P-N Junction

Semiconductors are materials whose conductivity lies between conductors and insulators.
Semiconductors are classified as intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic semiconductors.
Extrinsic semiconductors are further classified as N-type and P-type semiconductors.

The P-N junction is formed between the p-type and the n-type semiconductors. In this
session, let us know more about the P-N Junction.

What is P-N Junction?

Definition: A P-N junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor

material types, namely the p-type and the n-type, inside a semiconductor.

In a semiconductor, the P-N junction is created by the method of doping. The p-side or the
positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes, and the n-side or the negative side
has an excess of electrons. The process of doping is explained in further detail in the next
section.

Formation of P-N Junction

Let us consider a thin p-type silicon semiconductor sheet. If we add a small amount of
pentavalent impurity to this, a part of the p-type Si will get converted to n-type silicon. This
sheet will now contain both the p-type region and the n-type region and a junction between
these two regions. The processes that follow after forming a P-N junction are of two types –
diffusion and drift. There is a difference in the concentration of holes and electrons at the two
sides of a junction. The holes from the p-side diffuse to the n-side, and the electrons from the
n-side diffuse to the p-side. These give rise to a diffusion current across the junction.
Also, when an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, an ionised donor is left behind
on the n-side, which is immobile. As the process goes on, a layer of positive charge is
developed on the n-side of the junction. Similarly, when a hole goes from the p-side to the n-
side, an ionized acceptor is left behind on the p-side, resulting in the formation of a layer of
negative charges in the p-side of the junction. This region of positive charge and negative
charge on either side of the junction is termed as the depletion region. Due to this positive
space charge region on either side of the junction, an electric field with the direction from a
positive charge towards the negative charge is developed. Due to this electric field, an
electron on the p-side of the junction moves to the n-side of the junction. This motion is
termed the drift. Here, we see that the direction of the drift current is opposite to that of the
diffusion current.

Biasing Conditions for the P-N Junction Diode

There are two operating regions in the P-N junction diode:

 P-type
 N-type

There are three biasing conditions for the P-N junction diode, and this is based on the voltage
applied:

 Zero bias: No external voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode.

 Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type
while the negative terminal is connected to the n-type.
 Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type
and the positive is connected to the n-type.
Forward Bias

When the p-type is connected to the battery’s positive terminal and the n-type to the negative
terminal, then the P-N junction is said to be forward-biased. When the P-N junction is
forward biased, the built-in electric field at the P-N junction and the applied electric field are
in opposite directions. When both the electric fields add up, the resultant electric field has a
magnitude lesser than the built-in electric field. This results in a less resistive and thinner
depletion region. The depletion region’s resistance becomes negligible when the applied
voltage is large. In silicon, at the voltage of 0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion region
becomes completely negligible, and the current flows across it unimpeded.

Reverse Bias
When the p-type is connected to the battery’s negative terminal and the n-type is connected to
the positive side, the P-N junction is reverse biased. In this case, the built-in electric field and
the applied electric field are in the same direction. When the two fields are added, the
resultant electric field is in the same direction as the built-in electric field, creating a more
resistive, thicker depletion region. The depletion region becomes more resistive and thicker if
the applied voltage becomes larger.

P-N Junction Formula

The formula used in the P-N junction depends upon the built-in potential difference created
by the electric field is given as:

Where,

 E0 is the zero bias junction voltage

 VT is the thermal voltage of 26mV at room temperature
 ND and NA are the impurity concentrations
 ni is the intrinsic concentration.

The flow of electrons from the n-side towards the p-side of the junction takes place when
there is an increase in the voltage. Similarly, the flow of holes from the p-side towards the n-
side of the junction takes place along with the increase in the voltage. This results in the
concentration gradient between both sides of the terminals. Due to the concentration gradient
formation, charge carriers will flow from higher-concentration regions to lower-concentration
regions. The movement of charge carriers inside the P-N junction is the reason behind the
current flow in the circuit.
V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode

VI characteristics of P-N junction diodes is a curve between the voltage and current through
the circuit. Voltage is taken along the x-axis while the current is taken along the y-axis. The
above graph is the V-I characteristics curve of the P-N junction diode. With the help of the
curve, we can understand that there are three regions in which the diode works, and they are:

 Zero bias
 Forward bias
 Reverse bias

When the P-N junction diode is in zero bias condition, there is no external voltage applied
and this means that the potential barrier at the junction does not allow the flow of current.

When the P-N junction diode is in forward bias condition, the p-type is connected to the
positive terminal while the n-type is connected to the negative terminal of the external
voltage. When the diode is arranged in this manner, there is a reduction in the potential
barrier. For silicone diodes, when the voltage is 0.7 V and for germanium diodes, when the
voltage is 0.3 V, the potential barriers decrease, and there is a flow of current.

When the diode is in forward bias, the current increases slowly, and the curve obtained is
non-linear as the voltage applied to the diode overcomes the potential barrier. Once the diode
overcomes the potential barrier, the diode behaves normally, and the curve rises sharply as
the external voltage increases, and the curve obtained is linear.

When the P-N junction diode is in negative bias condition, the p-type is connected to the
negative terminal while the n-type is connected to the positive terminal of the external
voltage. This results in an increase in the potential barrier. Reverse saturation current flows in
the beginning as minority carriers are present in the junction.

When the applied voltage is increased, the minority charges will have increased kinetic
energy which affects the majority charges. This is the stage when the diode breaks down.
This may also destroy the diode.

Applications of P-N Junction Diode

 P-N junction diode can be used as a photodiode as the diode is sensitive to the light
when the configuration of the diode is reverse-biased.
 It can be used as a solar cell.
 When the diode is forward-biased, it can be used in LED lighting applications.
 It is used as rectifier in many electric circuits and as a voltage-controlled oscillator in
varactors.
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Light-emitting diode (LED) is a widely used standard source of light in electrical equipment.
It has a wide range of applications ranging from your mobile phone to large advertising
billboards. They mostly find applications in devices that show the time and display different
types of data.

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when an electric
current flows through it. When current passes through an LED, the electrons recombine with
holes emitting light in the process. LEDs allow the current to flow in the forward direction
and blocks the current in the reverse direction.

Light-emitting diodes are heavily doped p-n junctions. Based on the semiconductor material
used and the amount of doping, an LED will emit coloured light at a particular spectral
wavelength when forward biased. As shown in the figure, an LED is encapsulated with a
transparent cover so that emitted light can come out.

LED Symbol

The LED symbol is the standard symbol for a diode, with the addition of two small arrows
denoting the emission of light.
The circuit consists of an LED, a voltage supply and a resistor to regulate the current and
voltage.

Working Principle

When the diode is forward biased, the minority electrons are sent from p → n while the
minority holes are sent from n → p. At the junction boundary, the concentration of minority
carriers increases. The excess minority carriers at the junction recombine with the majority
charges carriers.

The energy is released in the form of photons on recombination. In standard diodes, the
energy is released in the form of heat. But in light-emitting diodes, the energy is released in
the form of photons. We call this phenomenon electroluminescence. Electroluminescence is
an optical phenomenon, and electrical phenomenon where a material emits light in response
to an electric current passed through it. As the forward voltage increases, the intensity of the
light increases and reaches a maximum.
What determines the colour of an LED?
The colour of an LED is determined by the material used in the semiconducting element. The
two primary materials used in LEDs are aluminium gallium indium phosphide alloys and
indium gallium nitride alloys. Aluminium alloys are used to obtain red, orange and yellow
light, and indium alloys are used to get green, blue and white light. Slight changes in the
composition of these alloys change the colour of the emitted light.

Uses of LED

LEDs find applications in various fields, including optical communication, alarm and security
systems, remote-controlled operations, robotics, etc. It finds usage in many areas because of
its long-lasting capability, low power requirements, swift response time, and fast switching
capabilities. Below are a few standards LED uses:

 Used for TV back-lighting

 Used in displays
 Used in Automotives
 LEDs used in the dimming of lights

Types of LED

Below is the list of different types of LED that are designed using semiconductors:

 Miniature LEDs
 High-Power LEDs
 Flash LED
 Bi and Tri-Colour
 Red Green Blue LEDs
 Alphanumeric LED
 Lighting LED

Advantages of LEDs over Incandescent Power Lamps

Some advantages of LEDs over Incandescent Power Lamps are:

 LEDs consume less power, and they require low operational voltage.
 No warm-up time is needed for LEDs.
 The emitted light is monochromatic.
 They exhibit long life and ruggedness.