CHAPTER 6: MANAGING NATURAL HAZARDS

6.1 Earthquakes and volcanoes:

• The structure of the Earth:

LAYER TEMP (⁰C) STATE MATERIAL

INNER CORE • 5000 –6000 • Solid (intense pressure from overlying • Iron and nickel.
rocks).
OUTER CORE • 4000 –5000 • Liquid • Iron and nickel
MANTLE • 1000 –1200 • Liquid (flows slowly due to • Mainly silicate
conventional currents from core). minerals

o Tectonic plate: a piece of lithosphere that moves slowly. It is made of crust and upper mantle.
o Where the convection currents rise to the surface, the plants move away from each other (and vice-versa).

• Plate boundaries: where two or more plates meet. Types given below:
o Constructive (divergent) plate boundary:
▪ Two plates move away from each other.
▪ When two oceanic plates move away, magma rises to the surface (convection current) and solidifies
when it meets cold ocean water.
▪ The magma turns to lava and forms new basaltic ocean crust.
▪ They can also form shields or basic volcanoes (submarine)
and have non-explosive eruptions.
▪ This is known as sea-floor spreading or ridge push.
▪ Small Earthquakes are triggered.
▪ If two continental plates move away from each other, a
rift valley may form.

o Destructive (converging) plate boundary:

▪ Two plates move towards each other.
 ▪ When an oceanic plate and
continental plate move towards each
other, the denser (oceanic) plate is
forced down (subducted) under the
lighter (continental) plate.
▪ This happens in the subduction zone
and an ocean trench is formed.
▪ The friction between the plates
triggers Earthquakes.
▪ The heat produced due to friction
turns the descending plate into magma.
▪ The magma starts to rise and erupt
(due to pressure) through a weakness in the crust as an explosive composite volcano.
▪ Fold mountains are also formed.
▪ The magma that erupts at the surface forms a chain of volcanic islands called an island arc.

▪ If two continental plates move towards each other, the sediments

between the two plates are compressed (collision zone) and pushed
upwards to form fold mountains.
▪ Earthquakes occur, but no volcanic activity as there’s no subduction
of the oceanic plate.

o Conservative/ Transform plate boundary:

▪ Two plates slide past each other.

▪ They move in different speeds.
▪ The plates get locked together and pressure builds up until it
is released as an Earthquake.

SUMMARY OF PLATE BOUNDARIES

• The magnitude (strength) of an Earthquake is measured using a seismometer on the Richter scale.

• Distribution and causes of volcanoes:

o Caused due to the tectonic activity (refer to 6.1; Plate boundaries).
o Found on constructive and destructive plate boundaries and hotspots.

• Distribution and causes of Earthquakes:

o Caused due to the tectonic activity (refer to 6.1; Plate boundaries).
o Occur mostly on the destructive and conservative plate boundaries (and sometimes on the constructive
plate boundaries).

• Earthquakes:
o Focus: where the Earthquake begins underground.
o Epicentre: point on the surface above the focus.
o Seismometer: an instrument used to measure the magnitude of an Earthquake (on the Richter scale).
o Factors that affect the impact of an Earthquake:
▪ Location of the epicentre;
▪ Time of the Earthquake;
▪ Geology of the area;
▪ Relief of the area;
▪ Severity of aftershocks;
▪ Level of development of human settlement;
▪ Population density;
▪ Building density and strength.
6.2 Tropical cyclones
• Causes of tropical cyclones:

o Ocean surface temperature of at least 27°C.

▪ Warm water provides the energy to evaporate more water,
that rises, condenses, releasing huge amounts of energy.
o Ocean depth of at least 60m deep.
o These conditions occurring between 5° and 20° north and
south to have sufficient Coriolis effect, making the air spin.
o Very little wind shear (change in wind speed or
direction).
▪ Allows the vertical development of the storm.
• Distribution of tropical cyclones:

o Between 5° and 20° north and south.

o They do not form on the equator because the Coriolis
effect there is 0.
▪ The air at the equator tends to flow straight from high
pressure to low pressure, without any rotation.

6.3 Flooding

PHYSICAL CAUSE IMPACT

HEAVY RAINFALL • Reduces the infiltration capacity of the soil;
• Increase in overland flow.
PROLONGED RAINFALL • Saturates the soil;
• Causes the water table to rise, reducing infiltration capacity.
SNOWMELT • Overland flow occurs due to rapid snowmelt.
LAND RELIEF • Steeper gradients lead to faster overland flow ‫ ؞‬water has little
time to infiltrate.
SATURATED SOIL • The more saturated the soil is (before the rainfall), lesser
infiltration and more overland flow.
STORM SURGES, TSUNAMIS • Flooding of low-lying coastal areas.

HUMAN CAUSE IMPACT

DEFORESTATION • Reduces interception and infiltration.
CULTIVATION • Ploughing down rather than across slopes increases the water flow.
URBANISATION • Concrete and tarmac are impermeable surfaces (no infiltration ‫ ؞‬high
overland flow).
CLIMATE CHANGE • Global warming may lead to rise in sea levels and more rainfall in
some areas
6.4 Drought

• Causes of drought:
o Lack of rain caused by prolonged high pressure:
▪ Air in a high-pressure system sinks and doesn’t form rain clouds.
o Effect of El Niño Southern Oscillation and La Niña:

▪ El Niño causes the surface water in the Pacific

Ocean along South America to be warmer.
▪ These warmer waters alter storm patterns and
can cause droughts in Australia.

▪ Whereas, La Niña causes the temperature of the

water along South America to decrease.
▪ The cooler conditions cause drought in parts of
North and South America.
▪ (refer to Section 5.2 World Fisheries; El Niño
Southern Oscillation (ENSO))

o Effect of climate change:

▪ Warmer worldwide temperatures cause the rainfall
to decrease in some parts of the world, leading to
drought.

6.5 The impacts of natural hazards

• Impacts of tectonic events:
o Damage to buildings and infrastructure;
o Fires from ruptures of gas pipes;
o Tsunamis hit coastlines;
o Landslides cover buildings and roads;
o Destruction of farmland, leading to starvation;
o Loss of wildlife habitats;
o Water-related diseases because victims are in
temporary accommodation with no sanitation or
clean water;
▪ Water is also contaminated by broken sewage
pipes or untreated sewage.
o Loss of life;
o Trauma, poor mental health;
o Financial losses when repairing the damage.

• Impacts of tropical cyclones:

o Flooding from storm surges and heavy rainfall;
o Loss of life; wildlife habitats.
o Damage to buildings and infrastructure;
o Disruption of electricity, transport and water
supply;
o Water-borne diseases;
o Economic loss as production is halted;
o Damage to crops, food shortages and loss of
export earnings;
 • Impacts of flooding:

o Loss of life;
o Damage to buildings and infrastructure;
o Contamination of water supplies leading to
disease;
o Loss of crops and livestock leading to food
shortages;
o Deposition of silt from the flood waters;
o Recharge of groundwater stores;
o Rivers may change course;
o Financial losses when repairing the damage.

• Impacts of droughts:
o Water sources dry up, forcing people to travel long
distances to fetch water;
o Decline in crop yields;
o Loss of crops, livestock, plants and wildlife;
o Decrease in land prices as production declines and
farmers lose money;
o Migration from rural to urban areas;
o Unemployment;
o Increase in food prices;
o Health problems due to malnutrition;
o Soil erosion, leading to desertification;
o Increased risk of wildfires and poor air quality;
o Conflicts over water usage and food.

6.6 Managing the impacts of natural hazards

• Volcanoes:
o Prediction:
▪ Seismometers can be used to monitor tremors aused by rising magma;
▪ Satellites using heat-seeking cameras can be used to monitor increasing ground
temperatures;
▪ Tiltmeters (measure very subtle changes in the surface of the Earth as magma
accumulates) and GPS can be used to monitor changes in volcano shape;
▪ Emissions of steam and gas (sulfur dioxide) can be monitored.
o Preparation and protection:
▪ Volcano hazard map (study past eruptions);
▪ Lava diversion channels and lava barriers ;
▪ Spraying lava with water;
▪ Halting lava advance by dropping concrete slabs into the flow;
▪ Building reinforcements (sloping roofs to protect against ashfall).

• Earthquakes:
o Prediction:
▪ Monitor tremors (using seismometers), groundwater levels and radon gas;
▪ Epicentres and frequencies of past events can be mapped to check if a pattern is developing;
▪ Measurement of local magnetic fields;
▪ Hazard zone map can be drawn (geological info and ground stability);
▪ Unusual animal behaviour.
 o Preparation and protection:
▪ Earthquake-proof or aseismic buildings. Older buildings
can be modernised;
▪ Smart meters to switch off gas supplies, preventing fires;
▪ Land-use planning: important services (schools,
hospitals) must be built in low-risk areas.

• Tropical cyclones:
o Prediction:
▪ Tracked using satellites.
o Preparation and protection:
▪ Cyclone shelters;
▪ Embankments along the coast;
▪ Preserve mangrove swamps to absorb the energy of storm
surges.

• Flooding:
o Prediction:
▪ Monitoring the amount of rainfall and river discharge using an ADV;
▪ Using the features of the drainage basin and type of storm to determine the severity of
the flood.

o Preparation and protection:

▪ Hard engineering projects (levees, flood barriers and dams);
▪ Soft engineering projects (afforestation and storage basins);
▪ Increasing the river channel (clearing vegetation);
▪ Land-use planning to restrict development on floodplains;
▪ Use of sandbags and pumps;
▪ Adapt houses to position power sockets 1.5 m above ground level to
prevent electrocution.
• Droughts:
o Prediction:
▪ Monitoring precipitation and temperature.
o Preparation and protection:
▪ Increase water supplies (dams, reservoirs, wells, percolation ponds,
aquifers, pumps, water transfer by pipeline and desalination);
▪ Water conservation (storage tanks, spray irrigation, drought-tolerant
crops, recycling water and reducing deforestation);
▪ Agricultural improvements (shelterbelts to decrease wind and
evaporation, bunds to increase infiltration
and fencing to control overgrazing);
▪ Government stockpiling supplies of water, food and medicine.

6.7 Opportunities presented by natural hazards

• Individuals may want to be near family and friends.
• Confidence in prediction, preparation and protection.
• Employment opportunities e.g. tourism.
• No choice in moving if there is pressure on land or if it is too expensive to move.
• After a volcanic eruption, fertile soils are created that produce high crop yields.
o The scenery can be spectacular;
o Geothermal energy can be obtained easily;
o Possibility of mining minerals such as sulfur, diamonds and gold.
• Living near rivers may provide food and water for drinking and irrigation.
o Communications may be easier;
o Flat land on either side is available for building on.

EXTRA RESOURCES:

1. POWERPOINT Tectonics
2. Detailed Video of Plate Science! (in case link breaks) . https://youtu.be/Xzpk9110Lyw
3. Subduction Lock and Tsunami animation (https://youtu.be/8u1xjWOIrE4)
4. http://earthquake.usgs.gov – click on one of the events on the ‘Latest earthquakes’ map and then
click on the event title at the bottom left of the map to see more information. Finally, click on the ‘Regional
information’ map for a link to a ‘Map of tectonic summary region’.
5. Natural Disasters PPT
6. Earthquakes: – plate movement:
7. www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/why.html constructive,
8. www.iris.edu/hq/ – search ‘How can you model earthquakes in the classroom?’ destructive and
conservative
9. Learners can research the meaning of ‘magnitude’ and ‘Richter scale’
10. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/ – search ‘Measuring the size of an earthquake’.
11. Research what causes a cyclone and produce an information factsheet for primary school students
12. Possible resource: www.ga.gov.au/ – search ‘what causes a cyclone?’
13. Create your own ‘virtual’ hurricane. Possible
resource: www.nhc.noaa.gov/outreach/games/canelab.htm
14. Change the course of a ‘virtual’ hurricane by changing
conditions. www.nhc.noaa.gov/outreach/games/movncane.htm
15. Possible resources: pressure – effect of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and La Niña on ocean
16. http://drought.unl.edu/ http://weather.about.com/od/drought/f/droughts.htm
www.weatheronline.co.uk/reports/wxfacts/Drought.htm www.bbc.co.uk/education – search
‘Human activities causing drought’ http://drought.unl.edu/ – search ‘ENSO and forecasting’.
temperatures and evaporation – effect of climate change