Lesson 7: Simple Harmonic Motion

1 Introduction to Oscillations

Oscillation (or vibration) is the repetitive variation, typically in time, of some measure
about a point of equilibrium or between two or more different states.

Here are several examples of oscillations:

• Motion of the pendulum of a grandfather's clock
• Vibrating strings of a musical instrument
• Moving pistons in a gasoline engine
• A child playing on a swing
• Vibrations of the quartz crystal in a watch
• Vibration of atoms in a crystal lattice of a solid

An oscillating system, when displaced from its equilibrium position, oscillates about
this position with a frequency characteristic of the system – the natural frequency of
the system. We will confine ourselves to the ideal environment of a world with no
friction or any form of resistance to motion. Then, all oscillations in theory would
continue for the rest of eternity. These oscillations are known as free oscillations.

However, in the real world, a free oscillation is usually subjected to dissipative forces
such as air resistance and friction. The free oscillation will eventually come to rest at
its equilibrium position when its mechanical energy has been expended. This effect
is known as damping (to be discussed in detail later).

If no mechanical energy is lost to the surroundings, the amplitude of the oscillation

will remain constant with time, we get an undamped free oscillation.

An oscillator displaced from the equilibrium position is normally subjected to a

restoring force to direct it back to the equilibrium position.

1.1 Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is an ideal type of periodic motion in which the
particle oscillates about an equilibrium position in a sinusoidal pattern. Each
oscillation is identical, and thus the period, frequency, and amplitude of the motion
are constant.

Here is some terminology for SHM:

Terms Definition
Equilibrium The position at which the net force on the oscillator is zero.
Displacement, 𝑥 The linear distance of the oscillator from its equilibrium
position (𝑥 = 0) in a specific direction at any instant. The +/-
sign tells the direction of displacement from equilibrium. You
may set the direction above equilibrium to be positive; the
direction below is then negative.
 Amplitude, 𝑥0 The maximum displacement of the oscillator from the
equilibrium position.
Period, 𝑇 The time taken for an oscillating object to go through one
complete cycle of oscillation. The unit of period is second.
Frequency, 𝑓 The number of complete cycles made by the oscillating object
per unit time. The unit for frequency is hertz (Hz), i.e. cycle per
second.
Angular The number of oscillations per unit time (frequency) multiplied
frequency, 𝜔 by 2𝜋.
2𝜋
𝜔= = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑇
Its unit is rad/s.

Note: A complete cycle of oscillation is represented by an

angle of 2𝜋 rad. If an object makes a complete loop round a
circle in one second, its angular velocity will be 2𝜋 radians per
second. Similarly, an object in SHM that completes a cycle of
motion in one second has an angular frequency of 2𝜋 rad/s.

1
Similar to circular motion, the period of oscillation can be expressed as 𝑇 = 𝑓 or 𝑇 =
2𝜋
.
𝜔

1.2 Spring-Mass System

The simplest form of oscillation can be represented

by a mass oscillating on the end of a horizontal
spring. Ideally, the mass of the spring is negligible,
the mass slides without friction on the horizontal
surface (undamped) and the spring obeys Hooke’s
Law.

The motion is periodic: the body oscillates about an

equilibrium position in a sinusoidal pattern. Each
oscillation is identical, and thus the period, frequency
and amplitude of the motion are constant.

Whenever the body is displaced from its equilibrium

position, the spring force tends to restore it to the
equilibrium position. Oscillation can occur only when
the there is a restoring force tending to return the
system to equilibrium.

In the figure, if we displace the body to the right to

𝑥 = 𝐴 and let go, the net force and the acceleration
are to the left. The speed increases as the body
approaches the equilibrium position 𝑂.
When the body is at 𝑂 the net force acting on it is zero, but because of its motion it
overshoots the equilibrium position.

On the other side of the equilibrium position the body is still moving to the left, but the
net force and the acceleration are to the right. Therefore, the speed decreases until
the body comes to a stop.

The body then accelerates to the right, overshoots equilibrium again, and stops at
the starting point, ready to repeat the whole process.

We may wish to write down the equation of motion of the system. Using Hooke’s
Law, we know that
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
where the negative sign is due to the fact that for a positive displacement, the force
is in the negative direction. Since this is the only force on the body, we may write
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥
In other words,
𝑘
𝑎 = − 𝑥.
𝑚
The minus sign means that the acceleration and displacement always have opposite
signs. Take note: The acceleration is not constant, so don’t even think about using
the constant acceleration equations from kinematics.

The equation above is the hallmark of simple harmonic motion:

1. The magnitude of the acceleration is proportional to the magnitude of
displacement.
2. The acceleration and displacement are in opposite directions.

1.3 Analogy of SHM to Circular Motion

We shall draw a striking similarity between SHM and circular motion. Consider the
following setup: a horizontal disk of radius 𝐴 has a ball attached to its rim at point 𝑄.
The disk rotates with constant angular speed 𝜔, so that the ball moves in uniform
circular motion. A horizontal light beam shines on the rotating disk and casts a
shadow of the ball on a screen. The shadow at point 𝑃 oscillates back and forth as
the ball moves in a circle.
We compute the acceleration of the shadow of ball on the screen, and show that it
indeed satisfies the two properties of SHM. The 𝑥-coordinate of the point 𝑃 at time 𝑡
is simply the length of the projection of 𝑄 onto the 𝑦-axis, which is
𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃.
The acceleration of 𝑃 is simply the horizontal component of the acceleration of 𝑄.

The magntiude of the acceleration 𝑎𝑄 is constant, and equal to

𝑎𝑄 = 𝜔2 𝐴.
The 𝑥-component of this acceleration is
𝑎𝑥 = −𝑎𝑄 cos 𝜃 = −𝜔2 𝐴 cos 𝜃.
Comparing this to our displacement, we get
𝑎𝑥 = −𝜔2 𝑥.
This means that the acceleration of point 𝑃 is directly proportional to the
displacement 𝑥 and always has the opposite sign!

Now looking back at our spring-mass system with equation of motion

𝑘
𝑎=− 𝑥
𝑚
𝑘
we may draw similarities to this circular motion equation, namely 𝜔2 = 𝑚.

We have been using the same symbol 𝜔 for the angular speed of the reference point
𝑄 and the angular frequency of the oscillating point 𝑃. The reason is that these
quantities are equal! If point 𝑄 makes one complete revolution in time 𝑇, then point 𝑃
goes through one complete cycle of oscillation in the same time, hence 𝑇 is the
period of the oscillation. During time 𝑇, the point 𝑄 moves through 2𝜋 radians, so its
angular speed is 𝜔 = 2𝜋/𝑇, which is also the angular frequency of motion!

Therefore, for a spring-mass system with spring constant 𝑘 and mass 𝑚, the angular
frequency of oscillation is
𝑘
𝜔=√
𝑚
The frequency is equal to
 𝜔 1 𝑘
𝑓= = √
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑚
and the period is equal to
1 2𝜋 𝑚
𝑇= = = 2𝜋√ .
𝑓 𝜔 𝑘

1.4 Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration in SHM

We still need to find the displacement 𝑥 as a function of time for a harmonic

oscillator. Making use of the fact that 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃 describes the coordinate 𝑥 for SHM,
if at 𝑡 = 0 the segment 𝑂𝑄 makes an angle 𝜙 with the positive 𝑥-axis, then at any
later time 𝑡, this angle is 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙. Substituting we obtain
𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
Let’s first take a look at the displacement time graphs for various initial conditions for
an oscillator with angular frequency 𝜔.

Initial Conditions 𝑥 − 𝑡 Graph Equation of

displacement
Oscillator starts 𝑥 = 𝑥0 sin 𝜔𝑡 where 𝑥0 is
at the equilibrium the amplitude
𝑥 = 0 with initial
velocity +𝑣

Oscillator starts 𝑥 = 𝑥0 cos 𝜔𝑡 where 𝑥0 is

at the amplitude the amplitude
𝑥 = 𝑥0 with initial
velocity 0

Oscillator starts 𝑥 = 𝑥0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) where

at displacement 𝜙 is the phase constant
𝑥 = +𝑥 ′ with
initial velocity +𝑣
Note: The sine of cosine function repeats itself after every cycle or after every period
2𝜋
𝑇. As 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 𝑇 , we may express the equation as 𝑥 = 𝑥0 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 or 𝑥 =
2𝜋𝑡
𝑥0 sin 𝑇 .
We may also obtain the velocity and acceleration by differentiating 𝑥 with respect to
𝑡:
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = −𝐴𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= = −𝐴𝜔2 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑡
Note that when the displacement is zero (i.e. cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) = 0), then
sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) = ±1.
This means that the speed is maximum when the displacement is zero. In fact, it is
equal to 𝐴𝜔.

The acceleration is maximum when the particle is at the amplitudes, and the
magnitude of acceleration is 𝐴𝜔2 . This is to be expected as the magnitude of
acceleration is proportional to magnitude of displacement.

Example:
The pendulum bob in a particular clock oscillates so that its displacement from a
fixed point is as shown:

Determine the following quantities:

(a) The amplitude
(b) The period
(c) The frequency
(d) The angular frequency
(e) The displacement-time equation for the graph
(f) The acceleration when the displacement is (i) zero and (ii) at its maximum
(g) Locate the positions where the speed of the pendulum bob is maximum.

Solution:
(a) 0.12 m
(b) 2 s
(c) 0.5 Hz
(d) 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 3.14 rad/s
(e) 𝑥 = 0.12 sin(𝜋𝑡)
(f) When the displacement is zero, the acceleration is zero. When the displacement
is maximum, the acceleration is
𝐴𝜔2 = 0.12𝜋 2 = 1.18 m/s2
(g) The speed of the pendulum bob is maximum when the object has zero
displacement.

Example: The displacement 𝑥 of a body moving in SHM is given by the equation

𝑥 = 3.5 sin 4𝑡.
(a) What is the amplitude of the motion?
(b) What is the angular frequency?
(c) What is the frequency of the motion?
(d) What is the period of the motion?
(e) What will be the displacement 0.2 s after the oscillation is begun?
(f) Find the expression for velocity in terms of time and hence determine the velocity
at time 𝑡 = 0.5 s.
(g) Write an expression of the velocity in terms of displacement 𝑥.

Solution:

(a) 3.5 m
(b) 4 rad/s
𝜔
(c) 𝑓 = 2𝜋 = 0.636 Hz
1
(d) 𝑇 = 𝑓 = 1.57 s
(e) 𝑥(0.2) = 2.5 sin 0.8 = 2.51 m
𝑑𝑥
(f) 𝑑𝑡 = 14 cos 4𝑡, therefore 𝑣(0.5) = −5.8 m/s
(g) 𝑣(𝑡) = 14 cos 4𝑡 and 𝑥 = 3.5 sin 4𝑡. Therefore,
𝑣 2 𝑥 2
( ) +( ) =1
14 3.5
𝑣 2 + 16𝑥 2 = 196
𝑣 = ±√196 − 16𝑥 2 .

1.5 Relationship Between Velocity and Displacement

Consider an object moving in SHM. Without loss of generality, start the time when
the particle is at the origin. Then
𝑥 = 𝑥0 sin 𝜔𝑡.
Rearranging,
𝑥
sin 𝜔𝑡 =
𝑥0
Also, we know that
𝑣 = 𝑥0 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡
2
Substituting cos 𝜔𝑡 = ±√1 − sin 𝜔𝑡, we get
𝑥 2
𝑣 = ±𝑥0 𝜔 1 − sin 𝜔𝑡 = ±𝑥0 𝜔√1 − ( ) = ±𝜔√𝑥02 − 𝑥 2 .
√ 2
𝑥0
Note:
1. 𝑣 = ±𝜔√𝑥02 − 𝑥 2 is true for any initial conditions, i.e. where the object starts from
and how fast it is travelling at the start.
2. The ± sign indicates that the body in SHM always passes through each position
back and forth with the same speed.
3. At the amplitudes, 𝑣 = 0. At equilibrium, the speed is maximum (𝑣 = 𝜔𝑥0 )
4. The 𝑣 − 𝑥 graph is an ellipse.

Example:
Below is the velocity-displacement graph of a particle undergoing SHM.

(a) Read from the graph the maximum value for velocity.
(b) Explain why there are 2 values of velocity for zero displacement.
(c) Explain why there are two values of displacement for zero velocity.
(d) State the equation which describes the graph.

Solution:
(a) The maximum value of speed is 0.9 m/s.
(b) The particle might be moving left or right.
(c) Zero velocity occurs at both amplitudes.
𝑣 2 𝑥 2
(d) (0.9) + (0.003) = 1
Therefore,
𝑣 2 + (300𝑥)2 = 0.81
𝑣 = 0.9√1 − (300𝑥)2

Example:
An object moving with simple harmonic motion has an amplitude of 0.02 m and a
frequency of 20 Hz. Calculate
(a) The period of oscillation
(b) The acceleration at the equilibrium point and the negative amplitude
(c) The velocity at the equilibrium point and the negative amplitude

Solution:
(a)
1
𝑇= = 0.05 s
𝑓
(b) The angular velocity is 2𝜋𝑓 = 126 rad/s. The acceleration at the equilibrium point
is zero since 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥. At the negative amplitude,
𝑎 = −(126)2 (0.02) = 316 m/s2
(c) The velocity at the equilibrium point is 𝑣 = ±𝜔𝑥0 = ±(0.02)(126) = ±2.52 m/s.
The velocity at the amplitude is zero.

1.6 Oscillations of Simple Systems

At this point, we shall consider the period and angular frequency of oscillation of
simple systems. For a spring-mass system, we already know that
𝑘 𝑚
𝜔=√ , 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑚 𝑘
where 𝑘 is the spring constant of the spring, and 𝑇 is the period.

What happens now when we suspend the spring vertically?

Suppose the spring has natural length 𝑙0 and spring constant 𝑘 and is secured to a
fixed ceiling. When we suspend a mass 𝑚 from its lower end, the spring extends by
some length to provide a spring force with magnitude equal to 𝑚𝑔. Namely, if the
spring extends to a length 𝑙, then
𝑘(𝑙 − 𝑙0 ) = 𝑚𝑔
Therefore, the new length of the spring is
𝑚𝑔
𝑙 = 𝑙0 + .
𝑘
This is our equilibrium position. Now suppose we pull the spring down by a distance
𝑦. The new spring length is 𝑙 + 𝑦, therefore the new spring extension is 𝑙 + 𝑦 − 𝑙0,
and the spring force acting on the mass is
𝐹𝑠 = 𝑘(𝑙 + 𝑦 − 𝑙0 )
Using Newton’s 2nd Law, we have
𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝐹𝑠 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑘 ( + 𝑦) = −𝑘𝑦
𝑘
Hence,
𝑘
𝑎=− 𝑦
𝑚
which is the same equation for simple harmonic motion! Surprisingly, the
gravitational field strength did not affect the angular frequency of oscillations, and it
𝑘
is still equal to 𝜔 = √𝑚.
Now let’s take a look at the period of a simple pendulum.

Suppose the string is of length 𝐿, the mass at the end is 𝑚, and the string is angled 𝜃
to the vertical.

We calculate the angular frequency of oscillations of the pendulum, by writing down

the equation of motion for the pendulum.

The torque due to gravity is 𝑚𝑔𝐿 sin 𝜃, while the moment of inertia of the pendulum
bob about the pivot is 𝑚𝐿2 . Therefore,
𝑚𝑔𝐿 sin 𝜃 𝑔
𝛼=− 2
= − sin 𝜃
𝑚𝐿 𝐿
At small angles 𝜃, we may approximate sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃, whence
𝑔
𝛼 = − 𝜃.
𝐿
This is analogous to the motion of the spring-mass system, but this time in angular
quantities. Therefore,
𝑔 2𝜋 𝐿
𝜔=√ , 𝑇= = 2𝜋√ .
𝐿 𝜔 𝑔
We may also derive the above equation in another way. Since the angle is small, we
may assume that the mass oscillates horizontally. The tangential component of the
force is 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃, therefore the acceleration is 𝑎 = 𝑔 sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝑔𝜃.

At angle 𝜃, the displacement of the mass from equilibrium is 𝑥 = 𝐿 sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝐿𝜃.

Therefore,
𝑔
𝑎=− 𝑥
𝐿
𝑔
and the angular frequency of oscillations is once again 𝜔 = √𝐿 .

For a physical pendulum, we may generalise the above analysis to a body with
moment of inertia 𝐼 about the pivot, with its CM a distance 𝑑. Then
𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔𝑑 sin 𝜃 ≈ −𝑚𝑔𝑑𝜃.
Therefore,
 𝑚𝑔𝑑
𝛼=− 𝜃
𝐼
and the angular frequency is
𝑚𝑔𝑑
𝜔=√ .
𝐼

What happens when the angle of oscillation is large?

Example: (HKPO 2014) In comparison of a pendulum with large‐angle oscillations

(period 𝑇𝐿 and amplitude 𝐴𝐿 , maximum tension in the string 𝐹𝐿 ) to a pendulum with
small‐angle oscillations (period 𝑇𝑆 and amplitude 𝐴𝑆 , maximum tension in the string
𝐹𝑆 ), which of the following is true?
(A) 𝑇𝐿 > 𝑇𝑆 and 𝐹𝐿 < 𝐹𝑆
(B) 𝑇𝐿 < 𝑇𝑆 and 𝐹𝐿 > 𝐹𝑆
(C) 𝑇𝐿 > 𝑇𝑆 and 𝐹𝐿 > 𝐹𝑆
(D) 𝑇𝐿 < 𝑇𝑆 and 𝐹𝐿 < 𝐹𝑆
(E) 𝑇𝐿 = 𝑇𝑆 and 𝐹𝐿 = 𝐹𝑆

Solution:
For large angle oscillation, the equation of motion becomes nonlinear, and the
approximation sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 now no longer holds. The restoring force is proportional to
sin 𝜃, rather than 𝜃, therefore its magnitude is less than in the case of SHM. A
weaker restoring force also results in slower oscillation, that is, the period becomes
longer (𝑇𝐿 > 𝑇𝑆 ).

As for the tension in the string, the maximum tension in the string occurs at the
𝑚𝑣 2
bottommost point of the oscillation, and this is equal to 𝑚𝑔 + 𝐿 where 𝑣 is the
speed at the bottom. Since this is higher for large-angle oscillations than small-angle
oscillations, therefore 𝐹𝐿 > 𝐹𝑆 .

1.7 Energy in SHM

For a body moving in SHM, the total mechanical energy is conserved. As the mass
oscillates back and forth, the energy continuously transforms from potential energy
to kinetic energy and back again.

As the oscillator passes through its equilibrium position, its speed and hence its
kinetic energy are maximum, while at the maximum displacement, the speed and
hence the kinetic energy are both zero. The potential energy will be a maximum
when the speed is zero and vice versa. Assume that there is no friction or air drag,
the total energy 𝐸 of the oscillator must remain constant.
Note that the energy in the system changes from potential to kinetic and back every
half a cycle. Also, at any displacement from equilibrium, the velocity 𝑣 is given by
𝑣 = ±𝜔√𝑥02 − 𝑥 2 .
1
Since kinetic energy is 𝐾 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 , we have
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝜔2 (𝑥02 − 𝑥 2 )
2
which is the graph of an inverted parabola.

At equilibrium, the velocity is a maximum, thus the kinetic energy is maximum and
potential energy is zero. The total energy is
𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 = 𝐸𝑘,𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 0.
Since 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔𝑥0 , we have
1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥02
2
In fact, the sum of the kinetic and potential energy is always constant, i.e.
independent of time. At any position, kinetic energy and potential energy is always a
constant.

We may deduce that the total energy of SHM is perpendicular to the square of its
amplitude:
𝐸 ∝ 𝑥02 .

The potential energy 𝑈 at any displacement is equal to

1 1 1
𝑈 = 𝐸 − 𝐾 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥02 − 𝑚𝜔2 (𝑥02 − 𝑥 2 ) = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 2 .
2 2 2
2 𝑘
Previously, we learnt that the spring-mass system has 𝜔 = 𝑚, therefore
1
𝑈 = 𝑘𝑥 2
2
which matches up with our understanding of how springs work.

Now, let’s look at energy against time.

The energy-time graphs depend on how the oscillation is started. Again, without the
actual equations, the shapes of the energy-time graph can be deduced by observing
a swinging pendulum or oscillating mass spring.

For example, consider an oscillator started from its equilibrium position (𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 0,

𝑣 = 𝑣0 ) so that its displacement and velocity are
𝑥 = 𝑥0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜔𝑡

Note: When the oscillatory motion has completed one cycle in one period, both
kinetic energy and potential energies have gone through two cycles.

Example:
A mass 𝑚 = 0.5 kg is connected to a light spring with a spring constant 𝑘 = 20 N/m,
and oscillates on a frictionless horizontal surface.

(a) Calculate the maximum speed of the mass and hence the total energy of the
system if the amplitude of the motion is 3.0 cm.
(b) What is the velocity of the mass when the displacement is 2.0 cm?
(c) Compute the KE and PE of the system when the displacement is 2.0 cm.

Solution:
(a) The maximum speed is
𝑘 20
𝑣0 = 𝜔𝑥0 = √ 𝑥0 = √ (3.0) = 19.0 cm/s.
𝑚 0.5
(b) The velocity of the mass is
20
𝑣 = 𝜔√𝑥02 − 𝑥 2 = √ √3.02 − 2.02 = 14.1 cm/s
0.5
(c) The kinetic energy is
1 1
𝑚𝑣 2 = (0.5)(0.141)2 = 0.005 J
2 2
The potential energy is
1 2 1
𝑘𝑥 = (20)(0.02)2 = 0.004 J
2 2
2 Damped Oscillations and Forced Oscillations

2.1 Damped Oscillations

In an ideal oscillating system, there is no friction and the total mechanical energy is
constant. The system in simple harmonic motion continues forever, with no decrease
in amplitude.

Real-world systems experience inevitable friction, and the mechanical energy of

oscillations decreases with time due to the work done against friction. For instance, a
simple pendulum gradually decreases in amplitude and stops eventually due to air
resistance and friction at the support.

The progressive decrease in amplitude of any oscillatory motion caused by

dissipative forces (e.g. friction at joints, air resistance, etc) is called damping. Such
an oscillatory motion is known as a damped oscillation. Due to damping, pendulum
clocks require energy (wound up spring or batteries) to replenish energy loss due to
damping in order for its amplitude to remain constant.

There are also situations in which damping is introduced to reduce the amplitude of
oscillation or bring the oscillation to rest.

a) Using air resistance — e.g. To bring an oscillating spring mass to rest faster,
attach to the base of the mass-spring a piece of cardboard of negligible mass but
large surface area. The increase in air resistance effectively increases damping
during oscillation.
b) Using fluid viscosity — e.g. Damping can also be increased by oscillating the
mass-spring immersed in water or oil.
c) Eddy current — e.g. When a copper plate swinging freely passes through a
magnetic field, eddy currents induced in the plate will oppose the motion and
bring the plate to a stop.
2.2 Extent of Damping

Damping changes the behaviour of SHM systems. Some oscillating features like
amplitude period of oscillation are dependent on the degree of damping. In general,
the heavier the damping. the sooner the amplitude of the oscillation will reduce in
size.

(1) Light Damping (underdamped system)

As the system oscillates against resistive forces, the amplitude decreases with the
same proportion after each cycle. (air: around 10%, water: around 40%) The system
usually stops oscillating only after a large number of oscillations.

Note:
• Careful measurement and computation of the period shows that it is slightly more
than the 'undamped' value.
• Exponential decay of the amplitude implies that:
a) Rate of decay of maximum amplitude A is proportional to present value of A.
b) Large amplitude implies high maximum velocity, which implies greater drag.
c) Recall that the total energy of an oscillator ∝ (amplitude)2, thus when the
amplitude has decayed to ½ its original value, the energy has been reduced
to ¼ of the original input.

(2) Critical Damping (critically damped system)

With larger resistive force introduced, critical damping is achieved: the system, when
displaced, returns to the equilibrium position in the minimum time without
overshooting; i.e. it gets to equilibrium in the minimum time without oscillating at all.

Example: A door with a correctly tuned damper, will take the shortest time to close
(return to equilibrium when it is displaced and released).

(3) Heavy Damping (Overdamped system)

The damping force is increased beyond the point of critical damping. Once displaced
from equilibrium, the oscillator takes a long time to return to its equilibrium position.

Example: An over-damped door-closer will take longer to close. A car fuel gauge
indicator has an over-damped pointer to counteract the movement of petrol in the
fuel tank as the car accelerates, decelerates, and changes direction. This over-
damping results in the pointer giving a reasonable indication of the contents of the
tank, despite all this movement.

2.3 Critical Damping and its Importance

Critical damping is an important feature in instruments such as balances, ammeters

and voltmeters. The pointer is critically damped so that it stops in the shortest
possible time to indicate the reading, instead of oscillating about the reading
(underdamped) or take an unnecessarily long time to crawl to the reading
(overdamped).
Example: Car Suspension System

The suspension system of a car should ensure a comfortable ride for passengers
when the car moves on a bumpy road.

One method to damp oscillations in the springs of a suspension system of a car is to

use oil dampers as shock absorbers, as shown in the figure. The oscillatory motion is
slowed down by the flow of oil through valves in the piston dampers.

If the system is over-damped, the car may jolt uncomfortably every time the car goes
over a bump in the road. It is not able to cushion the next shock effectively as it
would be too slow in returning to equilibrium before the next bump. Moreover,
overstretching or over-compressing of the springs will damage the suspension
system.

A good suspension system is one which is critically damped or slightly underdamped

so that the car will respond quickly to consecutive bumps.

When the dampers wear out, the system will become more underdamped. In other
words, after passing a bump, the car would be bouncing up and down before it stops
oscillating.

2.4 Forced Oscillation and Resonance

Hit anything and it will vibrate. The amazing thing is that every time you hit it, it will
vibrate with exactly the same frequency, no matter how hard you hit it. The
frequency which has been allowed to oscillate on its own, is called the natural
frequency, 𝑓0 .

In order to keep it vibrating after you've hit it, you need to keep re-hitting it
periodically to make up for the energy being lost. In other words, you need to apply a
periodic force to it. An oscillation under the influence of an external periodic force is
called a forced oscillation.

The frequency with which the periodic force is applied is called the forced
frequency or driver frequency.
Practical examples of forced oscillations and resonance

Another typical example of forced oscillation is pushing a child on a swing in the

playground; we need to continually give the swing a push at the right moment to
sustain its oscillation.ln fact, the swing can be forced to oscillate at any frequency
using an external periodic force. From our experience, we can cause the swing to go
very high and maintain at its largest amplitude only if we oscillate the swing at a
particular frequency.

That frequency you applied to reach the maximum amplitude is in fact the natural
frequency of the swing, at which energy is transferred most efficiently from you (the
driving system) to the swing (the driven system). This particular frequency is also
known as the resonant frequency.

However, the child will not keep increasing energy until he swings over the top, as
there is energy constantly taken away by damping in each cycle.

Resonance is a phenomenon in which an oscillatory system responds with

maximum amplitude to an external periodic force, when the driving frequency equals
the natural frequency of the driven system.

We may look at the frequency responces of a driven system which are damped to
various extents. The amplitude of a lightly damped system is very large at resonance
and the peak is sharp. The amplitude drops off rapidly when the driving frequency
differs from the natural frequency of the system.

As the system becomes more heavily damped:

• The amplitude of oscillation decreases
• The resonance peak becomes broader
• The resonance peak shifts slightly to the left to a slightly lower value of the
natural frequency

2.5 Examples of Destructive Resonance

1) Collapse of buildings in Earthquake

An earthquake consists of many low-frequency vibrations range from 1 to 10 Hz.
During an earthquake. when the frequencies of the vibration match with the
natural frequencies of buildings. resonance may occur and result in serious
damages. That also explains why some buildings collapse while others stand
almost unaffected. In regions of the world where earthquakes happen regularly,
buildings may be built on foundations that absorb the energy of the shock waves.
In this way, the vibrations are damped and the amplitude of the oscillations
cannot reach a dangerous level.

Harbour resonance is a chaotic and highly destructive tsunami side effect

created when waves continuously reflect and bounce off of the edges of a
harbour or bay. Harbour resonance can cause the amplification of circulating
wave heights and even increase the duration of the wave activity within the area.

2) Shattering Glass with Sound

When an opera singer projects a high-pitched note whose frequency matches the
natural frequency of a wine glass, the resonance may cause the glass to vibrate
at so large an amplitude that it breaks.

3) Violent Vibrations in Vehicles and Machines

If the panel in a bus rattles violently when the bus is travelling at a certain speed,
it is likely that a resonant vibration is occurring. A washing machine with an
unbalanced load which has natural frequency matching the spinning frequency
will get violent vibrations as resonance occurs.

4) Collapse of a Suspension Bridge due to Periodic cross-wind

The Tacoma Narrows suspension bridge collapsed in high wind in the 1940s, due
to insufficient damping built into its design. The high wind across a suspension
bridge forced the structure to vibrate at its natural frequency. Subsequently,
resonance occurred, resulting in dramatic increase in amplitude that became
large enough to cause the structure to collapse.
2.6 Examples of Useful Resonance

1) Radio Receptions
Resonance not only occurs in mechanical oscillatinos but also in electrical
circuits. A radio receiver works on the principle of resonance. Our air is filled with
radio waves of many different frequencies which the aerial picks up. The tuner
can be adjusted so that the frequency of the electrical oscillations in the circuits is
the same as that of the radio wave transmitted from a particular station we desire.
The effect of resonance amplifies the signals contained in this wave while the
raido waves of other frequencies are diminished.

2) Microwave Cooking
In a microwave oven, microwaves with a frequency similar to the natural
frequency of vibration of water molecules are used. When food containing water
molecules is placed in the oven and radiated by microwave, the water molecules
resonate, absorb energy from the microwaves and get heated up. This absorbed
energy then spreads through the food and cooks it. The plastic or glass
containers do not heat up as much since they do not contain water molecules.

3) Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is increasingly used in medical diagnosis to
produce images similar to those produced by X-rays. Strong electromagnetic
fields of varying radio frequencies are used to cause oscillations in atomic nuclei.
When resonance occurs, energy is absorbed by the molecules. By analysing the
pattern of energy absorption, a computer-generated image can be produced. The
advantage of an MRI scanner is that no ionising radiation (as in the process of
producing X-ray images) is involved.