Commerclal AnLaclds

lL ls my foremosL duLy Lo express my deep regards graLlLude Lo my ChemlsLry Leacher M8S CAu8l
MASP8u under whose guldance supervlslon l am able Lo underLake Lhls pro[ecL lL ls her who has
been my prlmary source of lnsplraLlon and who moLlvaLed gulded and encouraged me aL dlfferenL
sLages Lo make Lhls pro[ecL

l am also Lhankful for Lhe help rendered by Lhe lab asslsLanL who made avallable Lhe varlous apparaLus
and chemlcals needed for Lhe experlmenLs else lL would have been a dlfflculL Lask Lo perform Lhls
pro[ecL successfully

v ACknCWLLuCLMLn1 (l)

v An1ACluS 1

v AC1lCn MLCPAnlSM 1

v lnulCA1lCnS 1

v SluL LllLC1S 1 2

v SCML MC8L SluL LllLC1S 2 3

v P?L8AClul1? 3 4

v SCML lAMCuS An1AClu 88AnuS 4 3

v u8uC nAMLS 3

v SCML CCMMCnL? uSLu An1ACluS 6
ALuMlnluM P?u8CxluL 6 7
MACnLSluM P?u8CxluL 8 9
CALCluM CA88CnA1L 10 13
SCuluM 8lCA88CnA1L 14 16
8lSMu1P Su8SALlC?LA1L 17 18

v lnvLS1lCA1C8? LxL8lMLn1 19 21

v 8l8LCC8AP? (ll)









An1ACluS

An AnLacld ls any subsLance generally a base or baslc salL whlch neuLrallzes sLomach acldlLy 1hey are
used Lo relleve acld lndlgesLlon upseL sLomach sour sLomach and hearLburn

AC1lCn MLCPAnlSM

AnLaclds perform a neuLrallzaLlon reacLlon le Lhey buffer gasLrlc acld ralslng Lhe pP Lo reduce acldlLy
ln Lhe sLomach When gasLrlc hydrochlorlc acld reaches Lhe nerves ln Lhe gasLrolnLesLlnal mucosa Lhey
slgnal paln Lo Lhe cenLral nervous sysLem 1hls happens when Lhese nerves are exposed as ln pepLlc
ulcers 1he gasLrlc acld may also reach ulcers ln Lhe esophagus or Lhe duodenum

CLher mechanlsms may conLrlbuLe such as Lhe effecL of alumlnlum lons lnhlblLlng smooLh muscle cell
conLracLlon and delaylng gasLrlc empLylng

lnulCA1lCnS

AnLaclds are Laken by mouLh Lo relleve hearLburn Lhe ma[or sympLom of gasLro esophageal reflux
dlsease or acld lndlgesLlon 1reaLmenL wlLh anLaclds alone ls sympLomaLlc and only [usLlfled for mlnor
sympLoms epLlc ulcers may requlre P2recepLor anLagonlsLs or proLon pump lnhlblLors

1he uLlllLy of many comblnaLlons of anLaclds ls noL clear alLhough Lhe comblnaLlon of magneslum and
alumlnlum salLs may prevenL alLeraLlon of bowel hablLs

SluL LllLC1S

Lxcess calclum from supplemenLs forLlfled food and hlghcalclum dleLs can cause Lhe mllkalkall
syndrome whlch has serlous LoxlclLy and can be faLal ln 1913 8erLram Slppy lnLroduced Lhe Slppy
reglmen" of hourly lngesLlon of mllk and cream Lhe gradual addlLlon of eggs and cooked cereal for 10
days comblned wlLh alkallne powders whlch provlded sympLomaLlc rellef for pepLlc ulcer dlsease Cver
Lhe nexL several decades Lhe Slppy reglmen resulLed ln renal fallure alkalosls and hypercalemla mosLly
ln men wlLh pepLlc ulcer dlsease 1hese adverse effecLs were reversed when Lhe reglmen sLopped buL lL
was faLal ln some paLlenLs wlLh proLracLed vomlLlng Mllk alkall syndrome decllned ln men afLer effecLlve
LreaLmenLs were developed for pepLlc ulcer dlsease 8uL durlng Lhe pasL 13 years lL has been reporLed
ln women Laklng calclum supplemenLs above Lhe recommended range of 1200 Lo 1300 mg dally for
prevenLlon and LreaLmenL of osLeoporosls and ls exacerbaLed by dehydraLlon Calclum has been added
Lo overLhecounLer producLs whlch conLrlbuLes Lo lnadverLenL excesslve lnLake

1he new Lngland !ournal of Medlclne reporLed a Lyplcal case of a woman who arrlved ln Lhe emergency
deparLmenL vomlLlng and alLered menLal sLaLus wrlLhlng ln paln She had consumed large quanLlLles of
chewable anLacld LableLs conLalnlng calclum carbonaLe (1ums) She gradually recovered1

Compounds conLalnlng calclum may also lncrease calclum ouLpuL ln Lhe urlne whlch mlghL be
assoclaLed wlLh kldney sLones2 Calclum salLs may cause consLlpaLlon

CLher adverse effecLs from anLaclds lnclude
1 CarbonaLe 8egular hlgh doses may cause alkalosls whlch ln Lurn may resulL ln alLered excreLlon of
oLher drugs and kldney sLones A chemlcal reacLlon beLween Lhe carbonaLe and hydrochlorlc acld may
produce carbon dloxlde gas 1hls causes gasLrlc dlsLenslon whlch may noL be well LoleraLed Carbon
dloxlde formaLlon can also lead Lo headaches and decreased muscle flexlblllLy
2 Alumlnum hydroxlde May lead Lo Lhe formaLlon of lnsoluble alumlnlumphosphaLecomplexes wlLh
a rlsk for hypophosphaLemla and osLeomalacla AlLhough alumlnlum has a low gasLrolnLesLlnal
absorpLlon accumulaLlon may occur ln Lhe presence of renal lnsufflclency AlumlnlumconLalnlng drugs
may cause consLlpaLlon
3 Magneslum hydroxlde Pas laxaLlve properLles Magneslum may accumulaLe ln paLlenLs wlLh renal
fallure leadlng Lo hypermagnesemla wlLh cardlovascular and neurologlcal compllcaLlons See Mllk of
magnesla
4 Sodlum lncreased lnLake of sodlum may be deleLerlous for arLerlal hyperLenslon hearL fallure and
many renal dlseases

SCML MC8L SluL LllLC1S

lorLunaLely because acld reflux ls such a common problem anLaclds are among Lhe medlclnes avallable
and free of slde effecLs for mosL people Slde effecLs from anLaclds vary dependlng on lndlvldual and
oLher medlcaLlons Lhey may be Laklng aL Lhe Llme 1hose who experlence slde effecLs mosL commonly
suffer from changes ln bowel funcLlons such as dlarrhea consLlpaLlon or flaLulence

AlLhough reacLlons Lo any drug may vary from person Lo person generally Lhose medlcaLlons LhaL
conLaln alumlnum or calclum are Lhe llkellesL Lo cause consLlpaLlon Lhose LhaL conLaln magneslum are
Lhe llkellesL Lo cause dlarrhea Some producLs comblne Lhese lngredlenLs whlch essenLlally cancels Lhem
ouL Lo foresLall unpleasanL slde effecLs

ln general people wlLh kldney problems should probably noL Lake anLaclds as Lhls can someLlmes cause
a condlLlon known as alkalosls ln oLher people slde effecLs may occur lf subsLances such as salL sugar
or asplrln are added Lo a parLlcular medlcaLlon As wlLh all medlcaLlons always carefully read Lhe
producL label on Lhe package and check wlLh your docLor or pharmaclsL lf you have any quesLlon abouL
poLenLlal drug lnLeracLlons or slde effecLs

Some slde effecLs such as consLlpaLlon and dlarrhea are falrly obvlous CLher more serlous slde effecLs
such as sLomach or lnLesLlnal bleedlng can be more dlfflculL Lo recognlze ln general any slgn of blood
ln Lhe sLool or Lhe presence of vomlLlng ls a danger slgn and should be broughL Lo Lhe lmmedlaLe
aLLenLlon of a physlclan

lf your sympLoms perslsL for more Lhan 10 days Lo Lwo weeks whlle you are uslng Lhe medlcaLlon you
should sLop Laklng lL and consulL your docLor erslsLenL sympLoms may lndlcaLe LhaL you have more a
serlous problem Lhan occaslonal acld reflux regnanL or nurslng baby should always consulL your docLor
before Laklng Lhls medlcaLlon Cenerally you should noL glve Lhese medlcaLlons Lo chlldren under Lhe
age of 12 unless under Lhe advlce and supervlslon of your docLor or Lhe package label has lndlcaLed LhaL
Lhe producL ls safe for young chlldren ConsLanL use of anLaclds leads Lo a condlLlon called acld rebound
where Lhe sLomach beglns Lo over secreLe acld ln order Lo make up for Lhe quanLlLy LhaL ls belng
neuLrallzed

P?L8AClul1? CAuSL lC8 ln1AkL Cl An1ACluS

PyperacldlLy or acld dyspepsla slmply means lncrease of acldlLy ln Lhe sLomach 1he human sLomach
secreLes hydrochlorlc acld whlch ls necessary for Lhe dlgesLlon of food When Lhe sLomach conLalns an
excesslve amounL of hydrochlorlc acld Lhen Lhe condlLlon ls called as hyperacldlLy or acld dyspepsla

SomeLlmes hyperacldlLy ls confused for a slmple bellyache 1hls ls because people wlLh hyperacldlLy
usually generally geL palns ln Lhelr sLomachs wlLh slmllar sympLoms as bellyaches 1hls confuslon ls more
rampanL ln chlldren who cannoL dlfferenLlaLe beLween dlfferenL klnds of sLomach allmenLs Powever
hyperacldlLy can be found ouL wlLh Lhe sour belchlng and afLerLasLe of Lhe already eaLen food ln Lhe
mouLh

1he prlme medlcal facLors of hyperacldlLy or acld dyspepsla are as follows (l) SLomach ulcers ulcers ln
Lhe sLomach are one of Lhe prlme causes of

hyperacldlLy Cnce Lhls ls dlagnosed Lhe LreaLmenL wlll be done by Lhe surglcal removal of Lhe sLomach
ulcers

(ll) Acld 8eflux ulsease Some people have a gasLrlc dlsorder called as Lhe acld reflux dlsease ln Lhls
condlLlon Lhe aclds of Lhe sLomach le gasLrlc aclds or hydrochlorlc acld geL refluxed up Lo Lhe food
plpe whlch ls blologlcally called as Lhe esophagus When Lhls happens lL bullds up Lhe level of acldlLy ln
Lhe sLomach

(lll) SLomach Cancers SLomach cancers can also cause hyperacldlLy as one of Lhelr sympLoms 1hls ls a
very rare case buL Lhe morLallLy raLe ls qulLe hlgh Pence a hyperacldlLy LhaL lasLs more Lhan Lwo weeks
musL be lmmedlaLely shown Lo Lhe docLor and goL checked for any cancer A Llmely dlagnosls can enable
compleLe LreaLmenL of Lhe dlsease

S?M1CMS Cl P?L8AClul1?

PyperacldlLy sympLoms are observed a couple of hours afLer eaLlng when Lhe food has been dlgesLed
and sLlll excess aclds are lefL wlLhln Lhe sLomach AL Lhls sLage Lhe followlng sympLoms are seen
1 A Lyplcal feellng of resLlessness
2 leellng of nausea (wanLlng Lo Lhrow up) and acLual vomlLlng
3 Sour belchlng wlLh an afLerLasLe of Lhe alreadyeaLen food
4 SLlffness ln Lhe sLomach whlch ls called as aLonlc dyspepsla
3 Lack of deslre for any oLher Lype of food
6 lndlgesLlon
7 ConsLlpaLlon

ln1L8AC1lCnS

AlLered pP or complex formaLlon may alLer Lhe bloavallablllLy of oLher drugs such as LeLracycllne
urlnary excreLlon of cerLaln drugs may also be affecLed

8C8LLMS Wl1P 8LuuCLu S1CMACP AClul1?

8educed sLomach acldlLy may resulL ln an lmpalred ablllLy Lo dlgesL and absorb cerLaln nuLrlenLs such as
lron and Lhe 8 vlLamlns Slnce Lhe low pP of Lhe sLomach normally kllls lngesLed bacLerla anLaclds
lncrease Lhe vulnerablllLy Lo lnfecLlon lL could also resulL ln reduced bloavallablllLy of some drugs lor
example Lhe bloavallablllLy of keLoconazole (anLlfungal) ls reduced aL hlgh lnLragasLrlc pP (low acld
conLenL)

SCML lAMCuS An1AClu 88AnuS
1 AlkaSelLzer naPCC3 and/or kPCC3
2 LquaLe Al(CP)3 and Mg(CP)2
3 Cavlscon Al(CP)3
4 Maalox (llquld) Al(CP)3 and Mg(CP)2
3 Maalox (LableL) CaCC3
6 Mllk of Magnesla Mg(CP)2
7 epLo8lsmol PCC6P4CCC
8 epLo8lsmol Chlldren's CaCC3
9 8olalds CaCC3 and Mg(CP)2

10 1ums CaCC3

11 MylanLa

u8uC nAMLS

Some drugs used as anLaclds are
1 Alumlnlum hydroxlde
2 Magneslum hydroxlde
3 Calclum carbonaLe
4 Sodlum blcarbonaLe
3 8lsmuLh subsallcylaLe
6 PlsLamlne
7 ClmeLldlne
8 8anlLldlne
9 Cmeprazole

10 Lansoprazole

SCML lMC81An1 CCMMCnL? uSLu An1ACluS

1ALuMlnluM P?u8CxluL


Alumlnlum hydroxlde Al(CP)3 Alum ls Lhe mosL sLable form of alumlnlum ln normal condlLlons lL ls
found ln naLure as Lhe mlneral glbbslLe (also known as hydrargllllLe) and lLs Lhree much more rare
polymorphs bayerlLe doylelLe and nordsLrandlLe Closely relaLed are alumlnlum oxlde hydroxlde
AlC(CP) and alumlnlum oxlde Al2C3 dlfferlng only by loss of waLer 1hese compounds LogeLher are
Lhe ma[or componenLs of Lhe alumlnlum ore bauxlLe lreshly preclplLaLed alumlnlum hydroxlde forms
gels whlch ls Lhe basls for appllcaLlon of alumlnlum salLs as flocculanLs ln waLer purlflcaLlon 1hls gel
crysLalllzes wlLh Llme Alumlnlum hydroxlde gels can be dehydraLed (eg wlLh Lhe uLlllLy of waLer
mlsclble nonaqueous solvenLs llke eLhanol) Lo form an amorphous alumlnlum hydroxlde powder whlch
ls readlly soluble ln aclds PeaLdrled alumlnlum hydroxlde powder ls known as acLlvaLed alumlna and ls
used ln gas purlflcaLlon as a caLalysL supporL and an abraslve

8CuuC1lCn

8auxlLes are heaLed ln pressure vessels wlLh sodlum hydroxlde soluLlon aL 130200 C Lhrough whlch
alumlnlum ls dlssolved as alumlnaLe (8ayer process) AfLer separaLlon of ferruglnous resldue (red mud)
by fllLerlng pure glbbslLe ls preclplLaLed when Lhe llquld ls cooled and seeded wlLh flne gralned
alumlnlum hydroxlde 1he alumlnlum hydroxlde ls furLher calclned Lo glve alumlna whlch may be
smelLed ln Lhe PallPeroulL process ln order Lo produce alumlnlum

CPLMlS18?

ClbbslLe has a Lyplcal meLal hydroxlde sLrucLure wlLh hydrogen bonds lL ls bullL up of double layers of
hydroxyl groups wlLh alumlnlum lons occupylng LwoLhlrds of Lhe ocLahedral holes beLween Lhe Lwo
layers

Alumlnlum hydroxlde ls amphoLerlc lL dlssolves ln acld formlng Al(P2C)63+ (hexaaquaalumlnaLe) or lLs
hydrolysls producLs lL also dlssolves ln sLrong alkall formlng Al(CP)4 (LeLrahydroxoalumlnaLe)

PA8MACCLCC?

harmacologlcally Lhls compound ls used as an anLacld under names such as AluCap Aludrox or
epsamar 1he hydroxlde reacLs wlLh excess acld ln Lhe sLomach reduclng lLs acldlLy 1hls decrease of
acldlLy of Lhe conLenLs of Lhe sLomach may ln Lurn help Lo relleve Lhe sympLoms of ulcers hearLburn or
dyspepsla lL can also cause consLlpaLlon and ls Lherefore ofLen used wlLh magneslum hydroxlde or
magneslum carbonaLe whlch have counLerbalanclng laxaLlve effecLs 1hls compound ls also used Lo
conLrol phosphaLe (phosphorus) levels ln Lhe blood of people sufferlng from kldney fallure

Alumlnlum hydroxlde alum ls lncluded as an ad[uvanL ln some vacclnes (eg Alhydrogel AnLhrax
vacclne) slnce lL appears Lo conLrlbuLe Lo lnducLlon of a good anLlbody (1h2) response lLs
pharmacologlcal acLlon ls noL known Powever lL has llLLle capaclLy Lo sLlmulaLe cellular (1h1) lmmune
responses lmporLanL for proLecLlon agalnsL many paLhogens

8ecause Lhe braln leslons found ln Alzhelmer's dlsease someLlmes conLaln Lraces of alumlnlum Lhere ls
concern LhaL consumpLlon of excess alumlnlum compounds may cause or conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe
developmenL of Lhls and oLher neurodegeneraLlve dlseases Powever mulLlple epldemlologlcal sLudles
have found no connecLlon beLween exposure Lo alumlnlum and neurologlcal dlsorders

ln addlLlon elevaLed alumlnlum levels ln blood resulLlng from kldney dlalysls wlLh well waLer conLalnlng
hlgh alumlnlum may resulL ln demenLla LhaL ls slmllar Lo buL probably dlfferenL from LhaL of Alzhelmer's
dlsease Powever Lhls hypoLhesls ls conLroverslal

ln 2007 LesLs wlLh mlce of Lhe anLhrax vacclne uslng alumlnlum hydroxlde ad[uvanL were reporLed as
resulLlng ln adverse neuropaLhy sympLoms

uSL AS A ll8L 8L1A8uAn1

Alumlnlum hydroxlde also flnds use as a flre reLardanL flller for polymer appllcaLlons ln a slmllar way Lo
magneslum hydroxlde and hydromagneslLe lL decomposes aL abouL 180 C glvlng off waLer vapour

2MACnLSluM P?u8CxluL


Magneslum hydroxlde ls an lnorganlc compound wlLh Lhe chemlcal formula Mg(CP)2 As a suspenslon ln
waLer lL ls ofLen called mllk of magnesla because of lLs mllkllke appearance 1he solld mlneral form of
magneslum hydroxlde ls known as bruclLe

Magneslum hydroxlde ls common componenL of anLaclds and laxaLlves lL lnLerferes wlLh Lhe absorpLlon
of follc acld and lron Magneslum hydroxlde has low solublllLy ln waLer wlLh a ksp of 1310-11 all of
magneslum hydroxlde LhaL does dlssolve does dlssoclaLe Slnce Lhe dlssoclaLlon of Lhls small amounL of
dlssolved magneslum hydroxlde ls compleLe magneslum hydroxlde ls consldered a sLrong base

PlS1C8?

ln 1829 Slr !ames Murray used a fluld magnesla preparaLlon of hls own deslgn Lo LreaL Lhe Lord
LleuLenanL of lreland Lhe Marquls of Anglesey 1hls was so successful (adverLlsed ln AusLralla and
approved by Lhe 8oyal College of Surgeons ln 1838) LhaL he was appolnLed resldenL physlclan Lo
Anglesey and Lwo subsequenL Lords LleuLenanLs and knlghLed Pls fluld magnesla producL was paLenLed
Lwo years afLer hls deaLh ln 1873

1he Lerm mllk of magnesla was flrsL used for a whlLecolored aqueous mlldly alkallne suspenslon of
magneslum hydroxlde formulaLed aL abouL 8w/v by Charles Penry hllllps ln 1880 and sold under Lhe
brand name hllllps' Mllk of Magnesla for medlclnal usage

AlLhough Lhe name may aL some polnL have been owned by ClaxoSmlLhkllne uS1C reglsLraLlons show
Mllk of Magnesla" Lo be reglsLered Lo 8ayer and hllllps' Mllk of Magnesla" Lo SLerllng urug ln Lhe
uk Lhe nonbrand (generlc) name of Mllk of Magnesla" and hllllps' Mllk of Magnesla" ls Cream of
Magnesla" (Magneslum Pydroxlde MlxLure 8)

8LA8A1lCn

Magneslum hydroxlde can be preclplLaLed by Lhe meLaLhesls reacLlon beLween magneslum salLs and
sodlum poLasslum or ammonlum hydroxlde

Mg2+ (aq) + 2 CP- (aq) Mg(CP)2 (s)

uSLS

Suspenslons of magneslum hydroxlde ln waLer (mllk of magnesla) are used as an anLacld Lo neuLrallze
sLomach acld and a laxaLlve 1he dlarrhea caused by magneslum hydroxlde carrles away much of Lhe
body's supply of poLasslum and fallure Lo Lake exLra poLasslum may lead Lo muscle cramps Magneslum
hydroxlde ls also used as an anLlpersplranL armplL deodoranL Mllk of magnesla ls useful agalnsL canker
sores (aphLhous ulcer) when used Loplcally

Mllk of magnesla ls sold for medlcal use as chewable LableLs capsules and as llqulds havlng varlous
added flavors lL ls used as an anLacld Lhough more modern formulaLlons comblne Lhe anLlmoLlllLy
effecLs of equal concenLraLlons of alumlnum hydroxlde Lo avold unwanLed laxaLlve effecLs

Magneslum hydroxlde powder ls used lndusLrlally as a nonhazardous alkall Lo neuLrallse acldlc
wasLewaLers lL also Lakes parL ln Lhe 8lorock meLhod of bulldlng arLlflclal reefs

Solld magneslum hydroxlde has also smoke suppresslng and flre reLardlng properLles 1hls ls due Lo Lhe
endoLhermlc decomposlLlon lL undergoes aL 332 C (630 l)

Mg(CP)2 MgC + P2C

8lCLCClCAL ML1A8CLlSM

When Lhe paLlenL drlnks Lhe mllk of magnesla Lhe suspenslon enLers Lhe sLomach uependlng on how
much was Laken one of Lwo posslble ouLcomes wlll occur

As an anLacld mllk of magnesla ls dosed aL approxlmaLely 0313g ln adulLs and works by slmple
neuLrallzaLlon where Lhe hydroxlde lons from Lhe Mg(CP)2 comblne wlLh acldlc P+ lons produced ln Lhe
form of hydrochlorlc acld by parleLal cells ln Lhe sLomach Lo produce waLer

Cnly a small amounL of Lhe magneslum from mllk of magnesla ls usually absorbed from a person's
lnLesLlne (unless Lhe person ls deflclenL ln magneslum) Powever magneslum ls malnly excreLed by Lhe
kldneys so longLerm dally consumpLlon of mllk of magnesla by someone sufferlng from renal fallure
could lead ln Lheory Lo hypermagnesemla

3CALCluM CA88CnA1L


Calclum carbonaLe ls a chemlcal compound wlLh Lhe chemlcal formula CaCC3 lL ls a common subsLance
found ln rock ln all parLs of Lhe world and ls Lhe maln componenL of shells of marlne organlsms snalls
pearls and eggshells Calclum carbonaLe ls Lhe acLlve lngredlenL ln agrlculLural llme and ls usually Lhe
prlnclpal cause of hard waLer lL ls commonly used medlclnally as a calclum supplemenL or as an anLacld
buL excesslve consumpLlon can be hazardous

CPLMlCAL 8CL81lLS

Calclum carbonaLe shares Lhe Lyplcal properLles of oLher carbonaLes noLably
lL reacLs wlLh sLrong aclds releaslng carbon dloxlde

CaCC3(s) + 2 PCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CC2(g) + P2C(l)
lL releases carbon dloxlde on heaLlng (Lo above 840 C ln Lhe case of CaCC3) Lo form calclum oxlde
commonly called qulckllme wlLh reacLlon enLhalpy 178 k! / mole

CaCC3 CaC + CC2

Calclum carbonaLe wlll reacL wlLh waLer LhaL ls saLuraLed wlLh carbon dloxlde Lo form Lhe soluble
calclum blcarbonaLe

CaCC3 + CC2 + P2C Ca(PCC3)2

1hls reacLlon ls lmporLanL ln Lhe eroslon of carbonaLe rocks formlng caverns and leads Lo hard waLer ln
many reglons



8LA8A1lCn

1he vasL ma[orlLy of calclum carbonaLe used ln lndusLry ls exLracLed by mlnlng or quarrylng ure
calclum carbonaLe (eg for food or pharmaceuLlcal use) can be produced from a pure quarrled source
(usually marble)

AlLernaLlvely calclum oxlde ls prepared by calclnlng crude calclum carbonaLe WaLer ls added Lo glve
calclum hydroxlde and carbon dloxlde ls passed Lhrough Lhls soluLlon Lo preclplLaLe Lhe deslred calclum
carbonaLe referred Lo ln Lhe lndusLry as preclplLaLed calclum carbonaLe (CC)

CaCC3 CaC + CC2

CaC + P2C Ca(CP)2

Ca(CP)2 + CC2 CaCC3 + P2C

CLCLCC?

CarbonaLe ls found frequenLly ln geologlc seLLlngs lL ls found as a polymorph A polymorph ls a mlneral
wlLh Lhe same chemlcal formula buL dlfferenL chemlcal sLrucLure AragonlLe calclLe llmesLone chalk
marble LraverLlne Lufa and oLhers all have CaCC3 as Lhelr formula buL each has a sllghLly dlfferenL
chemlcal sLrucLure CalclLe as calclum carbonaLe ls commonly referred Lo ln geology ls commonly Lalked
abouL ln marlne seLLlngs CalclLe ls Lyplcally found around Lhe warm Lroplc envlronmenLs 1hls ls due Lo
lLs chemlsLry and properLles CalclLe ls able Lo preclplLaLe ln warmer shallow envlronmenLs Lhan lL does
under colder envlronmenLs because warmer envlronmenLs do noL favour Lhe dlssoluLlon of CC2 1hls ls
analogous Lo CC2 belng dlssolved ln soda When you Lake Lhe cap off of a soda boLLle Lhe CC2 rushes
ouL As Lhe soda warms up carbon dloxlde ls released 1hls same prlnclple can be applled Lo calclLe ln
Lhe ocean Cold waLer carbonaLes do exlsL aL hlgher laLlLudes buL have a very slow growLh raLe

ln Lroplc seLLlngs Lhe waLers are warm and clear ConsequenLly you wlll see many more coral ln Lhls
envlronmenL Lhan you would Lowards Lhe poles where Lhe waLers are cold Calclum carbonaLe
conLrlbuLors such as corals algae and mlcroorganlsms are Lyplcally found ln shallow waLer
envlronmenLs because as fllLer feeders Lhey requlre sunllghL Lo produce calclum carbonaLe

uSLS

lndusLrlal appllcaLlons

1he maln use of calclum carbonaLe ls ln Lhe consLrucLlon lndusLry elLher as a bulldlng maLerlal ln lLs own
rlghL (eg marble) or llmesLone aggregaLe for roadbulldlng or as an lngredlenL of cemenL or as Lhe
sLarLlng maLerlal for Lhe preparaLlon of bullder's llme by burnlng ln a klln

Calclum carbonaLe ls also used ln Lhe purlflcaLlon of lron from lron ore ln a blasL furnace Calclum
carbonaLe ls calclned ln slLu Lo glve calclum oxlde whlch forms a slag wlLh varlous lmpurlLles presenL
and separaLes from Lhe purlfled lron

Calclum carbonaLe ls wldely used as an exLender ln palnLs ln parLlcular maLLe emulslon palnL where
Lyplcally 30 by welghL of Lhe palnL ls elLher chalk or marble

Calclum carbonaLe ls also wldely used as a flller ln plasLlcs Some Lyplcal examples lnclude around 13 Lo
20 loadlng of chalk ln unplasLlclzed polyvlnyl chlorlde (uvC) draln plpe 3 Lo 13 loadlng of sLearaLe
coaLed chalk or marble ln uvC wlndow proflle vC cables can use calclum carbonaLe aL loadlngs of up
Lo 70 phr (parLs per hundred parLs of resln) Lo lmprove mechanlcal properLles (Lenslle sLrengLh and
elongaLlon) and elecLrlcal properLles (volume reslsLlvlLy) olypropylene compounds are ofLen fllled wlLh
calclum carbonaLe Lo lncrease rlgldlLy a requlremenL LhaL becomes lmporLanL aL hlgh use LemperaLures
lL also rouLlnely used as a flller ln LhermoseLLlng reslns (SheeL and 8ulk mouldlng compounds) and has
also been mlxed wlLh A8S and oLher lngredlenLs Lo form some Lypes of compresslon molded clay"
oker chlps

llne ground calclum carbonaLe ls an essenLlal lngredlenL ln Lhe mlcroporous fllm used ln bables' dlapers
and some bulldlng fllms as Lhe pores are nucleaLed around Lhe calclum carbonaLe parLlcles durlng Lhe
manufacLure of Lhe fllm by blaxlal sLreLchlng

Calclum carbonaLe ls known as whlLlng ln ceramlcs/glazlng appllcaLlons where lL ls used as a common
lngredlenL for many glazes ln lLs whlLe powdered form When a glaze conLalnlng Lhls maLerlal ls flred ln a
klln Lhe whlLlng acLs as a flux maLerlal ln Lhe glaze

lL ls used ln swlmmlng pools as a pP correcLor for malnLalnlng alkallnlLy buffer" Lo offseL Lhe acldlc
properLles of Lhe dlslnfecLanL agenL

lL ls commonly called chalk as lL has LradlLlonally been a ma[or componenL of blackboard chalk Modern
manufacLured chalk ls now mosLly gypsum hydraLed calclum sulfaLe CaSC42P2C


PLAL1P Anu ulL1A8? ALlCA1lCnS

Calclum carbonaLe ls wldely used medlclnally as an lnexpenslve dleLary calclum supplemenL or anLacld
lL may be used as a phosphaLe blnder for Lhe LreaLmenL of hyperphosphaLemla (prlmarlly ln paLlenLs
wlLh chronlc renal fallure) lL ls also used ln Lhe pharmaceuLlcal lndusLry as an lnerL flller for LableLs and
oLher pharmaceuLlcals

Calclum carbonaLe ls used ln Lhe producLlon of LooLhpasLe and ls also used ln homeopaLhy as one of Lhe
consLlLuLlonal remedles Also lL has seen a resurgence as a food preservaLlve and color reLalner when
used ln or wlLh producLs such as organlc apples or food

Lxcess calclum from supplemenLs forLlfled food and hlghcalclum dleLs can cause Lhe mllk alkall
syndrome" whlch has serlous LoxlclLy and can be faLal ln 1913 8erLram Slppy lnLroduced Lhe Slppy
reglmen" of hourly lngesLlon of mllk and cream and Lhe gradual addlLlon of eggs and cooked cereal for
10 days comblned wlLh alkallne powders whlch provlded sympLomaLlc rellef for pepLlc ulcer dlsease
Cver Lhe nexL several decades Lhe Slppy reglmen resulLed ln renal fallure alkalosls and hypercalemla
mosLly ln men wlLh pepLlc ulcer dlsease 1hese adverse effecLs were reversed when Lhe reglmen
sLopped buL lL was faLal ln some paLlenLs wlLh proLracLed vomlLlng Mllk alkall syndrome decllned ln
men afLer effecLlve LreaLmenLs for pepLlc ulcer dlsease

A form of food addlLlve ls deslgnaLed as L170 lL ls used ln some soy mllk producLs as a source of dleLary
calclum one sLudy suggesLs LhaL calclum carbonaLe mlghL be as bloavallable as Lhe calclum ln cow's
mllk










4SCuluM 8lCA88CnA1L


Sodlum blcarbonaLe or sodlum hydrogen carbonaLe ls Lhe chemlcal compound wlLh Lhe formula
naPCC3 Sodlum blcarbonaLe ls a whlLe solld LhaL ls crysLalllne buL ofLen appears as a flne powder lL
can be used Lo experlmenL and ls noL very dangerous lL has a sllghL alkallne LasLe resembllng LhaL of
washlng soda (sodlum carbonaLe) lL ls a componenL of Lhe mlneral naLron and ls found dlssolved ln
many mlneral sprlngs 1he naLural mlneral form ls known as nahcollLe lL ls found ln lLs dlssolved form ln
blle where lL serves Lo neuLrallze Lhe acldlLy of Lhe hydrochlorlc acld produced by Lhe sLomach and ls
excreLed lnLo Lhe duodenum of Lhe small lnLesLlne vla Lhe blle ducL lL ls also produced arLlflclally

Slnce lL has long been known and ls wldely used Lhe salL has many relaLed names such as baklng soda
bread soda cooklng soda blcarbonaLe of soda Colloqulally lLs name ls shorLened Lo sodlum blcarb
blcarb soda or slmply blcarb 1he word saleraLus from LaLln sal raLus meanlng aeraLed salL" was
wldely used ln Lhe 19Lh cenLury for boLh sodlum blcarbonaLe and poLasslum blcarbonaLe 1he Lerm has
now fallen ouL of common usage

PlS1C8?

1he anclenL LgypLlans used naLural deposlLs of naLron a mlxLure conslsLlng mosLly of sodlum carbonaLe
decahydraLe and sodlum blcarbonaLe 1he naLron was used as a cleanslng agenL llke soap

ln 1791 a lrench chemlsL nlcolas Leblanc produced sodlum blcarbonaLe as we know lL Loday ln 1846
Lwo new ?ork bakers !ohn uwlghL and AusLln Church esLabllshed Lhe flrsL facLory Lo develop baklng
soda from sodlum carbonaLe and carbon dloxlde



8CuuC1lCn

naPCC3 ls malnly prepared by Lhe Solvay process whlch ls Lhe reacLlon of calclum carbonaLe sodlum
chlorlde ammonla and carbon dloxlde ln waLer lL ls produced on Lhe scale of abouL 100000 Lon/year
(as of 2001)2

naPCC3 may be obLalned by Lhe reacLlon of carbon dloxlde wlLh an aqueous soluLlon of sodlum
hydroxlde 1he lnlLlal reacLlon produces sodlum carbonaLe

CC2 + 2 naCP na2CC3 + P2C

lurLher addlLlon of carbon dloxlde produces sodlum blcarbonaLe whlch aL sufflclenLly hlgh
concenLraLlon wlll preclplLaLe ouL of soluLlon

na2CC3 + CC2 + P2C 2 naPCC3

Commerclal quanLlLles of baklng soda are also produced by a slmllar meLhod soda ash mlned ln Lhe
form of Lhe ore Lrona ls dlssolved ln waLer and LreaLed wlLh carbon dloxlde Sodlum blcarbonaLe
preclplLaLes as a solld from Lhls meLhod

na2CC3 + CC2 + P2C 2 naPCC3

CPLMlS18?

Sodlum blcarbonaLe ls an amphoLerlc compound Aqueous soluLlons are mlldly alkallne due Lo Lhe
formaLlon of carbonlc acld and hydroxlde lon

PCC-3 + P2C P2CC3 + CP-

Sodlum blcarbonaLe can be used as a wash Lo remove any acldlc lmpurlLles from a crude" llquld
produclng a purer sample 8eacLlon of sodlum blcarbonaLe and an acld Lo glve a salL and carbonlc acld
whlch readlly decomposes Lo carbon dloxlde and waLer

naPCC3 + PCl naCl + P2CC3

P2CC3 P2C + CC2 (g)

Sodlum blcarbonaLe reacLs wlLh aceLlc acld (CP3CCCP) Lo form sodlum aceLaLe

naPCC3 + CP3CCCP CP3CCCna + P2C + CC2 (g)

Sodlum blcarbonaLe reacLs wlLh bases such as sodlum hydroxlde Lo form carbonaLes

naPCC3 + naCP na2CC3 + P2C

Sodlum blcarbonaLe reacLs wlLh carboxyl groups ln proLelns Lo glve a brlsk effervescence from Lhe
formaLlon of CC2 1hls reacLlon ls used Lo LesL for Lhe presence of carboxyllc groups ln proLeln

ALlCA1lCnS

Sodlum blcarbonaLe ls prlmarlly used ln cooklng (baklng) where lL reacLs wlLh oLher componenLs Lo
release carbon dloxlde LhaL helps dough rlse" 1he acldlc compounds LhaL lnduce Lhls reacLlon lnclude
phosphaLes cream of LarLar lemon [ulce yogurL buLLermllk cocoa vlnegar eLc Sodlum blcarbonaLe
can be subsLlLuLed for baklng powder provlded sufflclenL acld reagenL ls also added Lo Lhe reclpe3
Many forms of baklng powder conLaln sodlum blcarbonaLe comblned wlLh one or more acldlc
phosphaLes (especlally good) or cream of LarLar lL can also be used for sofLenlng peas (x Lsp per plnL of
waLer and brlng Lo boll for one hour)

Many laboraLorles keep a boLLle of sodlum blcarbonaLe powder wlLhln easy reach because sodlum
blcarbonaLe ls amphoLerlc reacLlng wlLh aclds and bases lurLhermore as lL ls relaLlvely lnnocuous ln
mosL slLuaLlons Lhere ls no harm ln uslng excess sodlum blcarbonaLe LasLly sodlum blcarbonaLe
powder may be used Lo smoLher a small flre

Sodlum blcarbonaLe ls used ln an aqueous soluLlon as an anLacld Laken orally Lo LreaL acld lndlgesLlon
and hearLburn lL may also be used ln an oral form Lo LreaL chronlc forms of meLabollc acldosls such as
chronlc renal fallure and renal Lubular acldosls Sodlum blcarbonaLe may also be useful ln urlnary
alkallnlzaLlon for Lhe LreaLmenL of asplrln overdose and urlc acld renal sLones

Sodlum blcarbonaLe can be used Lo exLlngulsh small grease or elecLrlcal flres by belng poured or
dumped over Lhe flre Powever lL should noL be poured or dumped onLo flres ln deep fryers as lL may
cause Lhe grease Lo splaLLer Sodlum blcarbonaLe ls used ln 8C dry chemlcal flre exLlngulshers as an
alLernaLlve Lo Lhe more corroslve ammonlum phosphaLe ln A8C exLlngulshers 1he alkall naLure of
sodlum blcarbonaLe makes lL Lhe only dry chemlcal agenL besldes urplek LhaL was used ln large scale
flre suppresslon sysLems lnsLalled ln commerclal klLchens 8ecause lL can acL as an alkall Lhe agenL has a
mlld saponlflcaLlon effecL on hoL grease whlch forms a smoLherlng soapy foam ury chemlcals have
slnce fallen ouL of favor for klLchen flres as Lhey have no coollng effecL compared Lo Lhe exLremely
effecLlve weL chemlcal agenLs speclflcally deslgned for such hazards

38lSMu1P Su8SALlC?LA1L


8lsmuLh subsallcylaLe wlLh a chemlcal formula C7P38lC4 ls a drug used Lo LreaL nausea hearLburn
lndlgesLlon upseL sLomach dlarrhea and oLher Lemporary dlscomforLs of Lhe sLomach and
gasLrolnLesLlnal LracL Commonly known as plnk blsmuLh lL ls Lhe acLlve lngredlenL ln popular
medlcaLlons such as epLo8lsmol and modern (slnce 2003) kaopecLaLe

PA8MACCLCC?

As a derlvaLlve of sallcyllc acld blsmuLh sallcylaLe dlsplays anLllnflammaLory acLlon and also acLs as an
anLacld

AuvL8SL LllLC1S Anu CCn18AlnulCA1lCnS

1here are some adverse effecLs lL can cause a black Longue and black sLools ln some users of Lhe drug
when lL comblnes wlLh Lrace amounLs of sulfur ln sallva and Lhe gasLrolnLesLlnal LracL 1hls dlscoloraLlon
ls Lemporary and harmless

Some of Lhe rlsks of sallcyllsm can apply Lo Lhe use of blsmuLh subsallcylaLe

Chlldren should noL Lake medlcaLlon wlLh blsmuLh subsallcylaLe whlle recoverlng from lnfluenza or
chlcken pox as epldemlologlc evldence polnLs Lo an assoclaLlon beLween Lhe use of sallcylaLeconLalnlng
medlcaLlons durlng cerLaln vlral lnfecLlons and Lhe onseL of 8eye's syndrome lor Lhe same reason lL ls
Lyplcally recommended LhaL nurslng moLhers noL use medlcaLlon conLalnlng blsmuLh subsallcylaLe (such
as epLo8lsmol) because small amounLs of Lhe medlcaLlon are excreLed ln breasL mllk and pose a
LheoreLlcal rlsk of 8eye's syndrome Lo nurslng chlldren



8AulCAC1lvl1?

Whlle blsmuLh ls Lechnlcally radloacLlve lLs half llfe ls so long on Lhe order of hundreds of bllllons of
years LhaL lLs radloacLlvlLy presenLs absoluLely no LhreaL under all medlcal and oLher ordlnary purposes

uLCCMCSl1lCn

8lsmuLh subsallcyclaLe ls Lhe only acLlve lngredlenL ln an over Lhe counLer medlcaLlon LhaL wlll acLually
leave a shlny meLal slag behlnd

lnvLS1lCA1C8? LxL8lMLn1

C8!LC1lvL

1o analyse Lhe glven samples of commerclal anLaclds by deLermlnlng Lhe amounL of hydrochlorlc acld
Lhey can neuLrallze

8LCul8LMLn1S

8ureLLes plpeLLes LlLraLlon flasks measurlng flasks beakers welghL box fracLlonal welghLs sodlum
hydroxlde sodlum carbonaLe hydrochlorlc acld phenolphLhaleln

8CCLuu8L

1 repare 1 llLre of approxlmaLely PCl soluLlon by dlluLlng 10 ml of Lhe concenLraLed acld for one llLre

2 Slmllarly make 1 llLre of approxlmaLely naCP soluLlon by dlssolvlng40g of naCP Lo prepare one llLre
of soluLlon

3 repare na2CC3 soluLlon by welghlng exacLly 1323 g of anhydrous sodlum carbonaLe and Lhen
dlssolvlng lL ln waLer Lo prepare exacLly 023 llLres (230 ml) of soluLlon

4 SLandardlze Lhe PCl soluLlon by LlLraLlng lL agalnsL Lhe sLandard na2CC3 soluLlon uslng meLhyl orange
as lndlcaLor

3 Slmllarly sLandardlze naCP soluLlon by LlLraLlng lL agalnsL sLandardlzed PCl soluLlon uslng
phenolphLhaleln as lndlcaLor

6 owder Lhe varlous samples of anLacld LableLs and welgh 10 g of each

7 Add a speclflc volume of sLandardlsed PCl Lo each of Lhe welghed sample ls Laken ln conlcal flasks
1he acld should be ln sllghL excess so LhaL lL can neuLrallze all Lhe alkallne componenL of Lhe LableL

8 Add 2 drops of phenolphLhaleln and warm Lhe flask Llll mosL of powder dlssolves lllLer off Lhe
lnsoluble maLerlal
9 1lLraLe Lhls soluLlon agalnsL Lhe sLandardlsed naCP soluLlon Llll a permanenL plnklsh Llnge ls
obLalned 8epeaL Lhls experlmenL wlLh dlfferenL anLaclds

C8SL8vA1lCnS Anu CALCuLA1lCnS

SLandardlsaLlon of PCl soluLlon

volume of na2CC3 soluLlon Laken 200 mlS no of obs 8ureLLe readlngs




lnlLlal llnal volume of acld used
1


2

3

4

3 0 ml 130 ml


0 ml 131 ml

0 ml 130 ml

0 ml 130 ml

0 ml 130ml 130 ml


131 ml

130 ml

130 ml

130 ml


ConcordanL volume 130 ml

Applylng normallLy equaLlon

n1v1 n2v2

n1 * 130 * 20

normallLy of PCl n1 0133 n

SLandardlsaLlon of naCP soluLlon

volume of Lhe glven naCP soluLlon Laken 200 mlS no of obs 8ureLLe readlngs




lnlLlal llnal volume of acld used
1


2

3

4

3 0 ml 263 ml


0 ml 268 ml

0 ml 266 ml

0 ml 266 ml

0 ml 266ml 263 ml


268 ml

266 ml

266 ml

266 ml


ConcordanL volume 266 ml

Applylng normallLy equaLlon

11 22

0133 * 266 2 * 20

normallLy of naCP 2 0176 n

Analysls of anLacld LableL

WelghL of anLacld LableL powder 10 g

volume of PCl soluLlon added 200 mlAnLacld vol Cf naCP soln used Lo neuLrallse unused PCl
vol Cf PCl soln used Lo neuLrallse 10 g of anLacld maLLer
1 Celusll


2 ulgene

3 Aludrox

4 Logas

3 8anlLldlne

6 Ccld 20 121 ml


160 ml

193 ml

243 ml

214 ml

227 ml 120 ml


162 ml

189 ml

244 ml

217 ml

219 ml


CCnCLuSlCn

1he anLacld whlch has maxlmum volume of PCl ls used for neuLrallzlng le CClu 20 ls more effecLlve