confirm a court's finding. The former was a ritual individual texts, though this should not be taken as a sign that
involving a physical test, the result ofwhich was understood to the wergild values listed here necessarily applied south of the
be divine sanction of the court's verdict (the common belief Humber.
that ordeals were used simply to determine guilt is largely in- a king's wergild: Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 201
accurate). Oathtaking permitted the participants in either a reads, "The wergild of a king of the northern people."
criminal or a civil dispute to enlist witnesses (the number re- thrymsas: The term "thrymsa" was used both as a general term
quired was based on social status) to swear to their innocence for coins and more specifically as the equivalent of one-third
or honesty. of a shilling, about four pennies. It is the latter meaning which
most likely applies here.
THE COMPILATION ON STATUS 3 ealdorman: A royal appointee charged with overseeing portions
of the kingdom. Within the political hierarchy of early
The text here is based on that in Textus Rnffinsis, though Wulfstan's origi-
eleventh-century England, ealdormen were considered of
nal order has been preserved. Significant variants from Cambridge, Cor-
higher rank than a reeve but below that of members of the
pus Christi College MSS 190 and 201 have been identified in the notes.
royal family. The ealdorman's responsibilities included presid-
ing over courts, levying taxes, and supplying soldiers at the
king's request.
On the Ranks ofPeople andLaw
4 reroe: The agent of either the king or the local landlord respon-
people and law were orderedby status: The word geftincJu lacks a di- sible for overseeing his master's property.
rect modern English equivalent, and it previously has been 6 This 1s the final clause of the text's ~original" section, which
translated as "rank," "status," "dignity," and "honor." likely dates from the ninth century but may have been corn-

40 1 403
 NOTES TO THE TRANSLATIONS ON SANCTUARY

posed as early as the mid seventh century. The clauses that fol-
low (nos. 7-12) are all composed by Archbishop Wulfstan. On Priests' Oaths
9 two thousand thrymsas: The wergild here equates to that of a On Priests' Oaths: Title omitted from Textus Roffinsis.
title
thane in clause 5, thus bringing the clauses on social promotion Sevenfold are the gifts ofthe Holy Spirit: Isaiah 11 :2-3 lists the seven
m this text in line with those m On the Ranks ofPeople and Law gifts of the Holy Spirit as wisdom (sapientia), understanding
above, especially clause 2. (intellectw), counsel (consilium), fortitude (fortitudo), knowledge
II gesith: A rank roughly equivalent to a thane found in Northum- (scientia), godliness (pietas), and fear of the Lord (timor Domini).
bnan legal texts. sroen are the steps ofecclesiastical ranks: The seven grades in the ec-
clesiastical hierarchy are doorkeeper (ostiarius), reader (/ector),
On the Law ofthe Mercians exorcist (exon:ista), acolyte (acolitw), subdeacon (subdiaconus),
deacon (diaconus), and priest (presbyter).
title On the Law ofthe Mercian.s: The title rs omitted from Textus Rof full breach ofthe peace: Equivalent to the "loss of life" specified in
4
femis (MS H). the previous clause.
5 and by doing spiritual penance: The end of this clause is omitted
On the Mercian Oath from Textw Rojfemis, likely inadvertently, but present in Cam-
bridge, Corpus Christi College MSS 190 and :i.0 1.
title On the Mercian Oath: The title is omitted from Textw Roffinsis. a partial violation: That is, if the victim is only injured but not
9
This text and the one following it in the Compilation, On Priests'
killed.
Oaths, were significantly reworked by the Textus scribe: the sin- Textus Rojfemis inverts clauses 9.1 and 10 and omits clause II en-
II
gle clause of On the Mercian Oath and the first sentence of On tirely. This is in keeping with the scribe's treatment of Tht
Priests' Oaths were extracted from their context in the Compi- Compilation on Status generally, which he disarticulates and re
lation, inverted, and appended as the twelfth and thirteenth edits in order to reformulate the component texts for a twelfth-
clauses of the Old English oath compilation Swerian. The treat- century readership and fit them into the manuscript's organi-
ment of these texts in Textus Roffensis led Thorpe to treat this zational program. The preterite verb tenses ofthis clause recall
text simply as part of Swerian, and its subsequent editors, those of On the Ranks ofPeople and Law, thus providing a neat
Schmid and Liebermann, to combine On the Mercian Oath and bookend to the Compilation.
the first sentence of On Priests' Oaths (Liebermann's Hadhot)
into a single, biclausal text, an editorial creation known as Ah ON SANCTUARY
(Oath). However, the fact that Cambridge, Corpus Christi Col-
lege MSS 190 and 201, as well as the twelfth-century compil- the sanctuary of God: Godes gri8 is a favorite phrase ofWulfstan's
ers of ~dripartitw and the Instituta Cnuti, construe the texts and survives almost exclusively in his writings.
in the manner chat they are treated above-the first clause of the king's: The extent of the king's sanctuary is defined in the
Liebermann's AJ as an individual text entitled On the Mercian short tenth-century legal tract Pax, which reads in its entirety,
Oath, and the second clause as the first sentence of a longer "Thus far shall be the king's sanctuary from the city gate,
text entitled On Priests' Oaths-indicates that the arrangement where he is sitting, in four directions, that is, three miles and
in Textus Roffimis should be understood simply as a scribal vari- three furlongs and three lineal acres and nine feet and nine
ation. handspans and nine barleycorns" (Dus ftor sceal beon p,es cinges

404 405
 NOTES TO THE TRANSLATIONS THE OATH OF THE KING

grilJ fram his burhgeate, jJiE1" he is sitten.k, qn je<YWer healfe his, IJ.£t is 19 security and ecclesiasticalprivileges: Both hr1/nesgri'lJ and hadgrilJ are
m mi/a and m furlang and l11 d!cera brd!de and IX fota and IX hapax legomena.
m,ftamunda and IX berecqrna). The mention of the king sitting 23 Who is as our Lord . .. ofhispeqp/e: Psalms 112:5, 7-8.
at the city gate refers to the practice of holding court at a 23.1 fearofGfJdandheedwisdom: See Proverbs q.
town's gate. For an early reference to this practice, see Deuter- 29 Andit is also agreat necessity . .. given to him: A modified version of
onomy 21:18-:u. Matthew 7:12.
3- 5 The nostalgic tone ofclauses 3 through 5 recalls the similar evo-
cation of an idealized past in the opening clauses of the first NORTHUMBRIAN CHURCH SANCTUARY
item in The Cqmpilatiqn qn Status, On the Ranks qf People and
Due to damage to the manuscript, this text is based on that found in Lie-
Law, a text likely composed at approximately the same time as
bermann, Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen. Words that have been restored
this one. It also highlights the present-day deterioration in ec-
based on Liebermann's notes are indicated below.
clesiastical status, which made necessary the injunctions that
follow. Saint Peter's, Saint Wilfrid's, and within the walls ofSaintJohn's: The
7 This is the only surviving clause in Old English law to echo the three churches specified are those at York, Ripon, and Beverly.
first clause of }Ethelbert's legislation, the earliest royal law Saint Jqhni . .. compensated: "John's," "hundred," and "cannot be
code, though it is significant that Wulfstan assigns compensa- compensated" are all reconstructed.
tion to the archbishop, rather than co a bishop, as in the earlier 2. "In scale" is reconstructed.
text. Moreover, }Ethelbert's laws do not mention the king, im- 3 "And a priest" is reconstructed.
plying that one purpose of this clause may be co promote the
church at the expense of the secular aristocracy. THE OATH OF THE KING
13.1 This is the only instance of the loss of a hand serving as a pen-
alty for assault. which Archbishop Dunstan presented to our lord at Kingston: Over
r6 seeks sanctuary: This clause employs frilJstql as a general term for the course of his archiepiscopate {959-978), Dunstan presided
"sanctuary," although the word originated as the name for a at four coronations-those of Edgar (an initial crowning in 960
specific "peace seat" for sanctuary seekers to use when claim- and a more elaborate ritual in 973), Edward (975), and}Ethelred
ing refuge. Such seats were present in the churches at York, (978). As Edgar's 973 coronation took place at Bath, the cer-
Southwell, Hexham, and Beverly, the latter two of which still emony referred to must have been one of the others, all of
survive. Notably, York and Beverly are two of the three founda- which took place at Kingston-on.:fhames, the traditional site
tions whose privileges are set forth in the first clause of Nqrth- of royal coronations since the reign of)Echelstan. The text does
umbrian Church Sanctuary. not indicate which ceremony it refers to, yet the reference to
punishment hy hanging in bonds: The term used here, hengenwit- "our lord" rather than a named predecessor makes }Ethelred's
nung, is a hapax legomenon often translated as "imprisonment"; coronation the most likely.
however, the component parts (hengen, "hanging," and witnung, placed upon Christi altar: The placing of official documents on
"torture" or "punishment") suggest a more severe sentence. the church altar was a common means ofsignifying the sacred-
18 This clause mitigates the more severe punishment of execution ness or official nature of their contents.
decreed in 6 .-Ethelstan 12.2 for those guilty of second offenses. In the name of the Holy Trinity, The king's threefold promise

406 407
 NOTES TO THE TRANSLATIONS THE INSTITU TES OF POLITY (2)

closely follows that found in contemporary Latin texts con- f Paul . .b/ameles;: 1 Timothy 3:2.
cerning the ceremony for the coronation of a king, such as the 6 by calling out: Compare Isaiah 58:1.
Benedictional of Robert, Byrhtferth's Vita Oswaldi, and the so- 7 He that heareth: See Luke 10 :16.
called Firrt English Ordo. Whatsoever thou shalt bind: Matthew 16:19.
J condemn no one unjwtly: Old Englishforneme means only "con- Whatever you have b!tSJed: An abbreviation of Numbers 24:9. See
demn," yet the modifier "unjustly" must be added for the in- also On the Remedy ofSouls 4.
junction to make sense in context. Hewould1UJt ...from him: See Psalms 108:18.
13 Wilmen Monastics: Old English mynecenan, a specific category of
female monastics that emerged as part of the tenth-century
THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (1)
Monastic Reform.
2 And it is fitting . .. God'sfil'llor. This passage appears only in Lon- 15 remains chaste: Literally, "retains his boyhood."
don, British Library, Cotton Nero A.i. By the Apostle's consent: See I Corinthians 7:8- 9.
There are eight columns ... friend and stranger: The eight columns 16 example ofAnna: Wulfstan here refers to Anna the Prophetess
are drawn from the tenth chapter of Sedulius Scottus's Book on (not to be confused with Anne, mother of Mary), a widow at
Christian Rulers. The seven qualities appropriate for a righteous the temple in Jerusalem granted a vision of Christ. See Luke
king are taken from the Co/lectio canonum Hibernensis 25-15- 2:36- 37.
.. Each throne that stands ... Amen: This passage, the most famous 18 For anyone becomes ... goods ofthe Church: Taken from Atta ofVer-
in Polity, draws on a venerable, if only erratically attested, celli, De pressuris ecdesiastkis 138.14.
trope in early English political thought. The earliest extant di- Whoever pluntkrs ... all said· Amen; This is presumably a quota-
vision of society into three orders occurs in the Old English tion from the writings of Pope Gregory I (pope from 590 to
translation of Boethius's Consolation ofPhilosophy, attributed to 6 0 4), but the source for the quotation is unknown. The horta-
King Alfred The threefold division next appears in the work tory Uton ("Let us. . . ") suggests oral presentation in the form of
of .tElfric, although variations in his terminology suggest that a homily.
he (and perhaps Alfred also) was drawing on a now-lost Latin
source. .tElfric incorporates variations on the three-orders
THE INSTITUTES OF POLITY (2)
trope into a codicil to his commentary on Maccabees, a Latin
letter to Wulfstan composed sometime between 1003 and The text here is based on Oxford, Bodleian LibraryJunius 121. The Junius
1005, and his Book on the Old and New Testament (Libel/us tk ~ttri scribe has altered the chapter order slightly; this edition follows Jost, Die
Testamentott Novo, also known as the Lttterto Sigeweard). Wulf- "Institutes of Polity, Civil and Ecclesiastical," in restoring the order found in
stan's discussion of the three orders in Polity most likely draws the earlier manuscripts. For notes on passages also found in 1 Polity, see
upon the last of these, the relevant text of which reads, "The above.
throne stands on these three pillars: those who labor, those who
fight, those who pray" (& dnestol stynt on pisum prim sttlum: labora- Concerning the Heavenly King-. Wulfstan adds this new introduc-
tores, bellatores, oratores). It is noteworthy, though, that Wulfstan tory chapter to 2 Polity in keeping with the emphasis in his
alters the order of the three estates as listed by .tElfric, giving later works on the subordmation of royal power to divine au-
priority to "those who pray" rather than "those who labor." thority. The addition of this chapter may have been inspired by

408 409
 NOTES TO THE TRANSLATIONS ON EPISCOPAL DUTIES

.i£thelred's failures in the final years of his reign or as a way to 17 who eat the sins of the people: Compare Hosea 4:8 and Ezekiel
symbolically limit the authority of the new king, Cnut. 44:2 9.
7 that silence: Compare Isaiah 58:1. gluttonous rtl'llens: Compare Matthew 24:28.
Thus sayeth the Lord . .. thy hand: An adaptation of Ezekiel r18. 19 Cry, cease not ... trumpet: Isaiah 58.1.
8 He that heartth . .. despiseth me: Luke 10:16. Yet ifyou do not do that . .. that they required: Compare Ezekiel 33:8.
9 Whatsoever they shall say . . . ye not: Matthew 23:3. Ifyou proclaim righteoumess . . . soul nonetheless: Compare Ezekiel
10 Likewise, Concerning Bishops: This section and the one following 33:9.
are based on the short Latin text De medicamento animarum (On 20 and by right . .. status: The text in Junius 121 is incomplete here.
the &medy ofSouls), edited and translated elsewhere in this vol- The passage in Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 20 1 is
ume. here substituted.
II He that heanth: Luke 10:16. 21 Constantine: Emperor of Rome from 306 to 337 CE.
Whatsoevtr thou shaft hind: Matthew 16:19. synod in the city ofNicea: The First Council of Nicea took place in
Whose sins...them, etc.:John 20:23. 325 CE and resulted in the promulgation of the Nicene Creed.
he would not ...farfrom him: Psalms 10 8:18. the second was later .. . many bishops together. Wulfstan here lists
12 Furthermore: In the manuscript, this chapter is preceded by the the three Church synods that followed Nicea: Constantinople
text On Episcopal Duties, edited and translated elsewhere in this (381 CE), Ephesus (431 CE), and Chalcedon (451 CE).
volume. 28 Concerning the Laity: In the manuscript, this chapter is preceded
13 pnziseworthy ways: See I Timothy 3:2. by The Canons of Edgar (titled in this manuscript Synodal De-
14 Concerning Nobles: In the manuscript, this chapter is preceded by crees), edited and translated elsewhere in this volume.
the text Instructions for Bishops, edited and translated elsewhere
in this volume.
ON EPISCOPAL D U TIES
15 Edgar died: The sudden death of King Edgar (r. 959-975) and the
subsequent conflict over the succession initiated a crisis in ec- title Furthermore: This is the only tide given to the text in the manu-
clesiastical authority that still resonated with Wulfstan more script, where it follows the sixth chapter of2 Polity C'Likewise,
than twenty-five years later. The years between 975 and 978 Concerning Bishops"). The tide Episcopus (On Episcopal Duties)
witnessed a series of legal challenges to ecclesiastical power was given to it by Liebermann.
and violent attacks on monastic institutions against which the 4 resolve disputes: The bishop's role in secular dispute resolution
underage King Edward (later referred to as "the Martyrn fol- had been established in English law at least as early as 2-3 Ed-
lowing his assassination, possibly at the instigation of his step- gar.
mother, Queen .,£lfthryth) could offer no protection. For Wulf- 7 sow too much ofhisfalseness: See Matthew 13:39.
stan and his contemporaries, Edgar's death signaled the end of 8 God who despises all injustice: See Deuteronomy 25=16.
the golden age ofMonastic Reforrn and the beginning of a new 9 bishops must pronounce: This clause marks one of the most sig•
age of national and ecclesiastical instability. nificant points of conflict between Wulfstan and .i£lfric, who
16 which they mustprotect ifthey can: Compare Ezekiel 34:10. strongly opposed cooperation between ecclesiastics and secu-
how can a blind man lead another: Compare Matthew 15:14 and lar judges.
Luke6:39. 13 slaves: Old English nidj,eowum, literally "slaves by compulsion,"

410 411
 NOTES TO THE TRANSLATIONS THE CANONS OF EDGAR

that is, those who have entered slavery because of poverty or Cotton MS Claudius A.iii, a pontifical likely used by Wulfstan
starvation. early in his career-suggesting that it was part ofan established
ritual for episcopal synods.
ON THE REMEDY OF SOULS 5 one heart and one soul: Acts 4:J2.

to the care ofchurches and: This interlinear insertion was made to AN ADMONITION TO BISHOPS
the manuscript in Wulfstan's handwriting.
l Isidore: Bishop Isidore of Seville (ea. 560-636), author of the Et- silent about what is right: The text up to this point is written in
ymologiae and the Sententiae. Wulfstan's source for this quota Wulfstan's own handwriting.
tion was likely not the work of Isidore himself but of an Irish mumble ... diminishes: A favorite phrase ofWulfstan's, probably
collection of passages from continental canon law tracts, the influenced by Isaiah 58:1.
Collectio canonum Hihemensis. The passage in question occurs at too accommodating and too eagerfar praise: Wulfstan's criticism of
21.26. those who are "too accommodating and too eager for praise"
Uzza: The story of l 'zza occurs in I Chronicles 13:7-14. (to fiaie andto lofgeorne) recalls the final line of Beowulf, in which
Saul: The account of Saul performing a sacrifice in place of a the hero is described-perhaps ambivalently?-as "most be-
properly designated priest occurs in I Samuel 13:9- 14. loved by men and most eager for glory" (leodum lioost ond /of
But thy kingdom shall not continue: 1 Samuel IJ:14· geornost, line 3182). Wulfstan's use of the first-person plural here
Ozias: The story of King Ozias's leprosy occurs in 2 Chronicles is in keeping with his practice elsewhere of directing his admo-
26:16-21.
nitions at himself as well as his colleagues, as he does at the end
Charge the rich ... high-min<kd: 1 Timothy 6:17. of Institutes ofPolity (2) section 9.
3
Alexander: Bishop Alexander ofJerusalem (d. 251). Wulfstan takes intoxicate with wisdom: Possibly an allusion to Psalms 22.,5: "and
this passage from the Collectio canonum Hihemensis (21.28), where my chalice which inebriateth me, how goodly 1s it!" (et ea/ix
Alexander's interlocutor is identified as "Demetrius, king of meus inehrians quam praec/arus est).
the Greeks." 4 like a child .. behavior. The final eight words (in the Old English,
No man . .. businesses: 2 Timothy 2:4. the last six) are in Wulfstan's handwriting.
4
He that heareth you .. . <kspiseth me: Luke 10 :16.
Whatsoever thou shaft hind upon earth: Matthew 16:19. THE CANONS OF EDGAR

he that hlesseth thee shall also he blessed: An adaptation of Numbers title Sy11odal Decrees: The title text of the version in Cambridge, Cor
:24:9. pus Christi College MS 2.01 reads, "Here now are the practices
would not have blessing . . . from him: See Psalms 10 8:18. fitting for those in orders according to the decrees of Edgar,"
hence the text's attribution co King Edgar by its nineteenth
INSTR UCTIONS FOR BISHOPS century editors. It is unclear whether Wulfstan intended Can-
The opening clause presents an order of prayer similar to that ons to be an exercise in historical re-creation along the lines of
appointed for the first day of an episcopal synod in the tenth- The Laws ofEdward and Guthrum, but it may be significant that
century Pontificale Romano-Germanicum. the reference to Edgar disappears in what is likely the text's
1 Like the order of prayei: in the first clause, the benediction also later versions.
occurs elsewhere - most notably in London, British Library, faithful and true: Wulfstan's phrasing here also recalls the pledge

412 413
 NOTES TO THE TRANSLATIONS THE CANONS OF EDGAR

of loyalty preserved as the first item in the Old English oath midsummer: Feast ofSaintJohn the Baptist,June 2.4.
compilation, Swerian: "By the Lord, before whom this relic is plow dues: A tax levied based on the number of plows owned by a
holy, I will be faithful and true to N, and love all that he loves householder; typically one penny per plow.
and despise all that he despises, according to the law of God tithe ofthe young animals: The offering to the Church of one out
and the custom of the world" (On oone Drihten, pe &s haligdom is ofevery ten animals born over the previous year.
fore halig, ic wille beon N holdandgetriwe andea/lufian lktt he lufao Pentecost: The seventh Sunday after Easter.
and ea/ ascunian lktt he ascuna/J, t1.{ter Godes rihte and111.fter worold- dues owedto Rome: "Peter's Pence," a penny tax paid each Feast of
gerymum). Saint Peter to support the Holy See in Rome.
3- 4 These clauses are supplied from Cambridge, Co.-pus Christi Feast ofSaint Peter: June 2.9.
College MS 2.01. tithe on the fruits ofthe earth: Not technically a tithe, but the of-
6 parish: Old English scrifacire, a term particular to Wulfsran, is fering of the first fruits of the season to one's church to be
translated here as "parish," but it might be more literally ren- eaten by its clergy.
dered as "confessional district," indicating the administrative Feast ofSaint Martin: November 11.
function of penance in late Anglo-Saxon pastoral practice. dues for the lighting ofa church: A tax paid between one and three
8 lawful wife: A marginal note adds "as long as his life lasts." times a year to fund the lighting of the local church or minster.
16 drawn through the earth: The practice referred to here seems co Cand/emas: February 2, also referred to as the Feast of the Purifi-
be one whereby a sick child is drawn through a pit, hole, or cation of the Virgin.
trench in order to transfer his or her illness to the earth. All Saints: November 1.
2.1 This clause 1s supplied from Cambridge, Co.-pus Christi College 60 There appears to have been some reordering of clauses here.
MS2.01. The clause that follows this one in Cambridge, Co.-pus Christi
The alb and the amice are both vestments worn by the priest College MS 201 (numbered 61 by modern editors) here occurs
33
during the Mass, while the co.-poral is the small cloth upon instead as canon 68a.
which the chalice and the host rest on the altar. 64 initial oath: The meaning of this canon is unclear, though it may
37 three times: The limit of three Masses likely stems from the be ruling that priests cannot be compelled to mount a defense
Council ofTrebur, which barred priests from celebrating Mass against an accusation brought by a thane in a secular court un-
more than three times per day on a single altar. In contrast, less that accusation has been leveled through a formal oath-
Wulfstan's contemporary .tElfric restricts priests to celebrating taking ceremony.
Mass only once per day. 65 The canon says: This penance also occurs in the Old English Peni
39 just as the Jews did: The allusion is to the drink supposedly of• tential (also known as the Penitential ofPseudo-Ecgbert) at 4.27.
fered to Jesus on the cross when he complained of thirst in 68b-i These clauses, which appear in Oxford, BodleianJunius 12.1 but
Matthew 2.7:34. not in Cambridge, Co.-pus Christi College MS 2.01, are typically
41 cast ofmetal: A marginal note in the manuscript specifies gold, identified with a number-letter designation in order to preserve
silver, or tin. the correspondence between clauses of each text. They are re-
Rogation: The three days prior to the Feast of the Ascension, also peated almost exactly at 1 Cnut 5- 5.2..
54
referred to as gangdagas (walking days) in Old English because 68c Dunstan: Dunstan served as archbishop ofCanterbury from 960
of the penitential procession that formed part of the days' rit to 978.
uals. 68h or<kal of the consecrated bread: This ritual requires the proband

4 14 4 15
 NOTES TO THE TRANSLATIONS 7 A!THELREO

to swallow a portion of the Eucharist without choking. This for a prescribed distance (often nine feet) rather than the typi-
form of ordeal seems to have been reserved for priests and may cal one-pound ball. Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS
have been designed to substitute for more physically painful 201 requires the conspirator to exonerate himself only by "the

ordeals, such as those of the hot iron or boiling water. most serious oath decreed by the council."
69 Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 20 1 adds one more 32. 1 in the west: It is unknown what Wulfstan is referring to here and
clause after this one, reading, "And we instruct that every priest in his reference to "the north" in 32+
is to remember to announce, when he fetches the chrism, what 32.4 on the same day: That is, on the day ofthe crime.
he has done in his prayers for the king and the bishop" (And we
l<Era3 j,<Et ,t/c preost wite to cy'Janne. ponne he crisman fecce, bwtEt he 6 JETHELRED
on gebedum for cyngc and biscop gedon htthbe). Given the bened1c-
II his fourth cousin or closer. This phrase has sometimes been traiu-
tional language ofthe previous clause, however, it is most likely
lated as "within the fourth knee," but given the similar Indo
misplaced. European roots for "kinship" and "knee" (*gen;i- and *genu-',
respectively), they may be more accurately translated as "within
5 iETHELRED the fourth degree of kinship" (with thanks to Robert Fulk for
pointing this out). In other words, the text rules that a man
41 female monastics: Old English mynecena, a special category of fe-
may not marry anyone to whom he is related as a fourth cousin
male monastic established during the Monastic Reform of the
or closer.
tenth century. God's dues, On the dues discussed in this text, see the notes
16
II.I plow dues: On the dues listed in this clause, see the notes to The
to The Laws of Edward and Guthrum 6.1-6.3, Canons 54, and J
LawsofEdwardandGuthrum 6.1- 6.3 and Canons 54.
,£the/red 12.
u dues for the souls ofthe dead: A tax to the Church to be paid follow-
18 Feast ofSaint Peter.June 29.
ing an individual's death but before burial.
18.1 Saint Martin: November 11.
4 ,1 Feasts ofPhilip andJames: The former is May 3, the latter April 30,
22.3 Feasts ofPhilip andJames: The former is May 3, the latter April 30,
though now more frequently celebrated onJuly 25.
though now more frequently celebrated on July 25. Compare
16 Feast ofSaint Edward: October 13. the similar clause at J ,£the/red 14.1.
kalends: The first day of the month. In tlus case, "fifteen days be-
23 Ember Fasts: See note to 5 ,£the/red 18.
fore the kalends ofApril" refers to March 18.
25 Epiphany: Although Epiphany now occupies only one day,Janu-
18 Ember Days: Periods of fasting and prayer that take place during
ary 6, prior co 1955 it was an eight-day festival beginning on
four weeks of the year (once during Lent and during the weeks
January 19.
of Pentecost, the Festival of the Exaltation of the Cross, and
51 healsfang: Literally, "neck seizing," though generally interpreted
Saint Lucy's Day) and consisting of the Wednesday, Friday, and
as a "neck fine," chat is, a penalty paid in lieu of execution.
Saturday.
Septuagesima: The nmth Sunday before Easter.
7 iETHELRED
28 all his property: Cambridge, Corpus Christi College MS 201 re•
places this phrase with "or his wergild." 1.3 those under him: The Old English term here is hyremann, which
30 threefold ordeal: That 1s, carrying a three-pound ball of hot iron literally translates to "one who hears" or "one who obeys." In-

416 417
 NOTES TO THE TRANSLATIONS 9 ..£THELREO

terestingly; the (presumably) Norman translator of 7 ,;Erbe/red 9-13 On the dues listed in these clauses, sec the notes to The Lttws of
into Latin keeps this word and, below, witam ("penalty," clause Edward and Guthrum 6.1-6.3, Canons 54, and .f ,;Ethelred 12.
7) in Old English, though with Latin declensions. 17 suffer the full civilpenalty: Wulfstan docs not specify who would
2.1 with bare feet: Processions of this sort were particularly associ- suffer in this instance, the market organizer or those partici-
ated with Rogation days, called gangdagas (walking days) in Old pating in it.
English. 19 rimple acCUJation: That is, an accusation against which the ac-
2.2 This clause has no equivalent in 7a ,;Ethelred. cused requires only the oath of a single supporting witness.
2.3 Feast ofSaint Michael: September 29. on hir own through the sacrament: In effect, the celebration of the
2.4 one hundred twenty shillings: This amount is likely an error, as Mass here substitutes for the oath of exculpatory witness.
analogous passages elsewhere set the penalty for breaking the 19.1 threefold acCUJation: That is, an accusation against which the ac-
fast at only thirty shillings. cused requires the oaths of three supporting witnesses.
2.5 tithingman: The head ofa tithing, an administrative unit consist- 22 ordeal ofconsecratedbread: An ordeal in which the accused was re-
ing of one tenth of a hundred. quired to swallow a portion of bread, which if it caught in his
3.1 Lord, how they are multiplied: Psalms p. throat was taken as a sign ofguilt.
Collect: A prayer, often used at the beginning of a service, to call 37 after Edgari lifetime: Wulfstan here alludes to the so-called Anti-
the congrcgants together. Monastic Reaction, a period following the sudden death o(
King Edgar in 975 when the succession dispute between his
sons Edward and /Ethelred resulted in weakened protections
]A /ETHELRED
for the Church and the withdrawal of many of the privileges
title This was tkcreed . .. land: The title likely refers to the invasion of religious foundations had accrued over the previous half cen-
the Viking "great army" under the leadership of Thurkil the tury.
Tall in 10 09, the year in which the Latin version of7 ,;Ethelred 43 ,IF,the/stan and Edmund and Edgar, the mort recent: Wulfstan here
was composed. lists the three kings most associated with the tenth-century
Feast ofSaint Michael: September 29. Reform movement: lEthelstan (r. 924-939), Edmund (r. 939
3 thirty shillings: See the note to 7 kthelred 2.4 above. 946), and Edgar (r. 959-975). Wulfstan has limited his list only
6.3 LfJrd, how they are multiplied: Psalms 3:2. to those kings in lEthelred's direct patrilincal line (Edgar was
his father, and Edmund his grandfather). Notably omitted from
this list are Eadred (r. 946- 955), Eadwig (r. 955 959), and Ed
8 /ETHELRED
ward the Martyr (r. 975 978), none of whose reigns were char-
5.1 five pounds untkr EngliJh law: The valuation of the Anglo-Saxon acterized by the same degree of support for Church preroga-
pound was different than the twenty shillings it would later be- tives.
come. In this context, a pound is equivalent to the value of one
pound weight of silver.
9 lETHELRED
7 King Edgar. Sec the penalties established in 2 Edgar 3.1. These
arc also reiterated with slight modifications in the following Due to damage to the manuscript, this text is based on that found in Lie-
clause. bermann, Die Gesetze tkrAnge/Jachsen.

418 419
 NOTES TO THE TRANSLATIONS l CNUT

Pr \%odrtock: Woodstock, Oxfordshire, had been the site of an ear- (d. after 10 23) was among Cnut's foremost supporters, though
lier meeting of the royal council in approximately 99.,, at which his wavering loyalty and the violence of his followers (who,
the legislarton I /Ethelred was issued. The meeting at which this among other depredattons, murdered Archbishop ..£1fheah of
text was compiled likely took place between 1008 and 10 16. Canterbury m 10 12) made him an inconstant ally at best.
Lyfing-. Archbishop of Canterbury from 10 18 until his death
10 /ETHELRED onJune 12, 10 2 0. The letters referred to, addressed to Cnut by
Due to damage to the manuscript, this text is based on that found in Lie- Pope Benedict VI II and carried back from Rome by Arch-
bermann, Die Gesetze der Ange/Jachsen. bishop Lyfing in 10 18, have not survived.
l a threat to you: It is unclear what the proclamation refers to here.
Pr.3 Enham: The site of the 1008 meeting at which 5 /Ethelred and 6 to Denmark: Cnut's trip to Denmark is recorded in the 10 19 and
/Ethelred were promulgated. 10 20 entries in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
6 Oxford: This ceremony is recorded m the entry for 10 18 in the
CNUT'S OXFORD L E-GISLATION OF 10 18 Anglo Saxon Chronicle.
Pr the council: The opening clauses of this text (Pr to 1.3) place a enchantresses: The word used here 1s WiN/cyrian, the Old English
greater emphasis on the rights, privileges, and prerogatives of term for Valkyries. It is a feature of Wulfstan's prose that he
the royal council than does the other legislation associated would choose a word with pagan associations (especially for
with Wulfstan. It is unclear whether this reflects the priorities those living in the northern Danelaw) and repurpose tt as the
of the Oxford meeting or whether it is instead indicative of the more general "enchantress" or "sorceress."
archbishop's own interests.
13 God's dues: On the dues listed in here, see the notes to The Laws 1 CNUT
of&/wardand Guthrom 6.1- 6.3, Canom 54, and 5 /Ethelred 12.
14·3 Feasts ofPhilip andJames: The former is MaY3, the latter April 30, Pr the holy Christmas season: Although meetings of the royal council
though now more frequently celebrated onJuly 25. often occurred at Christmas, the particular assembly at which
14·5 Ember Fasts: See note to 5 /Ethelred 18. this code was issued has not been identified.
14.6 Feast ofSaint Edward: October 13. love King Cnut: The naming of Cnut here contrasts with the
15 Epiphany: Although Epiphany now occupies only one day, Janu- more general phrasing of the loyalty clauses found in Wulf-
ary 6, prior to 1955 it was an eight-<lay festival beginning on stan's earlier legislation for ..£thelred.
January 19. J.l five pounds: The higher amount granted to the king in this clause
z6.3 the hundred: An administrative unit that served a function simi- contrasts with the equivalent clause in On Sanctuary, which
lar to that of the modern county. specifies that "in the laws of the Kenrish people, the king and
archbishop are owed an equal and likewise costly penalty for
CNUT'S PROCLAMATION OF 102.0
the violation of their protection" (clause 6).
8 God's dues: On the dues listed in the following clauses, see the
subordinate bishops: Old English leodbiscopas, a blanket term for all notes to The Laws of Edward and Guthrum 6.1-6.3, Canom 54,
the categories of episcopal rank lower than an archbishop. and 5 /Ethelred 12..
F.arl Thurkil: Leader of a band ofJomsvtldngs, Thurkil the Tall 9 Feast ofSaint Peter.June 29.

420 421
 NOTES TO THE TRANSLATIONS 2 CNUT

10 Feast ofMartin: November 11. mid minum egum oferseah and minum earum oferhyrde /Jaet /Jaet ic
11.2 oldminster: That is, the principal church in a region to which the him mids12cge).
smaller (and newer) parish churches are subordinate. 30.1 Winchester: An earlier version of this clause appears in I .!Ethel-
12 Feast of the Purification of Saint Mary: February 2. The feast is red 1.2, with Bromdun cited as the relevant assembly rather
sometimes also referred to as Cancllemas; compare Canons 54. than Winchester. The meeting referred to here is presum-
16 Ember Fast: See note to 5 ./Ethelred 18. ably the one at which 1 Cnut and 2 Cnut were issued. See I
FeastJ of Philip and James: May 3 and April 30 (now more fre- CnutPr.
quently celebrated onJuly 25), respectively. 35 suspended in chains: The Old English word hengen was taken by
16.1 Epiphany: An eight-day festival beginning onJanuary 19. .IElfric to refer to imprisonment, but as used elsewhere it re-
17.1 Feast ofSaint Edward: October 13. fers to the subject hanging in bonds or chains.
nineteenth day of March: The scribe errs here, writing the eigh- 37 hea/sfang-. See the note to 6 .IF.the/red 51.
teenth of March rather than the nineteenth. 71 trihute: The heriot, that is, the military obligations, material, or
n.6 at confirmation: Literally, "at the bishop's hand." financial support owed to the king.
mancuses: A mancus is a gold coin worth roughly the equivalent
ofthirty pence.
2 CNUT morning gift: A gift, often in the form of money or land, from a
73
2 Forgive us our debtJ . .. debtors: Matthew 6:12. newly married husband to his wife, supposedly given the morn-
8.1 the hands: The Old English fi<tra handa is ambiguous as to num- ing after their first night together. The gift was considered the
ber. Analogous Old English texts use the plural, though Latin woman's property and, in theory at least, was kept separate
versions sometimes use singular and others plural. from the other aspects of the couple's finances overseen by the
8.2 threefold oath ofexculpation: That is, a sworn declaration of inno- husband.
cence supported by the oaths of thirty six witnesses, as a single 73.3 And a widow is not to be consecratedas a nun too quickly: The impli-
oath of exculpation required the support of twelve witnesses. cation here seems to be that a widow's family may not compel
20 mrety: In other words, each free person is to have someone to her to take vows in order to prevent a second marriage.
guarantee that they will fulfil! their obligations to the court 79 In London, British Library, Harley MS 55, and Cambridge, Cor-
and the community. pus Christi College MS 383, this clause reads, "And the person
vouch to warranty: That is, swearing to the legal possession of who, with the knowledge of the shire, has acted in defense of
23
goods. the land, either in the navy or army, shall hold his properry
saw with their eyes and heard with their ears: As he did in The Can- uncontested during his lifetime and afterwards be entitled to
23-1
ons of Edgar r, Wulfstan here again echoes the phrasing of the give or grant it to whomever he prefers" (And se 6e landgewerod
Old English oath formulary Swerian: "In the name of almighty ht2bbe on scypfJrde and on landfyrde, habbe he unbesaken on <kge and
God, so I stand here for N as a true witness, unbidden and un- <tfter <kge to syllanne and to gyfane /Jam iJe him leofast sy).
bought, to what I saw with my eyes and heard with my ears, 81 negotiated contract: Old English drincelean literally refers to the
which I testify on his behalf" (On 12/mightiges Godes naman, swa drink that seals a negotiation, signaling the agreement of all
ic her Non so&e gewitnesse stande, unabeden and ungeboht, to swa ic parties and the legitimacy of the transaction.

.µz .µ3
 NOTES TO THE TRANSLATIONS THE OBLIGATIONS OF INDIVIDUALS AND ON REEVES

THE NoRTHUMBRIAN PRIESTS' LAW THE OBLIGATIONS OF INDIVIDUALS AND ON REEVES

one heart and one soul: Acts 4=32. The Obligations ofIndividuals
2.2 onzs: The ora was a unit of coinage equal to sixteen pence or one-
fifteenth of a pound. 2 ri<k and act as his lord's messenger-. Literally; "provide carrying ser-
2.3 twelve bondsmen: This passage provides the only surviving attes- vice." There is disagreement over the meaning of this term,
tation of the Old Norse-derived word festermen in Old English with some scholars arguing that it refers to the tenant's duty to
legislation. The use of such bondsmen is attested by a record in provide horses for plowing. However, the likelihood that Old
the York Gospels of the festermen who testified on behalf of an English averian is to be derived from Latin avenzgium (service
otherwise unidentified priest named }Elfric. by horse to one's lord) as well as its possible relationship co Old
24 The penalties prescribed here are considerably less than those English aferian (to move or take), makes the translation used
found in texts more closely associated with Wulfstan. here more plausible.
35 This clause's condemnauon of a priest abandoning his wife 3 cottager's duty: That is, a tenant of peasant status whose rental
marks a significant deparrure from Wulfstan's thought. For consisted of a house but no farmland.
'Wulfstan, all clerical marriage was anathema, regardless of cir- 3.1 This clause does not appear in the Old English. The text is sup-
cumstance. plied from the version in ~dnpartitus.
40 conceals fraud -while conducting an or<kal: Literally; "If a priest de- 3.4 hearthpenny: A tax levied according to the number of hearths per
ceives while binding," presumably a reference to the bandaging household.
of a proband's burn or wound (so that the healing process may Feast ofSaint Martin: November 11.
be inspected several days later) in the course of an ordeal. 4 tenant farmer's duties: That is, a tenant of peasant status whose
50 commoner. The term used here is fubena, a word of uncertain rental included both homestead and farmland.
meaning. The similar penalty for wrongdoing indicates that the Candlemas: February 2, also referred to as the Feast of the Purifi-
f<Rrbena is equal in status to the cyrlisc man (commoner) and ceorl cation of the Virgin.
(peasant) of clauses 53 and 60 and the tunes man (townsman) of 4.1 Feast ofSaint Michael: September 29.
clause 59; however, the precise nature of his obligations to his sesters: A sester is a dry measure of grain equivalent to approxi-
lord remains unclear. mately twelve bushels, or a liquid measure of honey or wine of
57,l dues to Rome: Compare The Laws ofEd-ward and Guthrum 6.1 and between twenty-four and thirty-two ounces.
Canons 54. Saint Peter's Day isJune 29. 4.2 plo-w dues: A tax levied based on the number ofplows owned by a
57.2 -wapentake: A division of land used in northern England that householder; typically one penny per plow.
roughly equates to the hundreds of southern England. 10 plo-wman: Literally, "follower of the plow."
6u spiritually related to him: Old English godsihbt, that is, his godpar- 20 held responsible ... land, Though necessary grammatically; these
ent or godchild. words are omitted from the Old English. The text has been
67,l legalfines: Literally, "law business," a compound referring to the supplied from the post-Conquest Latin compilation ~dri-
payment of a fine by an outlaw to regain his legal status. partitus.
negotiated contnzcts: Sec note to 2 Cnut 81 above. 2l.I practice is here: The estate for which this text was drawn up has
Blessed ... andforever: Psalms 112:2. not been identified.

424 425
 NOTES TO THE TRANSLATIONS 2 EDGAR AND 3 EDGAR

4 dues for the souls ofthe dead . . . plow dues: See notes to The Laws of
On Reeves Edward andGuthrum 6.3 and 5 /Ethelred 12. These prescriptions
do not occur in the Latin versions of 1 /Ethelstan. Both the
reeve: The agent of either the king or the local landlord respon-
phrasing and the frequency with which such prescriptions oc-
sible for overseeing his master's property.
cur m texts associated with Wulfstan make it likely that this
2 shire: A term for a county or other administrative subunits of
passage is a later interpolation by him.
land.
Whoever refuses to do this ... proper duties: Likely a Wulfstanian
3.1 that which belongs in the cow stalls: That is, grains meant for one
purpose will be inadvertently used for another. In a broader interpolation.
sense, without proper care, the resources of the estate will be
I EDMUND
wasted.
4 rennet: Literally, "cheese medicine," the enzymes used to curdle Pr Archbishop Oda and Archbishop Wulfitan: Oda served as arch-
milk into cheese. bishop of Canterbury from 941 to 958. Wulfstan (not to be
II a kiln on the threshing.floor andan O'llen and an oast, The k.tln and the confused with the subject of this volume) served as archbishop
oven were used to dry the harvest for preservation. An oast ofYork from 931 to 956.
was a kiln specially designed for drying hops. consider what would be of benefit: The version of the text m Cot
15.1 spinning tools: The implements listed here have occasioned con- ton Nero A.i adds the adverb georne (zealously) followingsmeag•
siderable critical head-scratching. Though some are recogniz ende (considering), a stylistic feature common to Wulfstan's
able tools still in use, others remain obscure. The confusion is writing.
exacerbated by the fact that many of the terms in this list oc- 2 dues to Rome andplow dues: See notes to The Laws ofEdward and
cur nowhere else in Old English. Guthrum 6.1 and 6.3. These two forms of ecclesiastical dues
are omitted from the versions of 1 Edmund preserved in Cam
I ..-£THELSTAN bridge, Corpus Christi College MS 383, Textus Roffensis, and
Pr Archbishop Wulfoelm: Wulthelm served as archbishop of Canter- ~dripartitus. As with similar passages in 1 A?.thelst11n, it is
bury from approximately 916 until his death in 941. His promi• likely these are an interpolation by Wulfstan.
nent role as one of.tEthelstan's advisors and the likelihood that 4 hearth penny: See note to The Obligations ofIndividuals 3.4.
he composed the laws issued in the latter's name make him 6 embark . .. all the more ze11/ously: Omitted from Cambridge, Cor-
perhaps Wulfstan's most explicit precursor. pus Christi College MS 383, Textus Roffensis, and ~dripartitus
2 tithes and sacrifices I offer to you: A reworking of Genesis 28:22. Likely an interpolation by Wulfstan.
do not hesitate to offer tithes andfirst fruits unto the Lord: A rework-
ing of Exodus 22:29 and Leviticus 27:30. The Latin version of 2 EDGAR AND 3 EDGAR
the text quotes Matthew 25:19. The fact that this particular re-
2 Edgar
phrasing of Exodus occurs several times in the collection of
canon law excerpts compiled by Wulfstan, as well as the arch- 1.1 old minster: That is, the traditional mother church at the cen-
bishop's tendency to cite Exodus's prescriptions on tithes, ter of a community rather than the newer parish or satellite
makes it likely that he was responsible for the substitution. churches founded afterward.

426 4Z7
..

NOTES TO THE TRANSLATIONS

2.3 Plow dues . .. Easter: This clause was likely added by Wulfstan.
For the dues in this and the following clauses, see the notes to
The Laws ofEdward and Guthrum 6.3, Canons 54, s .!Ethelred 12,
and The Obligations ofIndividuals 3-4-
4 Feast ofSaint Peter:June 29.
4.1 payment to Rome: This is the earliest mention in English law of
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a tax specifically designated for the Holy See in Rome. How-
ever, the similarity of this clause to the treatment of the dues
EDITIONS AND TRANSLATIONS
owed to Rome in Wulfstan's writings raises the possibility that
this might be an eleventh-century interpolation rather than a Attenborough, F. L., ed. and trans. The Laws of the Earliest English Kings.
tenth-century decree. Cambridge, 1922.
5-1-3 These clauses were likely added by Wulfstan. Bethurum, Dorothy. The Homilies ofWu/fttan. Oxford, I 9H·
Clayton, Mary. "The Old English Promissio regis." Anglo-Saxon England 37
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57-81.
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Loyn, H. R., ed. A Wu/fttan Manusm'pt Containing Institutes, Laws and Homi-
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Rabin, Andrew, ed. and trans. The Political Writings ofArchbishop Wulfttan of
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 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Schmid, Reinhold, ed. Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen. 2nd ed. Leipzig, 1858. bishop Wulfscan as Legal Historian." In Languages of the Law in Early
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430 43 1
 Index

EGu = ThelawsofEdwardand 6Atr = 6 /F,thelred

Guthrum 7Atr =7 /F,thelred
Ranks = On the Ranks ofPeople and 7aAtr = 7a /F,thelred
Law 8Atr = 8 /F,thelred
ITTr = On ITTrgild 9Atr = 9 /F,thelred
Meri: = On the Law ofthe Mercians rnAtr = 10 /F,thelred
MercOath = On the Mercian Oath Cn1018 = Cnut'sOxfordLegislation
Priests = On Priests' Oaths of1018
Sanct = On Sanctuary Cn1020 = Cnut's Proclamation of
NCS = Northumbrian Church 1020
Sanctuary 1Cn = 1Cnut
Oath= TheOathoftheKing 2Cn = 2 Cnut
1Pol = The Institutes ofPolity (1) NPL = The Northumbrian Priests'
2Pol = The Institutes ofPolity (2) Law
Episc = On Episcopal Duties Obi= The Obligations ofIndividuals
Remedy = On the Remedy ofSouls Rvs = On Reeves
Instruct = Instructionsfor Bishops 1As = I /F,thelstan
Admon = An Admonition to Bishops 1Em = 1 Edmund
Canons= The Canons ofEdgar 2Eg=2Edgar
5Atr = 5 ,,£the/red 3Eg = 3Edgar

abbots/abbesses, 1Po/ 11; 2Po/ 23; 25-1, 28.1, 30, 30.2-3, 30.6-7,
5Atr 4.1; 6Atr 2, 2.2; 8Atr 31.1, 31-31.1, 33, 35, 37.1, 53.1, 56.1, 72;
31.2; Cn1018 11, 1Cn 6 3Eg4,7.,
accusation, Episc 5; Admon 3; Canons adultery, EGu 3; Canons 21; 1Pol w;
68c, 68e-f; 5Atr 32.4; 8Atr 19- 2Po/20; 6Atr 12.4, 28.2; Cn1018
23; rCn 5-5.2; 2Cn 16, 22.1, 22.3, 12.3, 12.4; Cn1020 6; rCn 7.3, IO,

433
 INDEX INDEX

adultery (continued) Proverbs 1:7, Sanct 23.1 Chalcedon, Council of, 2Pol 21 Denmark, Cn1020 2
24; 2Cn 50.1, 54.1; NPL 61, 64; Isaiah n:2-3, Priests 1 chastity. See celibacy dues. See ecclesiastical dues; honey
1Em4 Ezekiel 3:18, 2Pol 7 cheesemaker, Obl16 dues; meat dues
/Ethelred (king ofEngland), 7Atr Ezekiel 33:8, 2Po/ 19 Christmas, 1Cn Pr, 16.1; Obi 9.1, 21.4 Dunstan (saint), Oath 1; Canons 68c;
Pr;9AtrPr Ezekiel 33:9, 2Pol 19 Cnut (king of England), Cn1018 1; Feast of, 1Cn 17.1
.IEthelstan (king ofEngland): 8Atr Ezekiel 34:10, 2Po/ 16 Cn1020 1; 1Cn 1
43; rAsPr Ezekiel 44:29, 2Po/ 17 compensation,EGu Pr.2, 6.7, 12; ealdorman, ~r 3; Sanct 5, u - u;
ale dues, Obi 4.5 Hosea 4:8, 2Pol 17 ~r 1, 8, 9, 12; Mere 3.1, 4; Cn1020 3; 2Cn 18.1, 58.2; 1As Pr;
Alexander (bishop ofJerusalem), Matthew 6:12, 6Atr 10.3; Cn1018 Priests 1.2-9.1; Sanct 7, 10-12; 3Eg5-2
Remedy3 4.1;2Cn 2 NCS 1; Canons 68i; 5Atr 20; East Anglia, 2Cn 71.2
Alfred (king ofWessex), EGu Pr Matthew 7:12, Sanct 29 6Atr 25-2, 34, 50-52; 7aAtr 3; Easter, Canons 54; 5Atr 11.1, 14.1, 18,
All Saints, Feast of, Canons 54; 5Atr Matthew 13:39, Episc 7 8Atr 1.1, 2, 3, 4-4.1, 5-1, 23, 25, 27; 6Atr 16, 22.2-3, 25, 33; 8Atr
II.I; 6Atr 17; 8Atr 9.1; Cn1018 Matthew 15=14, 2Pol 16 34, 36; Cn1018 15.2; 1Cn 2.3-5, 12; Cn1018 13.1, 14.3, 15; 1Cn 8.1,
13.3; 1Cn 8.1, 12 Matthew 16:19, Remedy 4 3.2, 5.2; 2Cn 17.3, 20, 30.4, 32.1, 12, 16-16.1, 17; Obi 4-4.1, 9.1,
Anna (widow), 1Pol 16; 2Pol 29 Matthew 23=3, 2Pol 9 39, 40.1, 48.3, 49-50, 52-52.1, 21.4; 1Em Pr; 2Eg 2.3
archbishop, Sanct 4, 6, 7, 11, 12; Matthew 24:28, 2Pol 17 60, 61.1, 62.1, 63-64, 66; NPL ecclesiastical dues, EGu 5.1; 2Pol 33;
Oath 1; Cnwc8 1, 3; cCn 3.2; Luke 2:36-37, 1Pol 16; 2Pol 29 1, 8, 19-24, 54.1;3Eg 2.2, 3- See Canons 54; 5Atr u-12.2; 6Atr
2Cn 58.1, 62; 1As Pr; 1Em Pr Luke 6:39, 2Po/i6 also labs/it; wergild 16, 21.1, 43;7Atr 4-4.1, 7.1;
archdeacon, NPL 6, 7 Luke 10:16, 1Pol 7; zPol 8; Rem- confession, EGu 5; Episc 11-12; Rem- 7aAtr 8; 8Atr 14; Cn1018 13, 14;
edy 4 edy 1; Canons 15, 68; 5Atr 22; 1Cn 8, 14; 2Cn 20; NPL 43;
barley keeper, Obi 17 John 20:23, zPol 11 6Atr 1, 27; 7Atr 1.1, 2.1; 7aAtr 2, 1Em 2; 2Eg 4.1
Bath, 7Atr Pr Acts 4:32, Instruct 5 2-3; Cn1018 17; 1Cn 18.1, 23; 2Cn Church dues, EGu 6.4; Canons
beadle, Obi 18-18.1 1 Corinthians 7:8-9, cPol 15 44- 44.1; NPL 8; ,Em 3 54; 6Atr 18.1; 7Atr 4.1; 8Atr 11;
beekeepers, Obi 5-5.5 1 Timothy 3:2, 2Pol 13 Constantinople, Council of, 2Po/ 21 rCn 10, 11.2; Obi 1.1, 2, 3.4; 1As
biblical citations 1 Timothy 6:17, Remedy 3 cottager, Obi 3 4; 1Em 2; :zEg 2.2
Exodus 22:29, 1As 2 2Timothy 2:4, Remedy 4 counterfeit coinage, 2Cn 8.1, 8.2 dues for the lighting of a church,
Exodus 28:22, rAs 2 cowherd, Obi 13-13.1 EGu 6.2; Canons 54; 5Atr 11.1;
Leviticus 27:30, Remedy 2 Candlemas (Feast ofthe Purifica- Creed, 2Po/ 21; Canons 17, 22; 1Cn 22 6Atr 19; 8Atr 12.1; Cn1018 13.5;
Numbers 24:9, 1Pol 7; Remedy 4 tion of the Virgin), Canons 54; rCn 12
Deuteronomy 2p6, Episc 8 8Atr 12. 1; rCn Il; Obi 4 Danelaw, EGu 7-2; 6Atr 37; C,11018 dues for the souls of the dead,
1 Samuel 13:9-14, Remedy 2 capital punishment, EGu 5, 6.6, 9.1; 27; 2Cn 15, 15.1, 15.3, 45.3, 46, 5Atr 12- 12.1; 6Atr 20- 21; 8Atr
1 Chronicles 13:7-14,Remedy 2 Sanct 13, 15; 5Atr 3; 6Atr io; 48, 62, 65, 71.3 13; Cn1018 13.4, 13.6- 7; 1Cn 13-
2 Chronicles 16-21, Remedy 2 Cnco18 5; :zCn 2.1, 44, 45 deacon, 2Po/ 21; Canons 65, 68f, 68g; 13.1; ,As 4; 2Eg 5-2
Psalms 3:2, 7Atr 3.1; 7aAtr 6.3 celibacy, rPol 14, 15; 2Pol 27, 28; 5Atr 7Atr 2.2; 8Atr 20-21; 1Cn 5.1- 2; dues owed to Rome, EGu 6.1;
Psalms 108:18, 1Pol 7 6, 7, 9.1; 6Atr J.I, 4, 5, 5.3, 41; NPL 6, 12, 23- 24 Canons 54; 5Atr 11.1; 6Atr 18;
Psalms 112:2, NPL 67.1 Cn101811.1-2; 1Cn 6.1-2; NPL Demetrius (king of the Greeks), 8Atr 10; 1Cn 9; NPL 57-1;
Psalms II2:5, 7-8, Sanct 23 65;1Em I Remedy3 1Em2

434 435
 INDEX
INDEX

ecclesiastical dues (continued) goatherd, Obi 15 lahslit, EGu 2-3, 3.2, 4.1, 6-6.4, 7.1- 1Cn 2.3, 5.2; zCn 4, 6, 41, 56,
hearth penny, Obi 3-4, 4.2; 2Eg 4 Gregory I (pope), rPol 18; zPol 31; 2, 8, 9; 5Atr 31; 6Atr 51; 8Atr 27; 64; 1Em4
plow dues, EGu 6.3; Canons 54; 6Atr23; Cnro1814.5 zCn 15-1, 15-3, 45.3, 46, 48, 49i
5Atr I 1.1; 6Atr 16; 8Atr 12; Guthrum (Viking king), EGu Pr NPL 20-22, 51-54. See also needy, Sanct 12; Oath 3; 1Pol 2 , 3, 8;
Cnror8 13.1; rCn 8.1; Obi 4.2; compensation; wergild zPo/ 3, 5, 12, 14, 15, r7; Admon 2;
rAs 4; 1Em2; 2Eg 2.3 hair, Canons 20, 47; 1Cn 5; NPL 34; London, 1Em Pr;2Eg8.1 Canons 56-57; 6Atr 8.1, 46, 51;
tithe of the fruits of the earth, Rvs 17 Lyfing (archbishop of Canterbury), 7Atr 2.2, 2.4, 6.1; 7aAtr 4.1;
Canons 54; 5Atr 11. 1; 6Atr 17; healsfang, 6Atr 52; zCn 37, 45-1, 60, Cn10201 8Atr 6; Cnror8 3.1, 33; Cnrozo
7Atr 4; 8Atr 9.1; Cn1018 13.3; 71.2
6; zCn 1.1, 68.1;3Eg I . I
rCn 8.1; rAs 2; 2Eg 3 heathenism, EGu Pr.1, 2; 1Poli, 2, magic, EGu 11; Oath 3; Canons 16; Nicea, First Council of, 2Pol 2r
tithe of the young animals, Can• 18; 2Pol 3, 31; Instruct 3; Canons 6Atr 7; Cn1018 7; zCn 4; nuns, 1Pol 14; 2Pol 27; ;Atr 4.r; 6Atr
ons 54; 5Atr 11.1; 6Atr 17; 7Atr 16, 18; 5Atr I, 2, 34; 6Atr 1, 6, 9; rEm6 2. 2; Cnro18 11; 1Cn 6. See also
4; C111018 13,2; 2Eg 3; 8Atr 9 8Atr 44; 9Atr Ex; roAtr 1; marriage, rPol 10, 15, 16; zPol 20, 28; women monastics
Edgar (king ofEngland), zPol 15; Cnro18 3, 6; zCn 3, 5-5.1; NPL 5Atr9.1, 25; 6Atr 12.1, 25, 28.3;
8Atr 7, 37, 43; C111018 1; Cnrozo 10.1, 47, 48, 67 Cnror8 9, 11.2, 12.2; 1Cn 6.2, 7.1; oath, EGu 9; Ranks 3; MtrcOath 1;
6;2EgPr honey dues, Ohl 4.5, 5.1 2Cn 6, 50-50.1, 54, 55, 73.2; Priests 1; Sanct 18; Oath 1; rPol
Edmund (king ofEngland), 8Atr hundred (administrative district), NPL61.1 20; 2Pol 25, 33; Episc 5; Canons
43;1EmPr 2Cn 15-2, 17.1, 18.1, 19, 20, 22.1, Martin (saint), Feast of, Canons 54; 24, 60, 63, 64, 68h; 5Atr I, 5,
Edward (saint), Feast of, 5Atr 16; 25.1, 27, 30, 30.1, 30.2, 31;3Eg 5, 6Atr 18.1; 8Atr 11; 1Cn 10; Obi 18, 22.2, 25; 6Atr 3, 28, 37; 8.Atr
Cnror8 14.6; rCn 17.1 7.1. See a/sa wapentake 3.4,4.1, 15;2Eg3 19.1, 22; C11101815, 18, 25;
Edward the Elder (king ofWessex), Mass, Sanct 13; zPol 21; Canons 30- C111020 6; rCn 5, 5-2, 17, 19.1;
EGuPr idol worship, NPL 48 33, 35, 37, 39-40, 42, 44, 68e; 2Cn 8.2, r5-1, 20-22.1, 22.3, 29-
Ember Days, 5Atr 18; 6Atr 23, 25; incest prohibition, 6Atr 12; 1Cn 7; •Atr 2.2, 3, 3.2; 7aAtr 6.1-2; 29.1, 30.1-3, 36-36.1, 39, 41.r,
C111018 14.5, 15; rCn 16, 17 NPL61.1 8Atr 19; NPL 2.1, 3, 7, 13-14, 42, 47.1, 53.1, 56.1, 75.1;NPL 51;
En ham, roAtr Pr 3 Isidore (bishop ofSeville), Remedy 2 16,18 3Eg3
enslaved swineherd, Obi 7. See also meat dues, Obi 4.5 Oda (archbishop of Canterbury),
tenant: swineheard James (saint), Feast of, ;Atr 14.1; Mercia, ~r 6; Mere 1-3; zCn 14, rEmPr
Ephesus, Council of, 2Pol 21 6Atr 22.3; Cnro18 14.3; rCn 16 71.2 ordeals, EGu 3; Episc 5; Canons 24,
Epiphany, 6Atr 25, Cnror8 15; rCn John the Baptist (saint), Feast of, Michael (saint), Feast of, 7Atr 2.3, 63, 68h-i; 5Atr 18, 30; 6Atr 25,
61.1 Canons54 7;7aAtr 1; Obi 4.r 37; 8Atr 22-23; Cnror8 15; 1Cn
Judgment Day, Oath 2, 3; 1Pol 20; monks, rPol 12, r3; zPol 24, 26; 5Atr 5.2, 17; zCn 22-22.1, 30-30.3,
foreigners, EGu 4; Ranks 8; Oath 3; zPol 16, 19, 33; Episc 15; Remedy 5- 6; 6Atr 3- 3.1; 7Atr 3.2; 8Atr 30.6, 32, 35, 57; NPL 39-40
1Pol 3; 2Pol 5; 6Atr 48; 8Atr 33; 5; rCn 25; rAs 3 25, 31.1, 41;,en 5.2 orphans, Oath 3; 1Pol8; 2Po/ 14;
Cn1018 35; zCn 55, 25.2, 40; murder, EGu 11; Canons 68i; ;Atr 25, 6Atr 47; Cn1018 34
2Eg7,2 Kent, Sanct ro; rCn 3.2; zCn 62 32.4; 6Atr7, 28.3, 36; 8Atr 1.1, oxherd, Obi 12-12.1
forester, Ohlx9 20.2 Kingston, Oath 1 23, 26; C1110187, 9; Cn1020 6; Oz1as (king), Remedy 2
 INDEX INDEX

Paternoster, Instruct 1; Canons 17, reeves, Wlr 4; 1Pol 8; 2Pol 7, 14, 15; 22.1, 44; 8Atr 17; Cn1018 14.1, weights and measures, Episc 6, 12;
22; 1Cn 22, 22.2 7Atr 2.5, 6.3; 7aAtr 2.3; 8Atr 8, 31; Cniozo 6; 1Cn 14.2, 15; 2Cn 5Atr 24; 6Atr 28.2, 32.2;
Paul (apostle), 1Pol 5 32; Cnut1020 5; 1Cn 8.2; 2Cn 45,55;2Eg5 Cn1018 21; 2Cn 9; 1As Pr;3Eg
penance, EGu Pr.2, 3, 4; Priests 3-8; 8.2, 30.1, 33, 69.1-2; Obi 3.1; Rvs synods, zPol 21, 22; Instruct 3; Can- 8.1
1Pol 17; 2Pol 28; Remedy ,;In- 1-19; 1As Pr, 1, 4; 2Eg 3.1 ons 3- 6; NPL 46 wergild, EGu 2- 3, 6.5; Wlr 1- 12;
struct 9; Canons 68; 5Atr 29; Rogation, Canons 54 Mere 1- 4; MercOath 1; Priests
6Atr 36, 50, 52; 7Atr 5; 7aAtr 1; tenant, Obi 2; farmer, Obi 4, 4.2, 4.3, 2- 9.1; Sanct 15- 16; Canons 68d;
8Atr 1.1; Cn1018 9; Cmo20 6; Saint John's Church (Beverly), 4.5; swineherd, Obi 6 - 6+ See Cn1020 1; 1Cn 2.4; 2Cn 16, 20,
1Cn 2.3, 2.5, 3, 16.1; 2Cn 6, 38.1- NCS1 also enslaved swineherd 29, 30 .3, 30.6, 30.8- 9, 31.1- 2,
2, 41, 54, 68.1; NPL 3, 10.l, 11, Saint Peter's Church (York), NCS 1 thane, Rank,- 1- 3, 5, 6; Wer 5; Mere 36, 39, 49, 51, 52, 52.1, 61, 63,
64; 1Em 3, 6 Saint Wilfrid's Church (Ripon), 1.1, 2; Priests 1; Sanct 21.1; Can- 66, 69.2, 73-', 83- 83-'; NPL 24,
Pentecost, Canons 54; 5Atr 11.1; NCS1 ons 64, 68b;5Atr9.1; 6Atr 5.3; 63; 2Eg 4; 3Eg 2.2. See also com-
6Atr 17; 8Atr 9; Cn1018 13.2; sanctuary, EGu 1; Sanct 1-5, 9, 16, 7Atr 1. 3, 2.4; 7aAtr 3; 8Atr 8, pensation; labs/it
1Cn 8.c, 16.1; 1Em 3 19, 31.1; NCS 1, 2, 4; 1Pol 17; 28; Cmo1811.2; 1Cn 6.2, 8.:, 9, widows, Oath 3; 1PolB, 16;2Po/14,
perjury, EGu 3, 11; Oath 3; 5Atr 24; 2Pol 30; Canons 46; 6Atr 14; 11; zCn 15-1, 22.2, 3u, 71.1- 3; 15, 28, 29; 5Atr 21; 6Atr 12, 26,
6Atr 7, 21.2, 36; 8Atr 27; Cn1018 8Atr 1-u, 3-4.1, 5.1; 1Cn 2.2- NPL 48, 51, 52, 57-2, 58, 60~ Obi 39, 47; Cn1018 12, 16, 34; 1Cn 7;
9; Cn1020 6; 1Cn 5.3; zCn 6, 16, 2.3, 2.5, 3; NPL 19; 2Eg 5.3 1; zEg r.i, 2, 3.1;3Eg 3 2Cn 52, 73, 73.3- 4
36, J7; 1Em 6;3Eg 4 Saul (king), Remedy 2 theft, EGu 3; Sanct 15, 17; Oath 1-3; Winchester, 1Cn Pr; 2Cn 30.1;
Peter (saint), Canons 47; Feast of, secular clergy; 8Atr 21; 1Cn 5-2 1Pol8; 2Po/ 2, 14, 15; Canons 62; 3Eg8
Canons 54; 5Atr 1u; 6Atr 18; Septuagesima, 5Atr 18; 6Atr 25; 5Atr 25; 6Atr 28.3, 32; 7Atr 6, witnessing, Instruct 6; Canons 62;
8Atr 10; Cn1018 13.4; 1Cn 9; Cn101815; 1Cn 17 6.2-3; 8Atr 4, 27; Cn1018 8.1, 10 , 5Atr 24, 32.2; 6Atr 28.2; 7aAtr
NPL 57.1; 2Eg 4 sexual misconduct, 1Pol 15; 2Pol 21, 20.1; Cn1020 5; 1Cn 3, 5.3; 2Cn 2.3; 8Atr 27; 1Cn 5.3, 22.1; 2Cn
Philip, Feast of, 5Atr 14.1; 6Atr 22.3; 28; 5Atr 9; 6Atr 5.1, 39; 8Atr 4; 4.2, 7, 8, 21, 26-26.1, 29, 30.1, 23, 23.1, 24-24.3, 30 .2, 30.3,
Cn1018 14.3; 1Cn 16 Cn1018 11.2; 1Cn 6.2 30.9, 47, 63, 64, 82;3Eg 6.2, 7.3 30.7, 37, 44- 1, 65; NPL 51, 52, 53,
pledge. See oath shepherd, Obi 14 Thurkil the Tall, Cnrozo 1, 4 67.1
plowman, Obi IO-ro.1 slavery, EGu 7.1-2, 8; Sanct 16, 21.2; tithes. See ecclesiastical dues women monastics (mynecenan), rPol
poor. See needy 1Pol 8; 2Pol 14; Episc 10-11, 13- 13;2Po/26
preaching, Sanct 19.1; 1Pol 6, 9, 10, 14; 5Atr 2; 6Atr 9; 7Atr 2.3-4, 5; Uzza (king), Remedy 2 Woodstock, 9Atr Pr
n; 2Pol 10, 16, 17, 19, 20, 23; 7aAtr3,5-1;8Atr6; Cn1018 6; Wulfhelm (archbishop of Canter-
Episc 2; Admon 4, 5; Canons zCn 20.1, 32, 45.2-3, 46.2, 54; Wales/the Welsh, Wer 7 bury), 1As Pr
16, 52, 69; 5Atr 9.1, 30- 31.1; NPL 56; Obi 7, 9.1 wapentake, NPL 57-2. See also hun- Wulfstan (archbishop ofYork, 931
6Atr 5.3, 38, 51; 8Atr 2, 28; zCn sower, Obi 11 dred 956), 1E111 Pr
84.4 strangers. See foreigners
prostitution, EGu n; 6Atr 7; Sunday observance, EGu 7, 9.1;
Cn1018 7; 2Cn 4 Canons 19, 52; 5Atr 13; 6Atr

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