Basic circuit elements and sources.

Circuit Concepts - Concepts of Networks

An Electrical Circuit or an Electrical Network consists of one or more Electrical
Energy Sources connected to a number of circuit elements like active or passive
elements or both in such a way that there is a connection between the different
elements causing a current to flow through the elements. The electrical circuit
should be a closed circuit so that current can flow through it. If an Electrical
Circuit is open then no current can flow through the circuit.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE ELEMENTS:

The elements of an electric circuit can be classified into active and passive
elements. Active elements are the sources that supply electrical energy to the
circuit causing current flow through it. The energy sources can be independent
or dependent sources. They may be voltage or current sources.

Sources of Electrical Energy - Voltage Source

The voltage source is assumed to deliver energy with a specified terminal

voltage VT, if it is a steady voltage source or v(t) or simply v, if the voltage
changes with respect to time. An ideal voltage source is expected to deliver a
constant voltage to the outside circuit whatever be the amount of current drawn
from the voltage source. The voltage of the source is called the Electro-Motive
Force ( E.M.F. ) and is measured in Volts. It is denoted by the symbol E.
Sources of Electrical Energy - Current Source

A current source is said to deliver a constant current i2 = I to the circuit thorugh

the terminals, if it is a steady current source or i(t) or simply i, if the current
changes with respect to time. An ideal current source is expected to deliver a
constant current to the outside circuit whatever be the circuit. An ideal current
source can be represented by the symbol

In practice the current supplied by the current source will be decreasing as the
voltage across the current source is increasing due to the internal resistance R of
the current source, which is assumed to be across the current source. The
internal resistance of the current source should be as high as possible so that
maximum current will be delivered to the load connected across the current
source with the current through the internal resistance being very small.

D.C. & A.C. Sources

If the voltage or current supplied by an electrical energy source is constant
with respect to time as shown in Fig. then it is known as D.C. Voltage Source
or Direct Current Source ( or Steady Current Source ). D.C. stands for Direct
Current.

A D.C. Source has two terminals from which energy is supplied to the outside
load. They are known as Positive Terminal which supplies the positive ions and
Negative Terminal which receives the returning current or which can be
assumed as supplying negative charges called electrons in the direction opposite
to the conventional current direction. D.C. supply is provided by batteries or
D.C. generators. The battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
The generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

If the voltage or current is varying with respect to time but, has the same
polarity as shown in Fig. below. then it is known as Unidirectional Source. If
the polarity is positive, it is known as Positive Source. If the polarity is
negative, it is known as Negative Source.

If the voltage or current supplied by an electrical energy source varies in both

magnitude and polarity with respect to time as shown in Fig. below then it is
known as A.C. Voltage Source or Alternating Current Source. A.C. stands for
Alternating Current.
The value of the voltage or current of an A.C. supply at any instant is called
Instantaneous Value of Voltage or Current and is denoted as v ( t ) or i ( t ).
In general, the instantaneous values may also be denoted as v or i. Generally
no polarities will be marked for A.C. voltage or current. If at all polarities
are marked for A.C. voltage or current, they mean the polarities of the
voltage or current at the marked terminals, at any one particular instant
and will be changing from time to time.

Unilateral and Bilateral Elements :

Elements in which current flow is in only one direction are called unilateral
elements. Eg. Diode. Elements in which current flow can be in both directions
are called bilateral elements. Eg. Resistance, Inductance, Capacitance etc.,

i) Passive Elements - Resistance or Resistance Parameter

When a potential difference is applied across a conductor ( or wire ), the free

electrons start moving in a particular direction. While moving through the
material, these electrons collide with other atoms and molecules. They oppose
this flow of electrons ( or current ) through it. This opposition is called
Resistance. Heat is produced because of the collisions of moving electrons with
the other atoms and molecules. Thus whenever a current flows through a
conductor, heat is produced in the conductor and this heat has to be dissipated
fully. Otherwise, the insulation of the conductor ( the Sheath made of insulating
material covering the conductor) will get damaged. The opposition offered to
the flow of current (free electrons) is called Resistance. Resistance is denoted
by R and is measured in ohms named after a German mathematician George
Simon Ohm and is represented by the Greek symbol Ω. For very high resistance
we use large units such as kilo-ohms ( kΩ which is equal to 103 Ω ) or Mega-
ohms ( MΩ which is equal to 106 Ω ) while for small resistances we use smaller
units such as milli-ohms ( mΩ which is equal to 10–3 Ω ) or micro-ohms ( μΩ
which is equal to 10–6 Ω ).

A wire wound coil with two fixed terminals is called a resistor or resistance. A
coil with two fixed terminals and a variable contact terminal which makes
contact with the body of the coil is called a Rheostat or Variable Resistor. A
rheostat can be connected in two ways as,
Series Resistance

Potential Divider:

The two ends of the rheostat are connected across a voltage source which
constitutes the input to the potential divider. The output is tapped between the
moving contact and one of the end terminals, in which case, part of the input
voltage will be the output voltage. The voltage tapped is given by,
This law applies to electric to electric conduction through good
conductors and may be stated as follows :

The ratio of potential difference (V) between any two points on a

conductor to the current (I) flowing between them, is constant,
provided the temperature of the conductor does not change.
The constant of proportionality is R, the resistance.
V = I × R Volts
or V = R × I Volts
Here, V is the voltage drop across the conductor.
 Circuit for Ohm’s Law

[ V ] = [ R ][ I ]
Ohm’s Law can also be expressed as
E = I × R Volts
Here, E is the voltage rise across the conductor.
EAB = – VAB
The equation for Ohm’s Law can also be written as,
I = V/R Amperes
Ohm’s Law also gives the Volt-Ampere relationship for an element. Ohm’s
Law can be applied to a part of a circuit or to the full circuit in which the current
flows.
Ohm’s Law can also be applied to A.C. Circuits or to circuits with
Unidirectional Source in Laplace Transform domain for instantaneous values.
For steady state conditions of A.C Ohm’s Law using impedances and using
RMS values for voltages and currents, all in complex form will be discussed
later. However, for resistive circuits consisting of only resistances Ohm’s Law
can be written as,
v = i × R Volts
or v = R × i Volts
or i = v/R Amperes
where v and i are instantaneous values of Voltage and Current respectively
Resistance in Series

When some conductors having resistances R1, R2 and R3 etc. are joined end-on-
end as in Fig. below they are said to be connected in series. It can be proved that
the equivalent resistance or total resistance between points A and D is equal to
the sum of the three individual resistances. Being a series circuit, it should be
remembered that (i) current is the same through all the three conductors (ii) but
voltage drop across each is different due to its different resistance and is given
by Ohm’s Law and (iii) sum of the three voltage drops is equal to the voltage
applied across the three conductors. There is a progressive fall in potential as we
go from point A to D as shown in Fig.
Resistances in Parallel

Three resistances, as joined in Fig. 1.15 are said to be connectedin parallel. In

this case (i) p.d. across all resistances is the same (ii) current in each resistor is
different and is given by Ohm’s Law and (iii) the total current is the sum of the
three separate currents.
Voltage Divider Rule

Since in a series circuit, same current flows through each of the given resistors,
voltage drop varies directly with its resistance. In Fig. shown a 24-V battery
connected across a series combination of three resistors.
Total resistance R = R1 + R2 + R3 = 12 Ω
According to Voltage Divider Rule, various voltage drops are :
Calculate the effective resistance of the following combination of
resistances and the voltage drop across each resistance when a P.D.
of 60 V is applied between points A and B.

What is the value of the unknown resistor R in SHOWN IN FIGURE if

the voltage drop across the 500 Ω resistor is 2.5 volts ? All
resistances are in ohm.
STAR AND DELTA CONNECTION OF RESISTOR:

Short and Open Circuits

When two points of circuit are connected together by a thick metallic

wire (Fig. ABOVE) they are said to be short-circuited. Since ‘short’
has practically zero resistance, it gives rise to two important facts :
(i) no voltage can exist across it because V = IR = I × 0 = 0
(ii) current through it (called short-circuit current) is very large
(theoretically, infinity)

Two points are said to be open-circuited when there is no direct

connection between them (Fig. 1.39). Obviously, an ‘open’ represents
a break in the continuity of the circuit. Due to this break

(i) resistance between the two points is infinite.

(ii) there is no flow of current between the two points.

Shorts’ in a Series Circuit

‘Opens’ in a Series Circuit

Opens’ in a Parallel Circuit

Shorts’ in Parallel Circuits

1. not only is R3 short-circuited but both R1 and R2 are also shorted

out i.e. short across one branch means short across all branches.
2. there is no current in shorted resistors. If there were three bulbs,
they will not glow.
3. the shorted components are not damaged, For example, if we had
three bulbs in Fig.
(a), they would glow again when circuit is restored to normal
conditions by removing the short-circuited

Division of Current in Parallel Circuits

Find the current I1 I2I3.
Duality Between Series and Parallel Circuits

Relative Potential
Find the equivalent between the terminal AB
An ohmeter is used for measuring the resistance of a circuit between
its two terminals. What would be the reading of such an instrument
used for the circuit of Fig.below at point (a) AB (b) AC and (c) BC ?
All resistances are in ohm.

In the circuit shown in Fig. BELOW calculate (a) current I (b)current

I1 and (c) VAB. All resistances are in ohms

Find the resistance between the terminals A and B for the network
shown in Figure.
There are two general approaches to network analysis :
(i) Direct Method
Here, the network is left in its original form while determining its
different voltages and currents. Such methods are usually restricted to
fairly simple circuits and include Kirchhoff’s laws, Loop analysis,
Nodal analysis, superposition theorem, Compensation theorem and
Reciprocity theorem etc.

(ii) Network Reduction Method

Here, the original network is converted into a much simpler
equivalent circuit for rapid calculation of different quantities. This
method can be applied to simple as well as complicated networks.
Examples of this method are : Delta/Star and Star/Delta conversions.
Thevenin’s theorem and Norton’s Theorem etc.

Electric Circuits and Network Theorems

There are certain theorems, which when applied to the solutions of electric
networks, wither simplify the network itself or render their analytical solution
very easy. These theorems can also be applied to an a.c. system, with the only
difference that impedances replace the ohmic resistance of d.c. system.
Different electric circuits (according to their properties) are defined below :
1. Circuit. A circuit is a closed conducting path through which an electric
current either flows or is intended flow.
2. Parameters. The various elements of an electric circuit are called its
parameters like resistance, inductance and capacitance. These parameters may
be lumped or distributed.
3. Liner Circuit. A linear circuit is one whose parameters are constant i.e. they
do not change with voltage or current.
4. Non-linear Circuit. It is that circuit whose parameters change with voltage
or current.
5. Bilateral Circuit. A bilateral circuit is one whose properties or
characteristics are the same in either direction. The usual transmission line is
bilateral, because it can be made to perform its function equally well in either
direction.
6. Unilateral Circuit. It is that circuit whose properties or characteristics
change with the direction of its operation. A diode rectifier is a unilateral
circuit, because it cannot perform rectification in both directions.
7. Electric Network. A combination of various electric elements, connected in
any manner whatsoever, is called an electric network.
8. Passive Network is one which contains no source of e.m.f. in it.
9. Active Network is one which contains one or more than one source of e.m.f.
10. Node is a junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements are
connected together.
11. Branch is that part of a network which lies between two junctions.
12. Loop. It is a close path in a circuitin which no element or node is
encountered more than once.
13. Mesh. It is a loop that contains no other loop within it. For example, the
circuit of Fig. (a) has even branches, six nodes, three loops and two meshes
whereas the circuit of Fig. (b) has four branches, two nodes, six loops and three
meshes. It should be noted that, unless stated otherwise, an electric network
would be assumed passive in the following treatment. We will now discuss the
various network theorems which are of great help in solving complicated
networks. Incidentally, a network is said to be completely Standard symbols
1. Kirchhoff’s Point Law or Current Law (KCL)
It states as follows :
in any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting
at a point (or junction) is zero.

Consider the case of a few conductors meeting at a point A as in Fig. (a). Some
conductors have currents leading to point A, whereas some have currents
leading away from point A. Assuming the incoming currents to be positive and
the outgoing currents negative, we have
I1 + (−I2) + (−I3) + (+ I4) + (−I5) = 0
or I1 + I4 −I2 −I3 −I5 = 0 or I1 + I4 = I2 + I3 + I5
Similarly, in Fig. (b) for node A
+ I + (−I1) + (−I2) + (−I3) + (−I4) = 0 or I= I1 + I2 + I3 + I4
We can express the above conclusion thus : Σ I = 0
Incoming currents = outgoing currents

2. Kirchhoff’s Mesh Law or Voltage Law (KVL)

It states as follows :
The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in
each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network
plus the algebraic sum of the e.m.fs. in that path is zero.

Determination of Voltage Sign

In applying Kirchhoff’s laws to specific problems, particular attention should be
paid to the algebraic signs of voltage drops and e.m.fs., otherwise results will
come out to be wrong. Following sign conventions is suggested

Sign of Battery E.M.F.

A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall in voltage a −ve sign.
Keeping this in mind, it is clear that as we go from the −ve terminal of a battery
to its +ve terminal (Fig.) there is a rise in potential, hence this voltage should be
given a + ve sign. If, on the other hand, we go from +ve terminal to −ve
terminal, then there is a fall in potential, hence this voltage should be preceded
by a −ve sign. It is important to note that the sign of the battery e.m.f. is
independent of the direction of the current through that branch.

Sign of IR Drop

Now, take the case of a resistor (Fig.). If we go through a resistor in the same
direction as the current, then there is a fall in potential because current flows
from a higher to a lower potential. Hence, this voltage fall should be taken −ve.
However, if we go in a direction opposite to that of the current, then there is a
rise in voltage. Hence, this voltage rise should be given a positive sign.
It is clear that the sign of voltage drop across a resistor depends on
the direction of current through that resistor but is independent of
the polarity of any other source of e.m.f. in the circuit under
consideration.

Consider the closed path ABCDA in Fig. 2.5. As we travel around the mesh in
the clockwise direction, different voltage drops will have the following signs :
However, the important point is that once a particular direction has
been assumed, the same should be used throughout the solution of
the question.

Q1.What is the voltage Vs across the open switch in the circuit

of Fig.

Q2.find V1

ANS:
+Vs + 10 -20 -50 + 30 = 0 ∴Vs = 30 V

Taking the outer closed loop ABCDEFA and applying KVL to it, we get - 16 ×
3 - 4 × 2 + 40 -V1= 0 ; ∴ V1 = - 16 V The negative sign shows there is a fall in
potential.

Using Kirchhoff’s Current Law and Ohm’s Law, find the magnitude and
polarity of voltge V in Fig. Directions of the two current sources are as shown.
Solving Equations with Two Unknowns
Solving Equations With Three Unknowns
Determine the currents in the unbalanced bridge circuit of Fig. above. Also,
determine the p.d. across BD and the resistance from B to D.
Mesh Analysis Using Matrix Form
(Maxwell’s Loop Current Method)

This method which is particularly well-suited to coupled circuit

solutions employs a system of loop or mesh currents instead of
branch currents (as in Kirchhoff’s laws).

E1 −I1R1 −R4 (I1 −I2) = 0 or I1 (R1 + R4) −I2 R4 −E1 = 0 ……loop 1

Similarly, −I2R2 −R5 (I2 −I3) −R4 (I2 −I1) = 0

or I2 R4 −I2 (R2 + R4 + R5) + I3R5 = 0 ...loop 2

Also −I3R3 −E2 −R5 (I3 −I2) = 0 or I2R5 −I3 (R3 + R5) −E2 = 0 ...loop 3
In general, let

R11 = self-resistance of mesh (i)

R22 = self-resistance of mesh (ii) i.e. sum of all resistances in mesh (ii)

R33 = Self-resistance of mesh (iii) i.e. sum of all resistances in mesh

(iii)

R12 = R21 = − [Sum of all the resistances common to meshes (i) and
(ii)] *

R23 = R32 = − [Sum of all the resistances common to meshes (ii) and
(iii)]*

R31 = R13 = − [Sum of all the resistances common to meshes (i) and
(iii)] *
Write the impedance matrix of the network shown in Fig. and find the
value of current I3.
Determine the current supplied by each battery in the circuit shown in
Fig.
Nodal Analysis With Sources
The node-equation method is based directly on Kirchhoff’s current
law unlike loop-current method which is based on Kirchhoff’s voltage
law.

like loop current method, nodal method also has the advantage that a
minimum number of equations need be written to determine the
unknown quantities. Moreover, it is particularly suited for networks
having many parallel circuits with common ground connected such as
electronic circuits.

For the application of this method, every junction in the network

where three or more branches meet is regarded a node. One of these is
regarded as the reference node or datum node or zero-potential node.
Hence the number of simultaneous equations to be solved becomes (n
− 1) where n is the number of independent nodes.
(i) First Case
 (ii) Second Case

Now, consider the case when a third battery of e.m.f. E3 is connected

between nodes 1 and 2 as shown in Fig. It must be noted that as we
travel from node 1 to node 2, we go from the −ve terminal of E3 to its
+ve terminal. Hence, according to the sign convention given in E3
must be taken as positive. However, if we travel from node 2 to node
1, we go from the +ve to the −ve terminal
It is exactly the same expression as given under the First Case
discussed above except for the additional term involving E3. This
additional term is taken as +E3/R2 (and not as −E3/R2) because this
third battery is so connected that when viewed from mode 1, it
represents a rise in voltage. Had it been connected the other way
around, the additional term would have been taken as −E3/R2.
Q. Determine the branch currents in the network of Fig. below when
the value of each branch resistance is one ohm.

Q.Determine the current x in the 4-Ω resistance of the circuit shown

in Fig.
Q.Determine current in 5-Ω resistor by MESH analysis method.