Question1

A reservoir has a constant plan area of 5.56 x 106m2. Discharge from the reservoir takes place
over a spillway the characteristic of which is Q = 135H3/2. Storm run-off entering the reservoir
is estimated at the following figures.
Time (h) 0 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3
Run-off (m /s) 0 113 170 283 226 170 113 57.5 0

It is noted that at 12 h, the head H over the spillway is 0.813m and the reservoir surface level
is still rising. Estimate how much further the level will rise. Sketch the general shape of the
outflow hydrograph and explain what is meant by the lag effect of the reservoir.

Solution
Discharge from the reservoir is given by, Q = 135H3/2
Plan area of reservoir A = 5.56 x 106 m2.
The head h over the spillway = 0.813m at t = 12 hours and the water surface in the reservoir
continues to rise.
Assumptions
δt
• Time interval δt = 2hours such that = 1 hour = 3600 seconds
2
• The water level rises up to 2m above the spillway.
• h is selected at intervals of 0.1m
𝑑𝑡
The discharge Q and S + Q 2 is plotted from the table 1.1.
Table 1.1
H (m) dt Q =135h3/2 Storage S +Qdt/2
(Hours) (m3/s) S = AH (m3) (m3)
0 2 0.000 0 0.000
0.1 2 4.269 556000 571368.40
0.2 2 12.075 1112000 1155470.00
0.3 2 22.183 1668000 1747858.80
0.4 2 34.153 2224000 2346950.80
0.5 2 47.730 2780000 2951828.00
0.6 2 62.742 3336000 3561871.20
0.7 2 79.064 3892000 4176630.40
0.8 2 96.598 4448000 4795752.80
0.813 2 98.962 4520280 4876543.20
0.9 2 115.265 5004000 5418954.00
1.0 2 135.000 5560000 6046000.00
1.1 2 155.748 6116000 6676692.80
1.2 2 177.462 6672000 7310863.20
1.3 2 200.101 7228000 7948363.60
1.4 2 223.628 7784000 8589060.80
1.5 2 248.011 8340000 9232839.60
1.6 2 273.221 8896000 9879595.60
1.7 2 299.231 9452000 10529231.60
1.8 2 326.019 10008000 11181668.40
1.9 2 353.561 10564000 11836819.60
2.0 2 381.838 11120000 12494616.80

At t = 12hours, h = 0.813
Q = 135 (0.813)1.5 = 98.962 m3/s
Storage, S = Ah = 5.56 x 106 x 0.813 = 4.52 x 106m3
These values are taken as the initial values of Q1 and S1 respectively in the reservoir routing table
1.2 where Q1 = 98.962 m3/s and S1 = 4.52 x 106 m3
 Figure 1.1: Q vs S, S + Qdt/2
450

400

350

300
Q (m3 /s)

250 Q vs S
Q vs S + Qdt/2
200

150

100

50

0
0.0000 2.0000 4.0000 6.0000 8.0000 10.0000 12.0000 14.0000
S and S + Qdt/2 (x 106 m3 )

Table 1.2
Time I I 1 + I2 Q1 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
(I1 + I2 – Q1) (x106 S1 (I1 + I2 – Q1) + S1
(hours) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) 𝟐 (x 106 𝟐
m 3) (x106 m3)
m3/s)
0 0 -
6 113 113
8 170 283
10 283 453
12 226 509 98.96 1.476 4.520 5.996
14 170 396 131.00 0.954 5.500 6.454
16 113 283 147.00 0.164 5.867 6.031
18 57.5 170.5 132.00 0.139 5.550 5.689
20 0 57.5 122.50 -0.234 5.300 5.066

From the graph in figure 1.2, the maximum outflow Q is ≈ 147 m3/s
Using the equation Q = 135 H1.5
2⁄ 2⁄
𝑄 3 147 3
Hmax = (135) = (135) = 1.058m
Given that at 12hr, the head is 0.813m, the reservoir head will rise further by;
=(1.058 – 0.813) m = 0.245 m
 Figure 1.2: Inflow and Outflow hydrographs
300

250
Inflow I and Outflow Q (m3/s)

200

Inflow hydrograph
150
Outflow hydrograph

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (Hours)

Lag effect
The difference in time between the peaks of the inflow and outflow hydrographs is what is
referred to as Lag effect.
From the inflow and outflow hydrographs, the lag effect is given by
(16 - 10) hrs = 6 hrs

Question 2
A flood entering a reservoir of area 0.13km2 has the following hydrograph:
Time (h) 0 2 4 6 10 14 20 30
Flow (m3/s) 0 14.1 42.5 85.0 70.8 42.5 14.1 0
The dam of the reservoir has a spillway 61m long (coefficient 2.21m1/2/s), and a culvert
(ground sluice) with its centre line 30.5m below crest level. At time zero the water level in the
reservoir was just at crest level. Estimate
(a) the maximum discharge through the culvert, if the water is never to rise more than
30.5m above the crest;
(b) the size of the culvert, assuming it acts as a simple orifice, Cd = 0.64;
(c) the period during which the culvert is flowing
Solution
Area of reservoir = 0.13km2 = 0.13 x 106
Co-efficient C = 2.21m1/2/s
Centre line of culvert = 30.5m
Length of spillway, L = 61m
Time intervals are as follows;
Δt = 2hours = 7200s
Δt = 4hours = 14400s
Δt = 6hours = 21600s
Δt = 10hours = 36000s

Spillway discharge, Q = C x L x h3/2 = 2.21 x 61 x h3/2 = 134.81 x h3/2 m3/s

Storage S = A x h = 0.13 x 106h m3

𝛥𝑡
Taking arbitrary values of h to draw graphs of Q vs S and Q vs S + Q, the table in figure 2.1 is
2
generated.
Table 2.1
𝑑𝑡
S+Q (x 106 m3)
2

S=Ah x
106 Q=CxLx
3
H (m) (m ) h3/2 (m3/s) dt=2 (hours) dt=4(hours) dt=6(hours) dt=10(hours)

0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

0.100 0.013 4.263 0.028 0.044 0.059 0.090

0.150 0.020 7.832 0.048 0.076 0.104 0.160

0.200 0.026 12.058 0.069 0.113 0.156 0.243

0.250 0.033 16.851 0.093 0.154 0.214 0.336

0.300 0.039 22.152 0.119 0.198 0.278 0.438

0.350 0.046 27.914 0.146 0.247 0.347 0.548

0.400 0.052 34.105 0.175 0.298 0.420 0.666

0.500 0.065 47.663 0.237 0.408 0.580 0.923

0.600 0.078 62.654 0.304 0.529 0.755 1.206

0.700 0.091 78.953 0.375 0.659 0.944 1.512

0.800 0.104 96.462 0.451 0.799 1.146 1.840

0.900 0.117 115.103 0.531 0.946 1.360 2.189

1.000 0.130 134.810 0.615 1.101 1.586 2.557

1.100 0.143 155.529 0.703 1.263 1.823 2.943

1.200 0.156 177.212 0.794 1.432 2.070 3.346

1.300 0.169 199.819 0.888 1.608 2.327 3.766

1.400 0.182 223.313 0.986 1.790 2.594 4.202

1.500 0.195 247.662 1.087 1.978 2.870 4.653

1.600 0.208 272.836 1.190 2.172 3.155 5.119

 1.700 0.221 298.810 1.297 2.372 3.448 5.600

1.800 0.234 325.560 1.406 2.578 3.750 6.094

1.900 0.247 353.063 1.518 2.789 4.060 6.602

2.000 0.260 381.300 1.633 3.005 4.378 7.123

CHART OF Q AGAINST S AND S+Qdt/2

200.000

180.000

160.000

140.000

120.000
Q (Cumecs).

100.000

80.000

60.000

40.000

20.000

0.000
0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 1.200 1.400 1.600 1.800 2.000
m3(X106)

dt=2 dt=4 dt=6 dt=10 S

Table 2.2 – Flood routing table

(I1 + I2 - S1+(I1 + I2 –
t I1 I1+I2 Q1)dt/2 Q1 S1 Q1)dt/2

0 0 0 0 0

2 14.1 14.1 0.175 8 0.0225 0.1925

4 42.5 56.6 0.319 39 0.06 0.379

6 85 127.5 0.276 79 0.093 0.369

10 70.8 155.8 0.499 44 0.06 0.559

14 42.5 113.3 -0.074 67 0.08 0.006

20 14.1 56.6 0.152 0 0.09 0.152

30 0 14.1 -0.144 8 0.02

(a) From the routing Table, maximum discharge = 79 m3/s.

The maximum discharge through the culvert if the water is never to rise more than 30.5cm above
the crest, h = 0.305m.

Discharge through the spillway, Q = CLH3/2.

= 2.21x61x (0.3051.5).

= 22.71 m3/s.

Maximum discharge through the culvert = 78.0 – 22.71

= 55.29 m3/s.
Table 2.3: Total outflow and the weir flow data

Total
outflow Weir flow

0 22.71

8 22.71

39 22.71

79 22.71

76.5 22.71

41 22.71

47.5 22.71

12.8 22.71
 FIGURE 2.2: OUTFLOW HYDROGRAPH

90
=85.8m3/s
Qmax

80

70
Total Out Flow

60

50
Flow(cumecs).

40

30
3
Weir Flow Q =22.71m
/s
20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (h)
Outflow hydrograph Inflow hydrograph.

(b) Size of the culvert, assuming it acts as a simple orifice, Cd = 0.64;

Using,

Q = CdA 2 gh , h = height of the centre-line of culvert below crest level.

 Q 68
A= = 68 , where, h = 28.5 + 0.285
Cd 2 gh 0.73 2 x9.810 xh

55.29
A= = 3.514 m 2
0.64 2 x9.810 x30.805

Assuming a circular culvert with a diameter, d

d 2 4A
A= ,d =
4 

4 x3.514
d= , d = 2.115m Size of the culvert


(c) Given that the culvert only flows when the discharge over the spillway is maximum i.e.
22.71m3/s,

From the discharge hydrograph, when, Q = 22.71m3/s, t1 = 3.20

t2 = 27.2

Therefore culvert only flows for the period 27.20- 3.20 = 24.0 hrs.

Question 3
Derive the Muskingum equation for flood routing in a river basin. Explain clearly the
significance of the factors x and K and indicate how they can be estimated.

The inflow hydrograph for a reach of a river is given below. Find the peak of the outflow
hydrograph and its time of occurrence if K = 1.4 days and x = 0.20 for the reach. Plot the
complete inflow and outflow hydrographs for the given flood. Assume that the outflow from
the reach is equal to the inflow at the start of the flood.

Date Hour Inflow (m3/s)

8 February 1200 32.4
9 February 0600 32.4
1200 35.3
1800 46.1
2400 80.3
10 February 0600 141
1200 236
1800 342
 2400 323
11 February 0600 301
1200 279
1800 256
2400 229
12 February 0600 204
1200 189
1800 178
2400 156
13 February 1200 122
2400 101
14 February 1200 59.3
2400 53.1

Solution
The derivation of Muskingum Equation from flood routing in a river basin

WEDGE STORAGE

I
Y1

PRISM STORAGE
Y0
Q

Figure 1.1

Channel storage may be considered to consist of two parts, Prism and Wedge storage as shown
in figure 1.1 and the main assumption is that there is no change in cross section. Therefore the
expressions for inflow, outflow and storage are as follows:
I = ay1n and Q = ayon where a and n are constants
Prism storage is given by = byom
(
Wedge storage is given by = c yi − y 0
m n
) where m, b, and c are constants.
Total Storage, S = prism storage + Wedge storage.
m
(
= by0 + c yi − y 0
m n
)
Assume m = n and substituting for I, Q
 b c c
S= Q− Q+ I
a a a

b c
Taking k = , and, x =
a b

bc c 
S=  I + Q − Q
ab b 
S = k Q + x(I − Q )
OR, S = k xI + (I − x )Q

k is the storage constant and has dimensions of time.

X is a dimensionless weighing factor between 0 and 0.5 (but normally between 0.2 and 0.4).

The outflow may be determined through time from the inflow hydrograph. The known values of
k and x and the starting value for the outflow.

Using the continuity equation, I – Q = ds/dt.

 I1 + I 2   Q1 + Q2 
 2  t −  2  t = S 2 − S1

 I1 + I 2   Q1 + Q2 
 2  t −  2  t = k xI 2 − (1 + x )O2  − k xI1 − (1 − x )Q1 

 t   t 
I1  + kx  + I 2  − kx 
2  2 

 t   t   t 
I1  + kx  I 2 − kx +  k − kx − 
O2 =   + 
2 2  2
+
 t   t   t 
k − kx + 2  k − kx + 2  k − kx + 2 

Q2 = C1 I1 + C0 I 2 + C2Q1 ,
0r , Q2 = C1 I1 + C0 I 2 + C2Q1 ,

Where C1, C0 .and C2 are Muskingum coefficients for channel routing.

Estimation of k and x using Muskingum-Cunge method.

In the Muskingum method, both k and x may be determined by a graphical technique from a
previously recorded event. A value for x is assumed and a plot of S is drawn derived from the
known inflow and outflow against K is approximately equal to the time of travel of the flood
L
wave i.e. k =
c

Where, L =Length of the river reach.

(
C = Flood wave velocity C = gy )
Qp
X = 0.5 −
2S 0 Bc L

Where Qp is the mean flood peak and B is the mean surface width of the channel

Travel time, K = 1.4 days = (1.4 x 24 x 3600)s = 120960s, x = 0.2

The routing coefficients are calculated using the Muskingum equations as follows;

For t = 0
−Kx+0.5t −120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 0
Co = = = -0.250
K−Kx+0.5t 120960 −120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 0

Kx+0.5t 120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 0

C1 = = = 0.250
K−Kx+0.5t 120960 −120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 0

K− Kx − 0.5t 120960− 120960 x 0.2− 0.5 x 0

C2 = = = 1.000
K−Kx+0.5t 120960 −120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 0

Co + C1 + C2 = -0.250 + 0.250 + 1.000 = 1

For t = 6hours = 21600 s
−Kx+0.5t −120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 21600
Co = = = -0.124
K−Kx+0.5t 120960 −120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 21600

Kx+0.5t 120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 21600

C1 = = = 0.325
K−Kx+0.5t 120960 −120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 21600

K− Kx − 0.5t 120960− 120960 x 0.2− 0.5 x 21600

C2 = = = 0.799
K−Kx+0.5t 120960 −120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 21600
Co + C1 + C2 = -0.124 + 0.325 + 0.799 = 1
For t = 12hours = 43200 s
−Kx+0.5t −120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 43200
Co = = = -0.022
K−Kx+0.5t 120960 −120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 43200

Kx+0.5t 120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 43200

C1 = = = 0.387
K−Kx+0.5t 120960 −120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 43200

K− Kx − 0.5t 120960− 120960 x 0.2− 0.5 x 43200

C2 = = = 0.635
K−Kx+0.5t 120960 −120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 43200

Co + C1 + C2 = -0.022 + 0.387 + 0.635 = 1

For t = 18hours = 64800 s
−Kx+0.5t −120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 64800
Co = = = 0.064
K−Kx+0.5t 120960 −120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 64800

Kx+0.5t 120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 64800

C1 = = = 0.438
K−Kx+0.5t 120960 −120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 64800

K− Kx − 0.5t 120960− 120960 x 0.2− 0.5 x 64800

C2 = = = 0.498
K−Kx+0.5t 120960 −120960 x 0.2 + 0.5 x 64800
Co + C1 + C2 = 0.064 + 0.438 + 0.498 = 1

The routed outflow Q2 = CoI2 + C1I1 + C2Q1

Table 3.1
Date Time Time I Co CoI2 C1 C1I1 C2 C2Q1 Q2 (m3/s)
(Hrs) Interva (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s)
l
8 0 0 32.4 -0.250 -8.100 0.250 8.100 1.000 32.400 32.400
February
9 18 18 32.4 0.064 2.074 0.438 14.191 0.498 16.135 32.400
February 24 6 35.3 -0.124 -4.377 0.325 10.530 0.799 25.888 32.041
30 6 46.1 -0.124 -5.716 0.325 11.473 0.799 25.601 31.358
36 6 80.3 -0.124 -9.957 0.325 14.983 0.799 25.055 30.081
10 42 6 141 -0.124 -17.484 0.325 26.098 0.799 24.035 32.649
February 48 6 236 -0.124 -29.264 0.325 45.825 0.799 26.087 42.648
54 6 342 -0.124 -42.408 0.325 76.700 0.799 34.076 68.368
60 6 323 -0.124 -40.052 0.325 111.150 0.799 54.626 125.724
11 66 6 301 -0.124 -37.324 0.325 104.975 0.799 100.453 168.104
February 72 6 279 -0.124 -34.596 0.325 97.825 0.799 134.315 197.544
78 6 256 -0.124 -31.744 0.325 90.675 0.799 157.838 216.769
84 6 229 -0.124 -28.396 0.325 83.200 0.799 173.198 228.002
12 90 6 204 -0.124 -25.296 0.325 74.425 0.799 182.174 231.303
February 96 6 189 -0.124 -23.436 0.325 66.300 0.799 184.811 227.675
102 6 178 -0.124 -22.072 0.325 61.425 0.799 181.912 221.265
108 6 156 -0.124 -19.344 0.325 57.850 0.799 176.791 215.297
13 120 12 122 -0.022 -2.684 0.387 60.372 0.635 136.714 194.402
February 132 12 101 -0.022 -2.222 0.387 47.214 0.635 123.445 168.437
14 144 12 59.3 -0.022 -1.305 0.387 39.087 0.635 106.957 144.739
February 156 12 53.1 -0.022 -1.168 0.387 22.949 0.635 91.909 113.690

The inflow and outflow hydrographs are plotted as shown in figure 3.1,

Figure 3.1: Inflow and Outflow Hydrographs

400

350

300
Inflow and Outflow (Cumecs)

250

Inflow hydrograph
200
Outflow hydrograph

150

100

50

0
0 50 100 150 200
Time (Hours)

From table 3.1 and the hydrograph in figure 3.1, the peak of the outflow hydrograph is at
Q2 = 231.303 and this occurs at time = 90 hours.

Question 4
The table below gives the inflow and outflow hydrographs for a reach of a river. Determine
the Muskingum factor K for the reach if x has been estimated fairly accurately to be 0.20.
How does your value compare with the time lag between inflow and outflow peaks?
Date Hour Inflow (m3/s) Outflow (m3/s)
9 February 0600 42.4 42.4
1200 45.3 41.9
1800 56.6 41.2
2400 87.8 40.3
10 February 0600 147 42.6
1200 272 48.0
1800 352 82.9
2400 340 138
11 February 0600 314 181
1200 289 208
1800 265 227
2400 241 237
12 February 0600 212 241
1200 198 237
1800 182 230
2400 161 222
13 February 1200 133 200

Solution
General Muskingum storage equation is given as S = K [ xI + (1 - x)Q ].
• To obtain K, the values of ΔS are plotted against [ xI + (1 - x)Q ] values and the gradient of
the plotted graph gives K.

From the plotted graph in figure 4.1, the gradient has been calculated using the two coordinates
A (49.8 m3/s, 919080 m3) and B (229.2 m3/s, 23183280 m3)

(23183280 – 919080)𝑚3
K= = 124103.6789 s ≈ 124104 s = 34 hours and 28 minutes
(229.2−49.8)𝑚3 ⁄𝑠
• To determine the inflow and outflow peaks and the corresponding times at which they occur,
there is need to plot the inflow and outflow against time using values in table 4.2.
Table 4.1
Date Hour Inflow Outflow (I1 + (Q1 + [(I1 + I2)/2 - (Q1 [x.I + (1 –
(m3/s) (m3/s) I2)/2 Q2)/2 + Q2)/2]dt x)Q]
[m3/s] [m3/s] [m3/s] (m3/s)
9 0600 42.4 42.4 - - 0 42.40
February 1200 45.3 41.9 43.85 42.15 36720 42.58
1800 56.6 41.2 50.95 41.55 239760 44.28
2400 87.8 40.3 72.20 40.75 919080 49.80
10 0600 147.0 42.6 117.40 41.45 2559600 63.48
February 1200 272.0 48.0 209.50 45.30 6106320 92.80
1800 352.0 82.9 312.00 65.45 11431800 136.72
2400 340.0 138 346.00 110.45 16519680 178.40
11 0600 314.0 181 327.00 159.50 20137680 207.60
February 1200 289.0 208 301.50 194.50 22448880 224.20
1800 265.0 227 277.00 217.50 23734080 234.60
2400 241.0 237 253.00 232.00 24187680 237.80
12 0600 212.0 241 226.50 239.00 23917680 235.20
February 1200 198.0 237 205.00 239.00 23183280 229.20
1800 182.0 230 190.00 233.50 22243680 220.40
2400 161.0 222 171.50 226.00 21066480 209.80
13 1200 133.0 200 147.00 211.00 18301680 186.60
February

Table 4.2
Date Time (Hours) Inflow (m3/s) Outflow (m3/s)
9 February 6 42.4 42.4
12 45.3 41.9
18 56.6 41.2
24 87.8 40.3
10 February 30 147 42.6
36 272 48.0
42 352 82.9
48 340 138
11 February 54 314 181
60 289 208
66 265 227
72 241 237
12 February 78 212 241
84 198 237
90 182 230
96 161 222
13 February 108 133 200
 Figure 4.1: Plot of ΔS against [x.I + (1 - x)Q]

30000

25000
Storage, S x 1000 (Cubic metres)

B
20000

Series1
15000

10000

5000

0 A
0 50 100 150 200 250
[I.x + (1 - x)Q] (Cumecs)

From the hydrographs plotted in figure 4.2, the inflow peak value (356 m3/s) occurs after 43
hours from start and the outflow peak value (241 m3/s) occurs after 78 hours. Hence the time
lag between inflow and outflow peaks = (78 – 43) hours = 35 hours.
Conclusion
This time lag is approximately equal to the Muskingum factor K i.e. the Muskingum factor K
approximately gives the time lag between the inflow and outflow peaks.
 Figure 4.2: Inflow and Outflow Hydrograph

400

350
Inflow I and Outflow Q (Cumecs)

300

250
Inflow Hydrograph
200
Outflow Hydrograph

150

100

50

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (Hours)

Question 4
Discuss methods of flood mitigation.
Solution
Flood control or mitigation measures may be structural or non structural.
1. Structural measures are those that alter the river system by means of structures in the
watershed (extensive measures) or in the river (intensive measures) to prevent flood water
overflowing into the flood plain.
2. Non- Structural measures are those in which the losses from the flooding are reduced for the
convenience of the population, using preventive measures such as flood warnings, zoning of
risk areas, flood insurance and individual protection measures (flood proofing). Flooding is
controlled by a combination of structural and non-structural measures enabling the riverside
population to minimize losses caused by the river’s flooding.

Structural Measures
These may be subdivided into extensive or intensive measures.
• Extensive measures are those that act in the watershed aiming to change the relationships
between precipitation and flow. An example of extensive measure is by altering the
vegetation cover of the soil, which reduces and delays the flood peaks and controls erosion in
the watershed.
• Intensive measures are those that respond in the river and they are of three types namely
i) Those accelerating flow including construction of dykes and polders, increasing
discharge capacity and cutting meanders.
ii) Those delaying flow including attenuation reservoirs and basins and
iii) Those diverting flow: structures such as diversion canals.

Extensive Measures
i) Vegetation Cover
• Vegetable cover removes moisture from the soil through the process of transpiration
• Promotes loose organic soil, which is favorable for the infiltration of rainfall.
• A heavy vegetal cover also means a high interception during storms. The vegetal cover
therefore provides a significant storage as interception. It therefore follows that the
potential surface runoff is considerably minimized which reduces incidence of
floodwaters.
• Crops can also be cultivated in fields to avoid bare, fallowed ground during the non-
growing season.
ii) Control of Soil Erosion
Increased soil erosion results in the transport of sediments and aggregates and can contaminate
rivers downstream, reducing their cross section and upsetting the rivers’ load and transport
balance, thereby producing environmental effects. The reduction in cross section as a result of
sedimentation will lead to increased flooding. Soil erosion can be controlled by;
• reforestation,
• contour ploughing,
• Terracing (reduces flow, prevents soil erosion and increases ground water supply).
• contour bunds,
• Stabilization of river banks and small reservoirs.
These methods retard and reduce runoff and promote infiltration and reduce prevalence of
flooding. Small reservoirs are excavated in the ground and the water can be used for irrigation
among other purposes.
Intensive Measures
i) The acceleration of flow through the confinement of flow within predetermined channels
can be achieved with the construction of dykes, levees, floodwalls and polders. These are
lateral walls of earth and concrete sloping or upright built at a certain distance from the
bank to protect the riverside areas against overflows. Acceleration of flow can also be
achieved through cutting meanders.
• Flood Control using Levees and Floodwalls
After dams, levees are probably the structures most used for broad-based flood control.
Levees and floodwalls are essentially longitudinal dams erected roughly parallel to the
riverbank rather than across its channel. Flood levees are constructed between the area to be
 protected and the river channel. A levee is an earth dike, while a floodwall is usually of
masonry construction.

• Floodwalls
Floodwalls are used in developed areas where it is difficult to obtain enough land for the
construction of levees. A floodwall is a sort of gravity dam constructed along the river.
Floodwalls are designed to withstand hydrostatic pressure like gravity dams.
• Channel Improvement
Channel improvement involves improving the hydraulic properties of the channel. This includes
➢ Removal of brush and snags,
➢ Dredging of bars,
➢ Strengthening of bends and other devices can be effective
➢ Increasing channel section
➢ Realignment of the river
➢ Increasing waterways at crossings
Channel improvement aids flood mitigation by decreasing Manning's n for the reach,
increasing hydraulic radius by increasing depth, increasing the channel slope by shortening
the channel length and increasing the flow area. From Manning's formula, discharge Q is
given by;
2 1
𝐴 𝑅 ⁄3 𝑆 ⁄2
Q=
𝑛
ii) The delaying of the flow and attenuation of the peak flow
This can be achieved by the construction of reservoirs as expod-mitigation reservoirs store a
portion of the flood flow in such a way as to minimize the flood peak at the point to be protected.
Ideally the reservoir would be situated immediately upstream from the protected area and is
operated to "cut off" the flood peak. This is achieved by discharging all reservoir inflow until the
outflow reaches the safe capacity of the channel downstream. All flow above this rate is stored
until the inflow drops below the safe channel capacity and the stored water is released to recover
the storage capacity for the next flood. There are two (2) types of flood-mitigation reservoirs,
a) Storage reservoirs which need a large sluice way capacity to permit rapid draw down in
advance of or after a flood.
b) Retarding basin which is provided with fixed, ungated outlets, which automatically regulate
the outflow in accordance with the volume of water in storage. The outlet usually consists of
a large spillway or one or more ungated sluiceways.

iii) The diversion of flow

This can be achieved through the construction of floodways and diversion channels. Floodways
serve to alleviate flooding by diversion of floodwaters through floodways. These structures
provide two functions in flood mitigation.
• They create large shallow reservoirs, which store a portion of the floodwater and hence
decrease the flow in the main channel below the diversion.
 • Secondly, they provide an additional outlet for water from upstream, increasing velocity
and decreasing stage for some distance above the point of diversion.
Non Structural Measures
These measures are used to significantly reduce the risk of flood damage to land and property
and loss of human life at a lower cost. They include;
i) Flood Plain Management
Flood plain management is adopted to minimize the flood damage in flood plains. The tools of flood plain
management are many and include:

a. Flood Plain Zoning

Flood plain zoning is a legal device through, which local jurisdictions can restrict occupying of
the flood plain to uses that will suffer little or no damage during floods. Development of flood
plain is divided into different zones, according to susceptibility to a particular flood frequency.
The flood plain can therefore be divided into three (3) zones.
• Prohibitive Zone
These are areas where no building activity is to be permitted; as they are highly liable to frequent
flooding. Squatters should under no circumstance encroach upon this area, at most only
temporary agricultural uses may be allowed.
• ii) Restrictive Zone
This area is one that is moderately prone to floods and would be inundated once in around five
(5) or ten (10) years. The flood hazard in this area is therefore less than it is in the prohibitive
zone. The area can therefore be allowed for construction of less populated and less costly
buildings, or for those structures that are not likely to be seriously damaged by floods.
• iii) Warning Zones
This area would be prone to flooding only when floods exceeding the design flood occurred. It
therefore carries less risk of being flooded. All activities may accordingly be permitted in this
area with satisfactory precautions in place.
b. Developing a Flood Hazard Map
A Flood Hazard Map (FHM) is an important tool that can be developed for a particular area that
is prone to floods. The information which it provides includes
• Past flood track records,
• Flood anticipation,
• Potential evacuation routes,
• Evacuation places to local residents and has been found indispensible for long term
disaster management in places like Japan. The FHM takes into account that floods have
some advantages to the community. It is also useful in developing a flood policy and
developing potential strategies.
ii. Flood Proofing
Bunds or levees are constructed to encircle property. An additional measure employed with flood
proofing is that buildings are sometimes made quite strong so as to resist hydrostatic and
hydrodynamic forces due to floodwaters. The lower stories of these buildings that may be
submerged in case of high floodwaters are constructed without windows or ring windows and
special techniques can be applied to ensure water tightness of doors when closed. Flood proofing
is an alternative flood plain management technique that can be used by individual property
owners to protect their property.
iii. Emergency Planning and Flood Warning
All structural measures put in place cannot guarantee absolute safeguard from flooding.
Therefore flood preparedness, relief and recovery measures have to be well planned in advance
and put in place so as to meet any disaster when it occurs to minimize loss of life and property.
Flood preparedness includes measures such as
• Forecasting floods;
• Flood warning systems;
• Evacuation teams and relief camps. These measures mostly involve human adjustment
that is targeted at minimizing losses associated with floods.
Emergency Evacuation
Under certain circumstances, one of the most effective means of flood-damage relief is
emergency evacuation of the threatened area. With reliable flood forecasts this technique is used
in areas with sparse settlement where property values do not justify other control measures and
loss of life can be prevented by prompt evacuation. Evacuation is mainly realized by airlifting
and using boats or canoes to move people to higher and safer ground. Whenever there are
evacuations of people other needs turn out to be evident and these include food and shelter,
which have to be taken into account.
iv. Flood Insurance
The insurance industry has played a big role in the recovery process of the affected areas.
Insurance policies seek to offset most of the risks faced by communities in the case of flooding.
In light of the large costs associated with floods, it is necessary for insurers to partner with other
agencies involved in flood risk management and disaster recovery (Milne, 2002). These agencies
include the central government, local authority, emergency services, water companies and
sewage undertakers, property owners, developers and lenders.
In order for the insurance industry to be effective there must be combined effort in terms of
policy making and implementation of flood defense mechanisms. The government and local
authorities are responsible for making clear policies and guidelines as regards flood
management, emergency services providing quick and effective responses to disasters and
property owners paying attention to the protection of property and life from flooding. This co-
operation will greatly reduce the risks incurred by flood damage and thereby ensure that flood
insurance premiums remain available and affordable making the recovery process faster.
v. Flood Forecasting
In order to be able to mitigate flood effects, it is necessary to know the magnitude of floods of
given return periods. Flood forecasting techniques range from a relatively simple approach using
graphical methods to sophisticated procedures requiring the use of fast processing computers.