STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

CHAPTER 1: GENERAL CONCEPT OF STRESS AND STRAIN

CONTENT
1.0 General Concepts of Stress and Strain (6h)
1.1 Normal Stress and Strain
1.2 Shear Stress and Strain
1.3 Bearing stress
1.4 Stress on an Oblique Plane
1.5 Materials Behaviour (Hooke’s Law, Elastic
Constant, Poisson’s Ratio)

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 LEARNING OUTCOME
The end of the chapter, the students should be able to:
✓ Find internal forces of a body
✓ Calculate the average normal stress and average shear stress of a body
subject to axial forces and shear forces respectively
✓ Calculate the normal strain from a body`s deformation
✓ Understand and be able to apply the relationship between stress and
strain.
✓ Locate and identify material characteristics associated with a tensile test
stress-strain diagram
✓ Solve the problems of modulus of elasticity, modulus of rigidity and
Poisson`s ratio
✓ Calculate factor of safety, axial strain and lateral strain
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 1.0 INTRODUCTION
❑ Strength of materials is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the
behavior of solid bodies subjected to various types of loading. Other names
for this field of study are mechanics of materials, mechanics of solids and
mechanics of deformable bodies.
❑ The main objective of the study of mechanics of materials is to provide the
future engineer with the means of analyzing and designing various machines
and load bearing structures.
❑ Both the analysis and design of a given structure involve the determination
of stresses and deformations.

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 1.0 INTRODUCTION

When we applied load/forces on a structure

(deformable body)
The structure will experience;

STRESS & STRAIN

Intensity of the internal Deformation

forces on certain cross-
sectional area
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1.0 INTRODUCTION

Deformation

Applied forces
Contour Colour shows the
level of stress
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Types of load / force

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 1.0 INTRODUCTION
What is STRESS?
▪ The term stress (s) is used to express the loading in terms
of force applied to a certain cross-sectional area of an
object.
▪ From the perspective of loading, stress is the applied force
or system of forces that tends to deform a body.
▪ From the perspective of what is happening within a material,
stress is the internal distribution of forces within a body
that balance and react to the loads applied to it.
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 1.0 INTRODUCTION
What is STRAIN?
▪ Strain is the response of a system to an applied stress.
▪ When a material is loaded with a force, it produces a
stress, which then causes a material to deform.
▪ Engineering strain is defined as the deformation of a body
by changes in the length of line segments (normal strain)
and changes in the angles between them (shear strain).

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 1.1 NORMAL STRESS AND STRAIN
• Axial load (force) is an external load (force) directed along the axis
(centroid axis) of the member, resulting in either tension or compression
in the prismatic bar (straight member with constant cross section)

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1.1 NORMAL STRESS AND STRAIN
• The force intensity on that section is
defined as the normal stress, 𝝈 (force P
per unit area A). The SI unit is N/m2 or
Pascal (Pa).
• The resultant of the internal forces for an
axially loaded member is normal to a
section cut perpendicular to the member
axis.
• The stresses are called normal stress or
direct stress because they act in direction
perpendicular to the surface of the
material
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1.1 NORMAL STRESS AND STRAIN
• Normal Stress;

𝑃 Unit: Pascal (Pa) / N/m2

𝜎=
𝐴
where 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, P = axial force / normal
force, A = surface area

(+ve) sign will used to indicate a tensile stress

(member in tension)
(–ve) sign to indicate a compressive stress
(member in compression)

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 1.1 NORMAL STRESS AND STRAIN
• When loads are applied to a body, it will tend to change a body
shape and size.
• These changes are referred to as deformation, δ.
• Consider a bar subjected to axial force P.
• If the bar extension is δ and its original length (before loading) is L,
then it is called as normal strain, ε

normal strain; 𝛿 Unit: Dimensionless

𝜀= (+ve) - tensile strain (member in tension) and
𝐿 increase in dimension
(–ve) - compressive strain (member in
compression) and reduction in dimension
• The strain is called a normal strain because it is associated with
normal stresses. As strain is a ratio of length, it is a dimensionless.
• Most engineering materials undergo small deformation, then
strain << 1. 13
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 EXAMPLE 1 : NORMAL STRESS
The bar in Fig. 1–16a has a constant width of 35 mm and a thickness of 10 mm.
Determine the maximum average normal stress in the bar when it is subjected to the
loading shown.

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 EXAMPLE 1
SOLUTION:
1ST STEP: Find internal force by cutting the bar into several section (divide the section based on
force)

2nd STEP: Draw FBD for each section and apply equation of equilibrium to get internal force -

1st section: ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑃𝐴𝐵 + −12𝑘𝑁 = 0 ; 𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 12𝑘𝑁

2nd section: ෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑃𝐶𝐵 + −12𝑘𝑁 + (−18𝑘𝑁) = 0 ;

𝑃𝐶𝐵 = 30𝑘𝑁
Maximum load
෍ 𝐹𝑥 = − 𝑃𝐶𝐷 + 22𝑘𝑁 = 0 ;
3rd section:
𝑃𝐶𝐷 = 22𝑘𝑁
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 EXAMPLE 1

SOLUTION:
3rd STEP: Apply equation average normal stress, take the maximum internal force to get maximum
normal stress

Answer:

Important:
1. Force must be in N, not kN or other than that.
2. Unit for length must always in meter.

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How to cut/section of a structure?
1. Based on force / load
or
2. Based on length
or
3. Based on area

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 EXAMPLE 2: NORMAL STRESS
The 80-kg lamp is supported by two rods AB and BC as shown in Figure . If AB has a
diameter of 10 mm and BC has a diameter of 8 mm, determine the average normal
stress in each rod.

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 EXAMPLE 2: NORMAL STRESS
SOLUTION:
1ST STEP: Find internal loading for each rods. Draw FBD at point B and apply equation of equilibrium.

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 EXAMPLE 2: NORMAL STRESS
SOLUTION:
2nd STEP: Find average normal stress for rod AB and BC.

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EXAMPLE 3: NORMAL STRAIN

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 EXAMPLE 3: NORMAL STRAIN

SOLUTION:
1ST Step: Draw the orientation of the lever after it rotates and find the new length of BD

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 EXAMPLE 3: NORMAL STRAIN

SOLUTION:
2nd Step: Find Normal Strain
Answer:

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1.2 SHEAR STRESS AND STRAIN
• Forces P and P’ are applied transversely to the member AC.
• Corresponding internal forces act in the plane of section B and
are called shearing forces, V.
• The resultant of the internal shear force distribution is defined
as the shear of the section and is equal to the load P.
• Shear stresses are produced by equal and opposite parallel
forces not in line.
V • The forces tend to make one part of the material slide over the
other part.
• Shear stress is tangential to the area over which it acts.
• Shearing stresses are commonly found in bolts, pin and rivets.
𝑉 where 𝜏 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, V = shear force,
Shear stress; 𝜏= A = surface area
𝐴 Unit: Pascal (Pa) / N/m2
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1.2 SHEAR STRESS AND STRAIN

F=P=V
F = 2P = 2V

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EXAMPLE 4: SINGLE SHEAR / DOUBLE SHEAR STRESS
In each case, determine the largest internal shear force resisted by the bolt. Include all necessary free-
body diagrams.

(a) (b)

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 1.2 SHEAR STRESS AND STRAIN
• Consider an element of material is subjected to only
shearing stresses.
• In equilibrium, shear stresses must act along all four sides
of the element. These shearing stresses cause the
element to deform as shown where the shape is changed
but the lengths of the sides do not change.
• 𝛾 = measure of the distortion and is called shear strain.
𝜋 𝐴 − 𝐴′
𝛾 =( )−𝜃 @ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛾 =
2 𝐿
𝜋
Where 2 = 90° A

Unit: radians (rad) L

+ve strain – angle dimension is decreased
-ve strain – angle dimension is increased
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1.2 SHEAR STRESS AND STRAIN

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 EXAMPLE 5: SHEAR STRESS

Determine the shear stress in the 20-mm-diameter pin at A and the 30-
mm-diameter pin at B that support the beam in the figure below.

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 EXAMPLE 5: SHEAR STRESS

SOLUTION:
1ST STEP: Find forces applied on pin A by drawing FBD and applying equilibrium equation

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 EXAMPLE 5: SHEAR STRESS

SOLUTION:
2nd STEP: Identify single shear or double shear in each pin and find shear force, V

Pin A: Pin B:

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 EXAMPLE 5: SHEAR STRESS

SOLUTION:
3rd STEP: Use average shear stress formula

Answer:

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EXAMPLE 6: SHEAR STRAIN

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 EXAMPLE 6: SHEAR STRAIN

SOLUTION:
1ST Step: Find 𝛾 for each axis

2nd Step: Add both 𝛾 to get 𝛾𝑥𝑦

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1.3 BEARING STRESS
• Bearing stress is the contact pressure
between the separate bodies. It differs
from compressive stress, as it is an
internal stress caused by compressive
forces.
• Bolt, rivets and pins create stresses on
the points of contact or bearing surfaces
of the members they connect.
• Corresponding average force intensity is
called the bearing stress;
𝑃 𝑃
𝜎= =
𝐴 𝑡𝑑
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 1.4 STRESS ON AN OBLIQUE PLANE

Internal force can be seen from the cutting plane x-x and y-y. Internal
forces are the forces which hold together the particles forming the rigid
body

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1.4 STRESS ON AN OBLIQUE PLANE

R – resultant internal force

Rn – component force (perpendicular to plane y-y)
Rt – component force (tangent to plane y-y)

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1.4 STRESS ON AN OBLIQUE PLANE

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EXAMPLE 7: STRESS ON OBLIQUE PLANE
Two wooden members of uniform rectangular cross section are joined by the simple
glued scarf splice shown. Knowing that P = 11 kN, determine the normal and
shearing stresses in the glued splice.

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EXAMPLE 7: STRESS ON OBLIQUE PLANE
Solution:

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 1.5 MATERIAL’S BEHAVIOUR
1. Material:
• Ductile (mild steel, aluminum, copper etc.)
• Brittle (cast iron, glass, stone etc.)
2. Structural steel is one of the most used metals and is found
in buildings, bridges, cranes, ships, vehicles.
3. Mechanical Properties of materials are determined by
testing specimens of the material.
4. The tensile or compression test is to measure the ability of
the material to sustain a load without undue deformation or
failure
5. After testing, the stress versus strain is plotted and the
result is a stress – strain diagram for the material tested.
This diagram provided important information about the Tensile Test
mechanical properties behavior for the material
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 1.5.1 MATERIAL’S BEHAVIOUR (Stress-strain
relationship – ductile material)
• Ductile materials are materials that can be plastically twisted with no crack. They have the
tendency to hold the deformation that occurs in the plastic region. If tensile force is
applied, these materials can be stretched into a wire, but if compressive force is applied,
they can be deformed into sheets. Common ductile materials are copper, aluminum, and
steel.
Stress-strain Diagram for Ductile Material

necking

Tested specimen of a
ductile material. 43
 1.5.1 MATERIAL’S BEHAVIOUR (Stress-strain
relationship – brittle material)
• A brittle material will have a very small plastic region in comparison. Due to this fact once
a brittle material leaves the elastic region it will fail a lot quicker. The break will also be a
lot cleaner since there will be less necking.

Stress-strain Diagram for Brittle Material

Tested specimen of a
ductile material.

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 1.5.1 MATERIAL’S BEHAVIOUR (Stress-strain
relationship)
Stress-strain Relationship Diagram (Structural Steel)
Definition:
1. Elastic - material regains its original size and shape on removal
stress
2. Plastic - material which can undergo permanent deformation
without rupture aid.
3. Proportional limit - The greatest stress that a material can take
without deviation from straight line between stress and strain
is known as proportionality limit.
4. Yield stress (elastic limit) – stress that cause yielding
5. Yielding – a slight increase above the elastic limit that cause a
breakdown of the material and cause it to deform
permanently.
6. Strain hardening - The increase in strength after plastic zone
due to rearrangement of molecules in the material.
7. Ultimate stress - The maximum stress material can take
8. Necking - the cross-sectional area will begin to decrease in a
localized region of the specimen
9. Fracture stress– Fracture strength or breaking strength is the
stress when a specimen fails or fractures 45
 1.5.1 MATERIAL’S BEHAVIOUR (Stress-strain
relationship)
Stress-strain Relationship Diagram (Structural Steel)
O TO A (elastic region)
straight line; stress and strain are
proportional

Beyond A (proportional limit)

stress and strain are no longer proportional

A TO B (elastic limit)
the strain increases more rapidly than the
stress. Slope decreases to 0 (zero) at B

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 1.5.1 MATERIAL’S BEHAVIOUR (Stress-strain
relationship)
Stress-strain Relationship Diagram (Structural Steel)
B TO C (plastic region)
• yielding = considerable elongation occurs with
no noticeable increase in tensile force.
• Thus, B is the Yield Point. Corresponding stress
is the Yield Stress, 𝝈𝒚 .
• material is perfectly plastic (deforms without
increasing applied load)

C TO D (plastic region)
• due to the large strains occurring from B up to
C, the crystalline structure of the material
undergoes changes that allows the material to
withstand higher loads.
• This is call Strain Hardening (eventually a
maximum stress value is obtained called, the
Ultimate Stress)
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 1.5.1 MATERIAL’S BEHAVIOUR (Stress-strain
relationship)
Stress-strain Relationship Diagram (Structural Steel)
D TO E (plastic region)
• the specimen continues to be stretched
(elongated) even though the load is reduced.
• Fracture occurs at E lateral contractions occur.
This results in a decrease in the cross sectional
area and is called Necking.
• Becomes apparent in the vicinity of the
Ultimate Stress

C TO E’
• if the actual “necked” cross sectional area is
used to compute the stress, the curve will
follow CE’

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1.5.1 MATERIAL’S BEHAVIOUR (Stress-strain
relationship)

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 1.5.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL CAN BE DESCRIBED BY ITS:

1. MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, E 4. SAFETY FACTOR, F.S.

(YOUNG MODULUS) To specify the allowable load
Describe the stiffness of material on for a member
normal analysis

2. MODULUS OF RIGIDITY, G 3. POISSON RATIO, v

(SHEAR MODULUS) Relationship between two strain
Describe the stiffness of material
on shear analysis
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 1.5.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL
1. MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OR YOUNG MODULUS, E (Unit: Pa) – normal stress vs normal
strain
• a material property, that describes its stiffness and is therefore one of the most
important properties of solid materials
Hooke’s law states that providing the limit of proportionality
of a material is not exceeded, the stress is directly
proportional to the strain produced as illustrated in slope of
stress-strain diagram.

Hooke’s law; 𝜎∝𝜀 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀

where the constant E is called modulus of elasticity or young

modulus. Unit is N/m2 or Pa.

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 1.5.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL
2. MODULUS OF RIGIDITY OR SHEAR MODULUS, G (Unit: Pa) – shear stress vs shear strain

• a material property, that describes its stiffness and is therefore one of the most
important properties of solid materials
Hooke’s law states that providing the limit of proportionality
of a material is not exceeded, the stress is directly
proportional to the strain produced as illustrated in slope of
stress-strain diagram.
Hooke’s law; 𝜏∝𝛾 𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾
where the constant G is called modulus of rigidity / shear modulus. Unit
is N/m2 or Pa.

Relationship between Elastic 𝐸 E = elastic modulus.

modulus, Shear modulus & G= G = shear modulus.
Poisson Ratio: 2(1 + 𝑣) v = Poisson rotio
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 1.5.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL
3. Poisson Ration, v (Unit: no unit)

• When a deformable body is subjected to an axial tensile force, not

only does it elongate but it also contracts laterally.
• For example, if a rubber band is stretched, it can be noted that
both the thickness and width of the band are decreased. Likewise,
a compressive force acting on a body causes it to contract in the
direction of the force and yet its sides expand laterally

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 1.5.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL
3. Poisson Ration, v (Unit: no unit)

• Thus, Poisson ratio is the ratio between lateral strain (transverse strain) to axial strain
(longitudinal strain)
y-axis 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Poisson ratio, v = =
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝜀𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧
v=− or v=− =−
𝜀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑥
The negative sign is included here since longitudinal elongation (positive
strain) causes lateral contraction (negative strain), and vice versa
z-axis
x-axis Thus;
Lateral strain;

Axial Strain;
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 1.5.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL
4. Factor of Safety, F.S.

• To ensure the safety of a structural or mechanical member, it is necessary to restrict

the applied load to one that is less than the load member can fully support.
• There are many reasons for doing this.
1. The intended measurements of a structure or machine may not be exact, due to
errors in fabrication or in the assembly of its component parts.
2. Unknown vibrations, impact, or accidental loadings can occur that may not be
accounted for in the design.
3. Atmospheric corrosion, decay, or weathering tend to cause materials to deteriorate
during service.
4. Some materials, such as wood, concrete, or fiber-reinforced composites, can show
high variability in mechanical properties.
 1.5.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL
4. Factor of Safety, F.S.

• The load which any member of a machine carries is called working load, and stress
produced by this load is the working stress.
• Obviously, the working stress must be less than the yield stress, tensile strength or the
ultimate stress. This working stress is also called the permissible stress or the
allowable stress or the design stress.
𝜎𝑢𝑙 𝜏𝑢𝑙 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 Review:
𝐹. 𝑆. = = = Ultimate stress - The maximum stress
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 material can take

• For example, the F.S. used in the design of aircraft or spacevehicle components may be close to 1 in order to
reduce the weight of the vehicle. Or, in the case of a nuclear power plant, the factor of safety for some of its
components may be as high as 3 due to uncertainties in loading or material behavior. In many cases, the
factor of safety or the allowable stress for a specific case can be found in design codes and engineering
handbooks.
 EXAMPLE 8: Material’s Behaviour

An aluminum specimen shown has a diameter of

d0 = 25 mm and a gauge length of L0 = 250 mm. If
a force of 165 kN elongates the gauge length 1.20
mm, determine the modulus of elasticity. Also,
determine the diameter of the specimen when the
force causes the specimen starts to contract. Take
Gal = 26 GPa and 𝜎𝑦 = 440 MPa.

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 EXAMPLE 8: Material’s Behaviour
SOLUTION:

1ST step: List all the given information

diameter of d0 = 25 mm, gauge length of L0 = 250 mm, 𝛿 = 1.20𝑚𝑚, G = 26 GPa, yield strength: 𝜎𝑦 = 440 MPa

2nd step: Find E

1. Find Normal Stress;
3. By applying Hooke’s Law equation, find E

2. Find Normal strain;

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 EXAMPLE 8: Material’s Behaviour
SOLUTION:

3rd step: Find contraction deformation, 𝜹𝒅 when F = 165kN is applied

The formula of lateral strain; 2. Find lateral strain, 𝜖𝐿 ;

Why use lateral strain?

1. Find Poisson Ratio;

3. Find contraction deformation , 𝛿𝑑 ;

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 EXAMPLE 9: Material’s Behaviour

Two forces are applied to the bracket BCD as shown.

(a) Knowing that the control rod AB is to be made of a
steel having an ultimate normal stress of 600 MPa,
determine the diameter of the rod for which the
factor of safety with respect to failure will be 3.3.
(b) The pin at C is to be made of a steel having an
ultimate shearing stress of 350 MPa. Determine the
diameter of the pin C for which the factor of safety
with respect to shear will also be 3.3.
(c) Determine the required thickness of the bracket
supports at C knowing that the allowable bearing
stress of the steel used is 300 MPa.

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 EXAMPLE 9: Material’s Behaviour
Solution:
1ST step: Draw Overall FBD and determine the reaction force at P and pin C.

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 EXAMPLE 9: Material’s Behaviour
Solution:
Question (a): having an ultimate normal stress of 600 MPa, determine the diameter of
the rod for which the factor of safety with respect to failure will be 3.3.

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 EXAMPLE 9: Material’s Behaviour
Solution:
Question (b): having an ultimate shearing stress of 350 Mpa, determine the diameter of
the pin C for which the factor of safety with respect to shear will also be 3.3

V V

Double shear;
V = C/2

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 EXAMPLE 9: Material’s Behaviour
Solution:
Question (c): Determine the required thickness of the bracket supports at C knowing that
the allowable bearing stress of the steel used is 300 MPa

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REVIEW CHAPTER 1

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